Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-018-0617-x

Spatio-seasonal variation in ambient air pollutants and influence

of meteorological factors in Coimbatore, Southern India
A. Manju 1 & K. Kalaiselvi 1 & V. Dhananjayan 2 & M. Palanivel 1 & G. S. Banupriya 1 & M. H. Vidhya 1 & K. Panjakumar 2 &
B. Ravichandran 2

Received: 26 June 2018 / Accepted: 27 August 2018

# Springer Nature B.V. 2018

Abstract
Air quality is used worldwide to confirm the current status of air pollution level and associated health risks to the public. Several
air pollutants reach very high concentrations in many regions across India. In this study, air pollutants were measured in an urban
city of Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, Southern India, during 2013 to 2014 based on season and location, and the influence of
meteorological factors. Air pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NO2, CO, and O3) across eight locations including industrial, resi-
dential, traffic, and commercial areas were assessed. The results showed that PM10, PM2.5, and CO were the most serious
pollutants and their average concentrations ranged from 65.5 to 98.6 μg/m3, 27.6 to 56.9 μg/m3, and 1.58 to 8.21 mg/m3,
respectively, among various locations. Significantly higher concentration of air pollutants was recorded in industrial areas
followed by traffic and commercial areas. Comparatively higher mean concentration of O3 (2.22 ± 0.75 μg/m3) and CO (7.73
± 1.86 mg/m3) was recorded during the summer season, whereas the concentration of PM10 (80.3 ± 24.4 μg/m3), PM2.5 (45.1 ±
17.7 μg/m3), SO2 (7.86 ± 1.55 μg/m3), and NO2 (13 ± 1.81 μg/m3) was higher in southwest monsoon. Ozone (O3) and CO
positively correlated with temperature and negatively correlated with relative humidity. The level of PM10, PM2.5, and CO
concentrations exceeded the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) guidelines. The present study’s results empha-
size the need of effective air pollution control in Coimbatore. Precautionary measures to be taken to avoid exposure of air
pollutants to the public and minimize pollutants. This study further suggests an investigation on the adverse impact on human
health and environment using appropriate risk analysis techniques.

Keywords Ambient atmosphere . Air pollutants . Particulate matter . Gaseous pollutants . NAAQS

Introduction
Air pollution represents a serious and growing threat to public
health worldwide, being responsible for a large portion of the
global burden of disease from environmental factors (Cohen
et al. 2017; Orioli et al. 2018). According to the latest urban
air quality database of WHO, 98% of cities in low- and middle-
income countries do not meet World Health Organization
(WHO) air quality guidelines. More than 80% of people living
in urban areas that monitor air quality are exposed to air
* V. Dhananjayan
dhananjayan_v@yahoo.com
1
Department of Environmental Science, PSG College of Arts and
Science, Coimbatore 641014, India
2
Industrial Hygiene & Toxicology Division, Regional Occupational
Health Centre (Southern), ICMR-NIOH, Devanahalli TK,
Bangalore 562 110, India
pollutant levels that exceeded the WHO limits (WHO 2016).
While air quality is slowly improving in the developed coun-
tries, it is rapidly deteriorating in developing countries due to
rapid industrialization and increased vehicular traffic.
Atmospheric air pollutant contributed 3.7 million premature
deaths annually worldwide (WHO 2018). Population exposed
to particulate matter (PM) with a diameter of less than 10 μm
(PM10) causes several diseases (WHO 2016). Studies have ex-
plored that short-term and long-term exposures to fine particles
with diameter of less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) are responsible for
many harmful effects on human (Fang et al. 2017; Wang et al.
2018). Many studies have well documented the environmental
pollutants and its association with several health effects such as
cardiovascular diseases (Finch and Conklin 2016), respiratory
disease (Dehghan et al. 2018), chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD), and cancer (Yang et al. 2016; Turner et al.
2017). However, it is not only the size of the atmospheric par-
ticles that has a remarkable influence on the human health but
also its chemical composition.

