Second Asia International Conference on Modelling & Simulation
A Bee Colony Optimization Algorithm for Traveling Salesman Problem
Li-Pei Wongi, Malcolm Yoke Hean Lowii, Chin Soon Chongiii
i,ii
School of Computer Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Nanyang Avenue,
SINGAPORE 639798.
iii
Singapore Institute of Manufacturing Technology, 71 Nanyang Drive, SINGAPORE 638075.
i
wonglipei@pmail.ntu.edu.sg, iiyhlow@ntu.edu.sg, iiicschong@SIMTech.a-star.edu.sg
Abstract
A Bee Colony Optimization (BCO) algorithm for
Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP) is presented in this
paper. The BCO model is constructed algorithmically
based on the collective intelligence shown in bee
foraging behaviour. Experimental results comparing
the proposed BCO model with some existing
approaches on a set of benchmark problems are
presented.
1. Introduction
Many interesting collective behaviours can be
observed in animals such as ant, bee, fish, cockroach
etc. An example will be the highly coordinated patterns
shown in their foraging and aggregation behaviours.
These individuals usually perform their actions locally
with limited knowledge about the entire system.
However, when their local actions are combined, they
emerge to produce global effects.
This paper describes our work in applying the Bee
Colony Optimization (BCO) model, which is based on
nectar collection in bee colony, to Traveling Salesman
Problem (TSP). This research is inspired by [1], on
using a new honey bee algorithm for dynamic
allocation of Internet servers. The paper starts with a
discussion on TSP in Section 2. A discussion on BCO
model is presented in Section 3. Section 4 discusses
the implementation details of the BCO algorithm for
TSP. Experiments and results are presented in Section
5. Finally, this paper ends with conclusions and future
works.
2. Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP)
Suppose a salesman is given a set of cities
associated with traveling distances (or costs) from any
city to any other city. The salesman is required to make
a round-trip tour with minimum distances (or costs).
978-0-7695-3136-6/08 $25.00 © 2008 IEEE
DOI 10.1109/AMS.2008.27
The round-trip tour indicates that the salesman will
visit every city only once and then return to the starting
city.
The TSP is therefore to determine a Hamiltonian
tour with minimum cost. TSP is one of the discrete
optimization problems which is classified as NP-hard
[2]. Generally, TSP can be denoted via graph notations
as follows:
• Let G = (V, E) be a graph.
• V is a set of n cities, V = {v1, …, vn}.
• E is a set of arcs or edges,
E = {( r , s ) : r , s ∈ V } .
E is normally associated with a distance (or cost)
matrix, which is defined as D = (dr,s). If dr,s = ds,r, the
problem is a symmetric TSP (STSP). Otherwise, it
becomes an asymmetric TSP (ATSP). In TSP, our
objective is to determine the permutation π of set V that
minimizes Equation (1):
n −1
C (π ) = ∑ dπ (i ),π (i +1) + dπ ( n ),π (1) (1)
i =1
Various techniques have been used to solve TSP. In
general, these techniques are classified into two broad
categories: exact and approximation algorithms [2].
Exact algorithms are methods which utilize
mathematical models whereas approximation
algorithms make use of certain heuristics and iterative
improvements as the problem solving process. Some
instances in the exact methods category are Branch and
Bound, Lagrangian Relaxation, Integer Linear
Programming etc.
The approximation algorithms can be further
classified into two groups: constructive heuristics and
improvement heuristics. Instances in constructive
heuristics include Nearest Neighbourhood, Greedy
Heuristics, Insertion Heuristics [3], Christofides
Heuristics [4] etc. Instances in improvement heuristic
include k-opt [5], Lin-Kernighan Heuristics [6,7],
Simulated Annealing [8], Tabu Search [9],
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Evolutionary Algorithms [10-12], Ant Colony
Optimization [13,14], Bee System [15] etc.
TSP is being studied by researchers from various
disciplines because it is easy to initiate, difficult to
solve and has numerous applications. It is used as test
cases in this project as it is intended to explore the
possibility of the proposed BCO model in solving
problems that are similar to TSP nature. The
development of this model will serve as an explanatory
example for such applications. In the subsequent
section, a BCO model will be presented.
3. The BCO Model
This section first describes the natural foraging
model of a typical bee colony. Next, an overview of
how the foraging model helps in constructing feasible
paths for TSP is included. Focus will be given to the
arc fitness mechanism in the state transition rule. At
the end of this section, a bee model for TSP is
presented.
