Analytical photogrammetry 3rd year

CHAPTER 5
ANALYTICAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY
Principles of Aerial Triangulation and Concepts of bundle Adjustment
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5.1. Introduction
 The photogrammetric procedures were restricted to one stereo model. It is quite unlikely that a
photogrammetric project is covered by only two photographs, however.
 Most mapping projects require many models; large projects may involve as many as one thousand
photographs, medium sized projects hundreds of photographs.
 Figure shows a typical configuration with a block of 3 strips. Projects with single strips are quite
common in highway and railroad projects.
Besides having an economic advantage over field surveying, aerotriangulation has other benefits:
(1) Most of the work is done under laboratory conditions, thus minimizing delays and hardships due to adverse
weather conditions;
(2) Access too much of the property within a project area is not required;
(3) Field surveying in difficult areas, such as marshes, extreme slopes, and hazardous rock formations, can be
minimized; and
(4) The accuracy of the field-surveyed control necessary for bridging is verified during the aerotriangulation
process, and as a consequence, chances of finding erroneous control values after initiation of compilation
are minimized and usually eliminated. This latter advantage is so meaningful that some organizations
perform bridging even though adequate field-surveyed control exists for stereomodel control.

Figure 1: Concept of strips and

blocks. Triangles symbolize existing
control points.

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 In order for compiling topographic maps, the stereomeodels must be absolutely oriented, with respect
to the map coordinate system. This requires a sufficient number of control points.
 Existing control points are scarcely distributed. Consequently, the existing control points must be
densified so that every model can be oriented.
 This task is done by aero triangulation since it is economically not feasible to establish the required
control points by surveying methods.

5.2. Types of Aerial Triangulation

Definition & Types
 Aerial triangulation also known as analytic bridging, uses mathematical concepts to densify the
photo control network with artificial points, also known as analytic points.
 The analytic points are added to produce adequate control for each stereo model.
 There are three divisions of aerial triangulations methods.

1. Analog aerial triangulation.

2. Semi analytical aerial triangulation
3. Analytical aerial triangulation.
1. Analog aerial triangulation.
 As the name indicates, analog methods, also known as instrumental aerotriangulation, are performed
on stereoplotters.
 With a dependent relative orientation, consecutive models are linked to entire strips using the
technique of conjunction of successive photographs.
 Strips are then adjusted to the available ground control points by graphical methods or by a
polynomial strip adjustment.
 Analog methods do not play a significant role today. Analytical methods are far superior in terms of
accuracy and cost.
 Early analog procedures involved manual interior, relative, and absolute orientation of the successive
models of long strips of photos using stereoscopic plotting instruments having several projectors. This
created long strip models from which coordinates of pass points could be read directly. Later, universal
stereo plotting instruments were developed which enabled this process to be accomplished with only
two projectors. These procedures are now principally of historical interest, having given way to the
other two methods.

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2. Semi analytical aerotriangulation

 involves manual interior and relative orientation of stereomodels within a stereoplotter, followed by
measurement of model coordinates. Absolute orientation is performed numerically—hence the term
semi analytical aerotriangulation.
3. Analytical aerial triangulation
 The analytical aerotriangulation methods can be classified according to their mathematical
models.
 It consist of photo coordinate measurement followed by numerical interior, relative, and absolute
orientation from which ground coordinates are computed. Various specialized techniques have
been developed within each of the three aerotriangulation categories.
 there are three methods
a) Polynomial strip adjustment: A strip is formed by transforming consecutive models into a strip
coordinate system. This strip is then adjusted to the available ground control points using polynoms.
b) Independent model method: Here, models are joined together and transformed to the ground control
system in a simultaneous adjustment. The mathematical model is based on 7-parameter transformations (3-D
similarity transformation). Model coordinates are either measured on stereo plotters or computed from photo-
coordinates (e.g. by a relative orientation).
c) Bundle method: This method is a natural extension of the various orientations. The photo-coordinates
of all images of a block participate in an adjustment where the exterior orientation of all photographs are
determined, together with the ground points. The mathematical model is based on the collinearity equations.
Photo-coordinates are measured on comparators or analytical plotters.
Obtaining object points
 Obviously, aero triangulation with independent models requires common points between models or
photographs. Take the independent model method, for example. In order to join the models together,
common model points are necessary. Common points between adjacent strips are called tie points.

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Figure: Overlap configuration of an ideal block.