While many air pollutants are associated with significant
health impacts, NOx, O3, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxides,
and PM2.5 are the most studied and commonly used as proxy
indicator of exposure to air pollution (WHO 2005). PM is a
complex mixture of several chemical constituents of atmosphere
which include sulfate, nitrate, ammonium, and organic and inor-
ganic elements including transition metals. In addition, biological
components such as allergens and microbial compounds are also
found (WHO 2013). These fine particles originating from a va-
riety of sources, such as industrial processes, urban construction,
and traffic emission, are capable of inducing toxic effects. The
results of experimental and epidemiologic studies suggest that
PM bound metal components are critical for inducing
carcinogenesis-related biological changes, including oxidative
stress, immune deficiency, and chronic inflammation (Guan
et al. 2016; Birben et al. 2012).
The development of industrialization and increasing popu-
lation has resulted in an increased fuel combustion, which
causes enormous emission of pollutants into the atmosphere
(Sharma et al. 2014). Various meteorological parameters may
also influence urban air pollution (Dey et al. 2017; Zhan et al.
2018). Temperature, water vapor, and wind speed are consid-
ered as major factors determining pollution potential over a
region (Goyal and Chalapati Rao 2007). However, the studies
regarding meteorological influence on urban air pollution over
Indian subcontinent are currently limited.
Fig. 1 Study area map showing various sampling locations
Air Qual Atmos Health
India ranks tenth among the most polluted countries with
an annual average PM10 level of 134 μg/m3 and several cities
in India are among the list of most polluted areas globally
(Dholakia et al. 2014). To prevent and control air pollution,
India issued the Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act in
1981 and developed National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS 2009) to regulate pollutant emissions. In 2009, the
standards were updated and 12 air pollutants are currently
regulated. To tackle the air pollution problem, regional assess-
ments are necessary especially in countries such as India
where large health and environmental disparities exist
(Tobollik et al. 2015). Therefore, in order to gain more insights
on the adverse effects of ambient air pollutants, this study was
aimed to assess the ambient air parameters based on various
seasons and locations and also to evaluate the influence of
meteorological parameters on air quality in urban areas of
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, Southern India.
Materials and methods
Study area
The study area (urban Coimbatore City) is located in the
southwest part of Tamil Nadu, a short distance from the border
with the neighboring state of Kerala, and is surrounded by the
Air Qual Atmos Health

Table 1 Characterization of
sampling sites Location Sampling Area site no. Distance Direction Latitude Longitude
category location (Km)

Commercial area Townhall I 0 Southwest 10.9955 76.9571

Gandhipuram II 5 North 11.0210 76.9657
Residential area Ganapathy III 7 North 11.0393 76.9863
Thudiyalur IV 11 North 11.0768 76.9323
Traffic area SITRA V 11 East 11.0395 77.0357
DB Road VI 2 West 11.0074 76.9509
Industrial area Thekkallur VII 35 East 11.1546 77.2089
Sundarapuram VIII 6 South 10.8993 77.0163