3.1. Bee Colony
The foraging behaviour in a bee colony remains
mysterious for many years until von Frisch translated
the language embedded in bee waggle dances [16]. In
his series of experiments, he also discovered that bees
actually own colour vision and attracted by scent
deposited by their hive mates.
To examine how bees communicate via waggle
dance, suppose a bee has found a rich food source.
Upon its return to the hive, it starts to dance in a figure-
eight pattern: a straight waggle run followed by a turn
to the right back to the starting point, and then another
straight waggle run followed by a turn to the left and
back to the starting point again. The bee usually
repeats these for a few times. Remarkably, via the
dance, the bee has actually informed its hive mates
about the direction and distance of the food source.
The direction is expressed via the angle of dance
relative to the sun position whereas the distance is
expressed through the length of the straight waggle
run. This coding and decoding process will eventually
bring more bees towards the new food discovery. Some
discussions about waggle dance can be found in
[17,18].
3.2. Path Construction in Artificial Bee
In our proposed model, a bee is allowed to explore
and search for a complete tour path. Before leaving the
hive, the bee will randomly observe dances performed
by other bees. The bee is then equipped with a set of
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moves which are observed from the dance. This set of
moves, named as “preferred path” and denoted as θ,
will then serve as guidance in its foraging process. θ
basically contains a complete tour that had been
explored previously by its mate and it will direct the
bee towards the destination. It is one of the
permutation π of set V as described in Section 1,
θ ∈ Vπ .
During the foraging process, a bee will travel from
one city to another city until it reaches the destination.
In the bee model, a heuristic transition rule is
employed to aid the bee in its decision making on
which city to be visited next. This rule consists of two
factors: arc fitness and heuristic distance. The arc
fitness is computed for all possible paths to cities that
can be visited by a bee from a particular city at a
particular time. A higher fitness value is assigned to
the arc which is part of the preferred path. By doing
this, a bee tends to choose the next visiting city based
on the preferred path. On the other hand, under the
heuristic distance influence, a bee tends to choose the
next visiting city which is nearest to its current city.
An example of a bee trying to visit five cities under
the influence of arc fitness will be presented. Let’s
assume five fully connected cities, denoted by V = {1,
2, 3, 4, 5}, are to be visited. The bee is assumed to start
foraging from its hive, which is denoted as city H. The
bee is equipped with a preferred path, θ = “3, 2, 1, 4, 5,
3”, which is observed via a dance before leaving the
hive. The hive and the rest of the cities are equally
distanced from each other. By having the equidistance
assumption, a bee is biased towards visiting the first
city in the θ. It also ensures that the heuristic distance
has no effect in the decision making in this example.
When a bee is in city i at time t, two sets of next
visiting cities can be derived, namely the set of
“allowed next cities”, Ai (t) and the set of “favoured
next city”, Fi (t). Ai (t) contains all the feasible next
cities that can be reached from city i. Fi (t) contains a
single city which is favoured to reach from city i as
recommended by θ. Let θ(m) denotes the m-th element
in θ. If a bee has just started its exploration from the
hive, FH(0) = {θ(1)}. If the current visiting city = θ(m)
at time t, then Fθ(m)(t) = {θ(m+1)}.
When t = 0, a bee leaves its hive and decides the
first city to visit. Based on θ = “3, 2, 1, 4, 5, 3”, two
sets of cities are identified: AH(0) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and
FH(0) = {3}. All the arcs that connect the hive and the
cities in AH(0) will be assigned a fitness value. The
fitness assignment mechanism works as follows: λ is
assigned to arc (H, 3) and (1- λ) / 4 is assigned to arcs
(H, 1), (H, 2), (H, 4) and (H, 5). Generally, the state of
fitness values at time t from city i can be summarized
in an arc fitness matrix, Φi(t) with dimension 1 x |Ai (t)|.
Each entry in the matrix is denoted by ρij, which
indicates the fitness value assigned to the arc from city
i to city j where j ∈ Ai (t ) . The following matrix
represents arc fitness values from hive to
city j ∈ A H ( 0 ) when t = 0:
Φ H (0) = [ ρ H 1 ρH 2 ρH 3 ρH 4
1 − λ 1− λ 1− λ
= λ
 4 4 4
λ represents the probability of following a city in
the preferred path. Notice that the arc fitness matrix is
associated with the following property as shown in
Equation (2).