 The above figure shows the overlap configuration of an ideal block. The forward overlap is 60 %, the
side overlap 20 to 30 %.
 Common points are found in the overlapping areas. As indicated in figure, the degree of overlap varies
across the block.
 If we move from left to right, we find the typical pattern of 1,2,3,2,3,... where the numbers refer to the
number of photographs covering the same area. This sequence of numbers doubles where adjacent
strips overlap. With this standard overlap configuration, the maximum overlap is 6.

Figure 3: Typical pattern of 9 points per photograph,

corresponding to 6 points per model

 Figure 3 shows the typical pattern of 9 points per photograph, or 6 points per model. The six model
points serve to orient the model after the points are known in the object coordinate system by the
process of aerotriangulation.
 The total number of object points, n, becomes n = a1ps + a2s + a3p + a4 …..eqn (1)

with
s number of strips
p number of photographs per strip
n total number of object points

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 In Table 1 the coefficients a1,... , a4 for different point densities are listed. A block with 3 strips, 4
photographs each, and 9 points per photograph contains 42 object points.

Table 1: Coefficients for computing the total

number of object points

5.3. MAJOR TASKS OF AEROTRIANGULATION

 Apart from planning the flight mission and obtaining photography, aerotriangulation involves
the following five major tasks:
1. Establishing control points.
2. Selection and annotation of points to be measured.
3. Point transfer.
4. Measuring points.
1. Establishing Control Points
 The distribution and quality of control points greatly influences the accuracy of object points
determined by aerotriangulation.
 Control points are required along the perimeter of a block. Ideally, every fourth to sixth model along
the boundary should have a full control point.
 In the interior of a block, the density can be considerably less. However, elevation control points are
required all over the area.
 With the increasing use of GPS, the accuracy requirements should no longer pose a problem.
 An important consideration is the identification of control points on the photographs. Usually, the
points are signalled in various ways, either by laying panels or painting suitable patterns, such as
crosses or circles. This must be completed before the flight mission

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2. Selection and Annotation of Points

 On every photograph a suitable number of well distributed points must be selected. In case of the
typical 9 point pattern it is necessary to assure that the corner points appear on all 5 neighbouring
photographs.
 The selected points are marked and annotated on paper prints. It is important that every object point
has a unique identifier.
 During this preparation phase, the control points are also identified and annotated.
3. Point Transfer
 The points selected in the previous phase must be precisely marked so that the same object point
is measured on all photographs involved.
 Sometimes it is possible to identify a feature that is clearly visible on all photographs, for
example a white stone on a dark background, or a manhole in a street.
 If features are selected, a sketch may help to clearly identify them on neighbouring photographs.
 When satisfactory features do not exist, artificial points must be selected.

 Various mechanical devices are used to make sharp, well-defined artificial marks in a
photographic emulsion.
 This phase of marking and transferring points is quite critical as the success of aerotriangulation
highly depends on the quality of tie points.

4. Point Mensuration
 All the selected points (features or artificial points), including the control points, are measured on
precision instruments such as analytical plotters, comparators, or first order stereoplotters.
 With stereoplotters, model coordinates are measured.
 In case an analytical plotter is used for measuring model coordinates, the projection centres. The
accuracy in this case is much higher.

5.4. Block/Bundle Adjustment

 The concept of the bundle method is to simultaneously determine the exterior orientation of all
photographs of a block by a least squares adjustment. Mathematical Model

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Figure: Sample block with 3 strips. 4 photographs

 The sample block consists of 3 strips with 4 photographs per strip and the familiar 9 point pattern.
With Equation 1 we confirm that the block involves 42 object points.
 However, only points that appear on at least two photographs contribute to the block adjustment.
 Keeping this in mind we exclude points 1,6,7,12,19,24,31,36,37,42 from the adjustment and we are
left with 32 block points. Thus, the number of parameters is = 6 xl2 + 3x32 = 168.