Western Ghats on all sides (Fig. 1). Coimbatore is the second
most populous city in Tamil Nadu with 1,050,721 inhabitants
(Coimbatore City Census 2011). It is located at 11° 00′ N, 77°
00′ E at 411 m (1349 ft) above sea level on the banks of the
Noyyal River, Tamil Nadu. Eight sampling sites, namely,
Townhall, Gandipuram, Ganapathy, Thudiyalur, SITRA, DB
Road, Thekallur, and Sundarapuram, were selected across an
urban transect in Coimbatore. It is surrounded by mountains
on the west, with reserve forests and the Nilgiri Biosphere
Reserve on the northern side. The details of characterization
of sampling sites, distance from the city core area, latitude,
and longitude are given in Table 1. All the eight sites were
classified into four categories, namely, commercial area (sites
1 and II), residential area (sites III and IV), traffic area (sites V
and VI), and industrial area (sites VII and VIII).
Air sampling and analysis
Outdoor ambient air samples of particulate matters (PM10 and
PM2.5) and gaseous pollutants (SO2, NO2, O3, and CO) were
collected for a period of 1 year (December 2013 and
November 2014). For each selected pollutants, in each loca-
tions, 24 ambient air samples were collected. In total, 192 air
samplings were carried out for a period of 8 h for each com-
pound except CO and O3 (1 h duration) in all selected loca-
tions. Respirable particulate matter (PM10) and PM2.5 were
collected using respirable dust sampler (Model APM 460
BL; Envirotech, India) and fine particulate sampler (Model
550, Envirotech, India) respectively. The instrument used to
monitor PM10 and PM2.5 was equipped with a gravimetric
cyclone and particle traps, fiber glass tape, flow control, and
a data logger for 24 h. These instruments had a fairly high
resolution of 250 μg/m3 at a 3 L/min flow rate, with lower
detection limits of 5 μg/m3 and 100 μg/m3 at a 16 L/min flow
rate, with lower detection limits of 10 μg/m3 in 24 h.
The respirable dust sampler was used to collect SO2 and
NO2 concentrations. First, the suction airstream passed
through a filter paper, and then it was split and directed to
the scrubber, wherein the sulfur dioxide was absorbed, where-
as nitrogen dioxide was absorbed on a sintered glass. The
amount of air passing through the system was calculated using
two glass capillaries mounted on the suction pump and was

Table 2 Meteorological
conditions in Coimbatore during Month and Mean temperature Relative humidity Average wind speed Total precipitation
December 2013 to November year (°C) (%) (km/h) (cm)
2014
December 28 60 7 0.5
January 25 49 9 0
February 27 47 9 0
March 29 44 10 0
April 31 56 10 0
May 30 67 12 0.95
June 29 70 17 0.16
July 27 72 18 0.32
August 27 74 17 0.6
September 27 72 14 0.6
October 27 79 7 0.77
November 26 70 5 5.9

Source: Coimbatore current weather report (2013–2014) http://www.census2011.co.in/census/city/492-

coimbatore.html
 Air Qual Atmos Health

2.36 ± 1.58 (BDL − 3.97)

1.54 ± 0.69 (BDL − 2.87)

1.93 ± 1.12 (BDL − 3.65)

1.01 ± 0.73 (BDL − 2.7)

1.25 ± 0.6 (BDL − 3.91)

2.22 ± 0.75 (1.12–3.78)

equal to 1 m3 for the glass scrubber (SO2) and 0.5 m3 per 8 h
for the glass frit (NO2). The sorption of SO2 takes place in
0.3% H2O2 solution. Sulfur dioxide was oxidized to sulfate

BDL
BDL
ion, which was determined fluorescence in ultraviolet (Jacobs-

O3 (μg/m3)
Hochheiser method, IS: 5182, Part IV) at a wavelength of
540 nm on the UV-VIS spectrophotometry (Shimadzu-UV
2600) method with the lower detection limit of 0.001 μg/m3.
Nitrogen dioxide absorbed on the sintered glass was reduced

8.21 ± 2.96 (6.14–13.6)

7.73 ± 1.86 (3.5–10.7)
7.63 ± 1.72 (4.2–10.4)
1.58 ± 1.34 (0.11–6.5)
2.81 ± 1.31 (0.6–4. 8)

3.09 ± 2.59 (0.1–9.8)

3.26 ± 1.48 (0.8–5.6)

5.96 ± 2.15 (2.6–8.9)
to nitrite ion in an aqueous-glycol medium containing iodide
and arsenate ions. After exposure, the sintered glass was

CO (mg/m3)
washed with water, and the nitrite ion concentration was de-
termined based on chemiluminescence detection method
(West-Gaeke method, IS: 5182, Part II) with a detection limit
of 0.4 μg/m3 at a wavelength of 540 nm on the UV-VIS

Annual mean concentrations (mean ± SD, min–max) of ambient air pollutants among various locations in Coimbatore, India (2013–2014)

11.7 ± 2.12 (8.71–15.9)

13.2 ± 1.57 (9.99–15.7)

13.7 ± 1.48 (11.1–15.9)

spectrophotometry (Shimadzu-UV 2600). CO was ana-

12.4 ± 2.10 (9.4–15.7)