∑ρ
j ∈ Ai ( t )
ij (t ) = 1
When t = 1 and let’s assume city 3 is chosen in the
previous stage: A3(1) = {1, 2, 4, 5} and F3(1) = {2}.
Likewise, the arc fitness of all cities in A3(1) is shown
as below:
Φ 3 (1) = [ ρ 31 ρ32 ρ34 ρ35 ]
1 − λ 1− λ
= λ
 3 3 3 
The idea of the mechanism is to ensure that the city
suggested by the preferred path is having higher
likelihood (λ in this case) to be chosen while the rest of
the arcs are sharing the likelihood of 1 - λ.
Let’s assume when t = 1, city 5 is chosen. When
proceeding to t = 2, A5(2) = {1, 2, 4} and F5(2) = {3}.
Notice that city 3 suggested by the preferred path is no
longer feasible as it has been visited at t = 0. Therefore,
all the arcs that connect city 5 with the cities in A5(2)
will share equal likelihood of 1/3 as shown in the
following arc fitness matrix:
Φ 5 (2) = [ ρ 51 ρ52 ρ54 ]
[3
= 1 1 1
3 3
3.3. BCO Model for TSP
Various bee models have been attempted in
different domains ranging from dynamic server
allocation for internet hosting center [1], numerical
function optimization [19], hex game playing program
[20], job shop scheduling [21,22] to TSP [15]. In [15],
Lucic and Teodorovic proposed a Bee System in
tackling TSP. In their model, bees are expected to
construct partial tours in every iteration. The position
of hive will be reallocated to a new city after every
iteration. Interaction among bees in their model is
implemented in two ways: memory and waggle dance.
Bees are able to memorize how many bees visited
certain links in the past and are able to advertise partial
tours to other hive mates. Upon initiating a new
iteration, the solution is improved by 2-opt, 3-opt and
modified 3-opt heuristics.
In this paper, a variation of bee model for TSP will
ρH 5] be presented as shown in Fig. 1.
1− λ  procedure BCO
4  Initialize_Population( )
while stop criteria are not fulfilled do
while all bees have not built a complete path do
Observe_Dance( )
Forage_ByTransRule( )
Perform_Waggle_Dance ( )
(2)
end while
end while
end procedure BCO
Figure 1. BCO model for TSP
Several distinctions are identified between our
proposed model and [15]:
• Bees in our proposed model do not have the
ability to remember the number of bees that
1− λ  have visited an arc.
• Bees in our proposed model show the entire
feasible path rather than partial tours via the
waggle dance.
• The bee hive in our proposed system is
assumed to have equal distance to all cities.
• Bees are influenced by both arc fitness and
distance between cities when constructing
solutions.
• Local search heuristics are not used to further
improve solutions found by bees.
In our proposed model, a group of bees is created
during the initial stage. The number of bee, NBee, is
equal to the total number of cities in the TSP problem
]
instance. Subsequently, foraging process is initiated.
Bees are allowed to explore and exploit the search
space to construct a feasible path for TSP. When all the
bees have completed building a path, it is considered a
complete bee cycle. As bees have no dance to follow
during the first bee cycle, they are allowed to explore
the search space in random. This will allow
diversification in the search. The initialization phase
can be modified to restrict bees to construct paths
based on certain constructive heuristics listed in
Section 2.
As mentioned in Section 3.2, a bee is aided by a
state transition rule in making its decision to choose
the next visiting city. The state transition probability,
Pij(t), measures the likelihood to move from city i to
city j at time t. It is a function of the city distance and
820
of the arc fitness present on the connecting edge. defined to be inversely proportional to the tour length.
Formally, it is defined in Equation (3): Bee with high profitability will dance for a longer
1 β duration.
[ ρ ij (t )]α ⋅ [ ]
d ij
Pij (t ) = (3) Table 1. Lookup Table for adjustment of Pfollow
1 Profitability Scores Pfollow
∑
j∈Ai (t )
[ ρij (t )]α ⋅ [ ]β
d ij Pfi < 0.5Pfcolony 0.60
0.5Pfcolony ≤ Pfi < 0.65Pfcolony 0.20
ρij(t) is the arc fitness from city i to city j at time t and 0.65Pfcolony ≤ Pfi < 0.85Pfcolony 0.02
dij represents the distance between city i and city j. 0.85Pfcolony ≤ Pfi 0.00
Note that the city distance is inversely proportional to
Pij(t). In other words, the shorter the distance, the At the observing bee side, before it leaves the hive,
higher is the likelihood of that city to be selected. α is a it has to determine if it will follow the dance shown by
binary variable that turns on or off the arc fitness previous dancer with a probability of Pfollow. The
influence in the model. β is the parameter that controls probability Pfollow is adjusted dynamically according to
the significant level of heuristic distance. the profitability score of the bee and the colony based
Arc fitness, ρij(t), is defined in Equation (4): on the lookup table as shown in Table 1, which is
 λ , j∈Fi (t) adopted from [1,22]. In the extreme case where Pfollow
 1−λ⋅ A(t) ∩F(t) 
ρij(t) = ∀j∈Ai (t), 0≤λ≤1 is zero, the bee will keep to its own path.