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CHAPTER 6
PRINCIPLES OF AIRBORNE GPS TRIANGULATION
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6.1.1. Introduction

 The main purpose of aerial triangulation (AT) is the determination of ground coordinates for a
large number of terrain points and the exterior orientation parameters of aerial photographs.
 The best scenario in mapping projects is that to have the accurate exterior orientation parameters.
 The integration of GPS measurements into photogrammetric blocks allows the accurate determination
of coordinates of the exposure stations, thus reducing the ground control requirement to a minimum.
 Therefore, the goal is to improve efficiency by avoiding ground control points almost completely.
 The combined adjustment of photogrammetric data and GPS observations can be carried out by
introducing GPS observation equations to the conventional block adjustment.
6.1.2. GPS Observable Used in the Precise Photogrammetric Applications
 There are three types of positioning information that can be extracted from GPS satellite signals:
pseudo range (code), carrier phase, and phase rate (Doppler Frequency).
 Due to the high accuracy required for aerotriangulation, GPS phase measurements are needed to meet
the accuracy requirement.
 In order to eliminate the effects of systematic errors inherent in these observations, double difference
GPS phase measurement is used.
6.1.3. Combined GPS-Photogrammetric Block Adjustment
 The observation equations for the camera projection centers are added to the conventional block
adjustment.
 The observation equation should take into account the eccentricity vector between the antenna phase
centre and the projection centre of the camera.
 The observation equations are given as

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+R xa
T

a is the offset vector,

R is the rotation matrix.

6.1.4. Ground Control Configuration for GPS-Photogrammetric Blocks

 Theoretically, as long as datum transformation is known, no control points are needed to carry out the
GPS-photogrammetric block adjustment because each exposure station serves as control point.
 The situation is different when drift parameters are included. The inclusion of drift parameters
weakens the geometry of the block.
 To overcome this problem, various ground control configurations can be utilized to strengthen the
geometry and recover all unknowns in the block adjustment.
 The GPS-photogrammetric blocks can be made geometrically and numerically stable and solvable for
all unknowns in 3 ways.

(a) If the block has 60% side lap (Figure 1, case a)

(b) If 2 chains of vertical control points across the front ends of the block are used (Figure 1)
(case b)
(c) If 2 cross strips of photography at the front ends of the block are taken (Figure 1, case c)

Figure: Ground
control configurations
for GPS assisted
blocks

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 Case (c) with 2 cross strips is usually recommended for GPS aerial triangulation due to its economic
efficiency.
 It may be required to have more than 2 cross strips and 4 ground control points where the blocks have
irregular shape.

6.3. Mobile Mapping System (MMS)

6.3.1. Definition
 It can be defined as kinematic platform, upon which multiple sensors have been integrated and
synchronized to a common time base,
1. To provide three dimensional positions of the platform.
2. To provide collected geo-spatial data simultaneously.

 MMSs are most commonly designed as modular systems that can be installed on various land or
airborne platforms, and their components can be easily replaced by more advanced counterparts as
technology progresses.
6.4. Components of MMS
6.4.1. Primary Components of MMS
 The primary components of MMS are (1) the control module, (2) the positioning module, (3) the
imaging module, and (4) data processing module, creating together a multi-tasking system.
 This system is capable of handling numerous operations in real-time (and post-processing mode),
providing automatic acquisition of directly oriented (georeferenced) digital imagery for mapping and
GIS data collection.
 The direct georeferencing, also referred to as direct platform orientation, DPO, is usually facilitated
by the integration of Global Positioning System (GPS) in a differential mode and an Inertial
Navigation System (INS), providing high-accuracy positioning and attitude information of the
imaging sensor(s).
 The GPS/INS module collects positioning and attitude information of the image acquisition events.
Real-time or post-processing of these data provides directly georeferenced stereo-pair in a selected
mapping coordinate system.
 Oriented images are then used in a photogrammetric processing to extract the feature data together
with their positional information. Features and additional attributes acquired this way can be directly
transported to a GIS database, or converted to a digital map.

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 Since data acquisition represents one of the most expensive (if not the most expensive) components of
establishing a GIS database, the MMS concept was developed with a primary focus on automation and
acceleration of the data capture process. Even to date, many and-related databases still rely on the
existing maps, which are digitized to provide necessary information and attributes.

6.4.2. MAJOR COMPONENTS OF MMS

 The major components that constitute a mobile mapping system are differential GPS, INS and
imaging sensor(s)
 Due to the storage problems, early MMS were equipped with analog video systems.
 Following significant advancements in storage technology (from the tape systems, to magnetic disks
and currently to more advanced, rather compact and rugged magnetic disks, disk arrays), capable of
storing large amounts of data, and sustaining data rate of 40-50MB/s, fully digital cameras have
become an inherent part of mobile mapping, allowing for even more automation of the data
processing.

 It should be mentioned here that with recent technological advances, multiple imaging sensors, such as
CCD-based (Charge-Couple Device) cameras and LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), are often
3mounted on the same airborne platform to support multi-purpose geospatial data collection.

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Table 1: Major sensors of MMS and their functionality.

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