11.5 ± 2.41 (6.8–14.9)
13 ± 1.81 (9.3–15.6)
11.8 ± 2.03 (9.1–14.8)

12.1 ± 2.19 (8.1–16)

lyzed using non-dispersive, infrared absorption methods
with 0.5% precision and a detection limit of 0.05 mg/m3

NO2 (μg/m3)
by carbon monoxide analyzer (Model Serinus 30;
Ecotech). O3 was determined through the ultraviolet ab-
sorption (Beer Lambert) methods with a detection limit
of 1 μg/m3 using O3 analyzer (Model EC9810; Ecotech).

7.33 ± 1.31 (5.38–10.7)

6.57 ± 1.71 (3.12–9.12)
6.71 ± 1.7 (4.26–9.63)
Simultaneously, meteorological parameters such as tempera-

7.32 ± 1.6 (5.1–12.6)

6.87 ± 1.03 (5.2–8.4)
7.18 ± 1.68 (3.9–9.8)
7.18 ± 1.35 (4.5–8.9)

8.38 ± 1.34 (5.9–12)

ture, relative humidity, and wind speed were also recorded.

SO2 (μg/m3)
Statistical analysis

Data analysis was carried out to check the normality of

the air pollutant’s data and meteorological parameters

48.8 ± 13.9 (26.2–76.2)

42.3 ± 14.2 (18.2–71.4)

41.2 ± 18.8 (10.1–76.3)

27.6 ± 9.86 (10.1–45.9)

38.9 ± 13.2 (18.8–63.1)

33.7 ± 10.7 (13.8–52.3)
34.6 ± 11.2 (16.5–60.8)
56.9 ± 13.6 (36.6–85.4)
using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. It is found that most
of the data were normally distributed. Therefore, a general
linear model (GLM) method was applied to test the spatial
PM2.5 (μg/m3)

and seasonal variations in pollution load. Pearson correla-

tion coefficient was calculated between the criteria pollut-
ants and meteorological parameters in order to investigate
their relationship. Multiple linear regression (MLR) analy-
71.9 ± 13.2 (47.3–96.7)
73.1 ± 27.3 (23.4–135)
70.2 ± 19 (38.2–105)

98.7 ± 10.8 (79.6–102)

92.4 ± 18.6 (63.6–127)
68.5 ± 20.8 (34.6–121)
73.6 ± 23.2 (39.9–119)
65.5 ± 20.9 (24.7–111)

sis was used to quantify the relative contribution of each

factor to measured pollutants. Statistical analyses were per-
formed by using statistical software SPSS (version 16.0;
PM10 (μg/m3)

SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).

Results and discussion

Sampling locations

Sundarapuram

Meteorological conditions
Gandipuram
Thudiyalur

Thekkallur
Ganapathy

DB Road
Townhall

SITRA

In Coimbatore, the climate is characterized by high tempera-

tures, high relative humidity throughout the year, and distinct-
ly marked seasonal variations in precipitation (Table 2).
Location categories

According to meteorological conditions, the year can be di-

Commercial area

Residential area

Industrial area

vided into four seasons: winter (December–February), sum-

Traffic area

mer (March–May), southwest monsoon (June–August), and

Table 3

northeast monsoon (September–November). Winter season is

characterized by dry soil conditions, low relative humidity,
Air Qual Atmos Health

Fig. 2 Varying levels of

particulate pollutants (PM10 and
PM2.5) among different locations
in the urban area of Coimbatore,
India. Significantly higher
concentration of particulate
pollutants observed in the
industrial area compared to that in
all other locations (GLM: a—F =
9.315, p < 0.05; b—F = 8.553,
p < 0.05)