, j∉Fi (t) (4)
i i
 A(t) − A(t)∩F(t)  Essentially, a bee is more likely to randomly
 i i i  observe and follow a waggle dance if its profitability
The mechanism of arc fitness in path construction rating is low compared to the average profitability of
has been discussed in Section 3.2. Notice that |Ai (t) ∩ the colony. Although a bee tends to be influenced
Fi (t)| will hold the value of 1 when there is a common either by its own or other bee’s experience, it may still
instance in both Ai(t) and Fi (t), or 0 otherwise. wander off from its preferred path occasionally.
Another important module in BCO is the waggle
dance. After a bee has built a complete path, a dance 4. Implementation Details
will be performed to other hive mates. The policy that
is applied in permitting waggle dances by returning The project is developed using JAVA with
bees is as follow: bees that construct shorter path NetBeans IDE 5.5 as the development tool. A list of
compared to its previous trials are allowed to dance. In tours is created to symbolize the dances by bees. Each
other words, not all bees are allowed to dance upon waggle dance tour is associated with a duration which
returning to hive. A bee has to make sure that it finds a is measured in terms of bee cycles. The duration will
better food source compared to its previous best trials determine how long the dance will be kept in the list.
in order to dance. If a bee dances, it will dance for The list will be refreshed and updated after every bee
certain duration. The dance duration of bee i, Di , is cycle to discard expired dances.
defined as in Equation (5): Our implementation utilizes the combination of
Pf i random exploration and the Nearest Neighbourhood
Di = K ⋅ (5) heuristic to generate the initial solutions during the first
Pf colony
bee cycle. Random exploration is implemented in such
1 a way that a bee starts from a random city, and chooses
Pf i = , Li = tour length (6)
Li the next visiting city by using the state transition rule,
which is discussed in Section 3.3. Nearest
1 n 1 n 1
Pf colony = ∑
n i =1
Pf i = ∑
n i =1 Li
(7) Neighbourhood heuristic suggests that a bee starts
from an arbitrary city and then chooses the nearest city
where K denotes the waggle dance scaling factor, Pfi to move ahead. Random selection is applied if there is
denotes the profitability score of bee i as defined in a tie in distance values observed in any step until a
Equation (6), Pfcolony denotes the bee colony’s average complete path is built. In the first bee cycle, a bee has
profitability as defined in Equation (7) and n denotes equal likelihood to employ one of the two approaches.
the number of bees performing waggle dance.
Pfi can be interpreted as the nectar quantity by bee i, 5. Experiments and Results
where bees are assumed to collect as much nectar as
possible. Higher quantity of nectar will be collected if This section first describes the benchmark problems
a bee travels along the shorter route. Therefore, Pfi is used in our experiments. It is followed by a discussion

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on the benchmark algorithms which are included in our
comparison study. Finally, some preliminary Table 2. Performance of BCO Compared to ACS,
experimental results are presented. MMAS, GA, HGA and Lin-Ker
Instance EIL51 KROA100 LIN318
5.1. Benchmark Problems (Optimal) (426) (21282) (42029)
ACS [13] 0.00/0.48 0.00/0.65 n/a
MMAS [14] 0.00/0.16 0.00/0.10 n/a
The performance of the BCO model is investigated
GA [10,11] 0.00/0.00 0.00/0.00 0.00/0.00
by applying the algorithm to some of the benchmark HGA [12] 0.47/0.59 0.01/0.01 0.73/1.37
problems taken from TSPLIB1. 15 problem instances Lin-Ker [7,23] 0.00/0.00 0.00/0.00 0.00/0.08
are chosen from ATT, EIL, KRO and LIN series. ATT BS (2-opt) [15] 0.53/1.14 0.73/1.36 n/a
utilizes “pseudo-Euclidean” distance function as its arc BS (Modified 3- 0.00/0.00 0.00/0.00 n/a
weight type whereas EIL, KRO and LIN utilize opt) [15]
Euclidean distance function. The dimension of the BCO 0.47/0.85 2.26/3.43 6.32/7.55
problems ranges from 48 to 318 cities. x/y: x and y represents percentage difference of best tour length and
average tour length from optimal value respectively. “n/a” stands for
“not available”.
5.2. Benchmark Algorithms
Table 3. Performance of BCO on Benchmark
Six other approaches are included in our Problems Compared to Optimal Values Published
comparison study. They are: Ant Colony System in TSPLIB
(ACS) [13], MAX-MIN Ant System (MMAS) [14], Problem Optimal BCO
Genetic Algorithms (GA) [10,11], Hybrid of GA with Instances (% from optimal)
distance preserving crossover (HGA) [12], Lin- Best Average
Kernighan heuristic (Lin-Ker) [7,23] and Bee System ATT48 10628 0.31 0.83
(BS) [15]. The results reported in these papers are EIL76 538 0.19 2.01
included in Table 2 which will be discussed in Section EIL101 629 0.95 2.29
5.3. Notice that three different types of bee system KROB100 22141 2.24 3.10
were reported in [15]: bee system with 2-opt, 3-opt and KROC100 20749 0.50 1.50
modified 3-opt. However, only bee system with 2-opt KROD100 21294 1.64 3.25
and modified 3-opt are included in the table as the KROE100 22068 1.73 2.20
KROA150 26524 5.03 6.39
results for 3-opt and modified 3-opt are identical.
KROB150 26130 1.55 3.68
KROA200 29368 2.02 4.26
5.3. Results KROB200 29437 3.10 6.36
LIN105 14379 0.32 1.24
This section shows some preliminary results based
on the model which is discussed in Section 3. The The results show that BCO is able to achieve good
BCO model proposed in this paper is a stochastic performance for the three benchmark problems. While
algorithm. Hence, the results reported in this study are the results reported in both tables show that there is
the averages of five replications. The parameter still room for improvement in BCO model compared to
settings throughout the experiments are: BCMax = other approaches, we note that most of these
50000, NBee = total number of cities, α = 1, β = 10, λ = approaches make use of local search techniques to
0.99, K = 0.1 x BCMax. achieve optimality. These techniques will be
Table 2 and Table 3 summarize the experiment incorporated into the BCO in our future work to
results in this study. Table 2 highlights the comparison improve its performance.
of BCO model with other approaches. Three specific Table 3 shows that the performance of BCO
benchmark problems are employed for the comparison generally drops when size of the problem instances
study: EIL51, KROA100 and LIN318. The dimensions increase. There are a few reasons to this. One of them
of these problems are 51, 100 and 318 cities is the parameter settings which need to be fine-tuned to
respectively. Table 3 shows the results of BCO model cater for different scenarios. Our initial findings show
on the rest of the benchmark problems in the ATT, that the proposed BCO model spends most of the time
EIL, KRO and LIN series. exploring rather than exploiting good solutions. This
suggests that a more balanced strategy in exploring and
1
TSPLIB is a library of sample instances for the TSP and related exploiting the search space is needed.
problems. It is maintained by Reinelt, G. at Institut für Informatik,
Universität Heidelberg, Germany. URL: http://www.informatik.uni-
heidelberg.de/groups/comopt/software/TSPLIB95/

822
6. Conclusion
A BCO model based on the bees’ collective
foraging behaviour has been introduced to solve TSP.
The model has been tested on a set of benchmark
problems. As this is the initial implementation of BCO
on TSP, we hope to improve the model further to
achieve optimal values for the list of benchmark
problems. Among the future enhancements are
incorporating neighbourhood search in the model.
Neighbourhood search is useful when exploitation is
desired. It can be applied after every bee cycle to
enhance the quality of solutions. Constructive
heuristics can also be integrated in preparing initial
solutions. This helps the BCO algorithm to have a
better starting point in its search for optimal solutions.
More bees’ related features such as the direction shown
in waggle dance and scent sensing will be included to
make the model more comprehensive. Another area in
our proposed model that will be investigated further is
the parameter settings. Lastly, a study on improving
the model execution speed will be conducted by
making use of parallel and distributed processing.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank Universiti Sains Malaysia
for the scholarship awarded to Li-Pei Wong to pursue
his Ph.D. in Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore.
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