scanty rainfall, and low northeast prevailing winds. The rain- It was observed that increased concentration of PM10 is
fall and wind speed become moderately strong, and relative most likely by construction of buildings and extensive indus-
humidity increases in the southwest and northeast monsoon trial operation adjacent to the sampling site. Earlier studies
seasons with southwesterly prevailing wind. During the peri- have shown that vehicles normally produce about 50% of
od of the study, the average temperature ranged between 25 the fine particles (PM2.5) and the coarse particles (PM10 par-
and 31 °C, while the average monthly relative humidity ticles) mainly originate from mechanical processes (Begum
ranged between 44 and 79%. In addition, the average wind et al. 2006). In addition, comparatively higher load of fine
speed ranged from 5 to 18 km/h. particles with aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5 μm are
mainly of anthropogenic and urban activities including emis-
sions from heavy-duty vehicles (D'Angiola et al. 2010; Soylu
Spatial variation 2007). Significant emissions from automobiles and other an-
thropogenic activities related to the extremely high population
The annual average concentrations of particulate and gaseous density could have contributed more pollutants to residential
pollutants measured in all sampling locations are shown in areas. The high concentration of PM in the city atmosphere is
Table 3. The PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations ranged from due to burning of biomass for cooking and in the brick kiln
65.5 to 98.7 μg/m3 and from 27.6 to 56.9 μg/m3, respectively, around the city. It is observed from Fig. 2 that fine particles are
among various locations. The maximum concentration of comparatively less in the entire study site except the industrial
PM 10 was recorded from industrial areas (Thekkallur area.
98.7 μg/m3; Sundarapuram 92.4 μg/m3). Similarly, PM2.5 The annual average concentrations of SO2 and NO2 in var-
concentration was maximum in industrial areas (Thekkallur ious study locations have been presented in Table 3 and Fig. 3.
56.9 μg/m3; Sundarapuram 48 μg/m3) followed by residential The annual average concentrations of SO2 and NO2 in
areas (41.2–38.9 μg/m3) (Table 3 and Fig. 2). Analysis of
GLM indicated that there was no significant variation ob-
served in particulate concentration among study locations Table 4 The results of GLM (general linear model) multivariate
analysis of seasonal and special variability of the pollutant concentrations
(GLM, F = 9.314, p > 0.05 for PM10; F = 8.553, p > 0.05 for
PM2.5) (Table 4). However, a higher concentration of particu- Air pollutant Area Season
late pollutants was detected in the industrial area (Fig. 2). The
F values p values F values p values
horizontal lines in Fig. 2 indicate the NAAQS (annual aver-
age) guideline values of 60 μg/m3 and 40 μg/m3 for PM10 and PM10 9.314 0.00 0.293 0.74
PM2.5 respectively. It has been observed that the average PM2.5 8.553 0.00 0.196 0.82
values of PM10 in industrial areas were much higher than the
SO2 0.272 0.76 3.934 0.02
NAAQS (2009) annual average guideline values, and exceed-
NO2 4.030 0.02 4.540 0.01
ing levels were observed in all the locations, whereas PM2.5
CO 32.764 0.00 31.023 0.00
concentration exceeded the guideline limit value only in the
O3 5.127 0.00 25.594 0.00
industrial area.

industrial areas ranged from 6.57 to 8.38 μg/m3 and 11.5 to
13.7 μg/m3, respectively. Similarly, the average concentration
of CO and O3 among study locations varied between 1.58–
8.21 μg/m3 and below detectable limit (BDL) − 2.36 μg/m3
respectively (Table 3 and Fig. 3). However, O3 levels are
below detectable limits in Ganapathy and SITRA.
Significant differences in concentrations of gaseous pollutant
were observed among locations (GLM, F = 0.272, 4.030,
32.764, and 5.127 for SO2, NO2, CO, and O3, respectively,
with p value of < 0.05) (Table 4). Invariably, a high
Fig. 3 Variation in gaseous pollutant among different locations. a
Significantly higher than commercial and traffic area (GLM, F = 0.272,
p > 0.05); b significantly higher than commercial area (F = 4.03,
p < 0.05); c significantly higher than all other areas (F = 32.764,
p < 0.05); d significantly higher than commercial and residential areas
(F = 5.127, p < 0.05). Horizontal line indicates the standard value
Air Qual Atmos Health
concentration of gaseous pollutants was recorded in industrial
areas followed by traffic areas. The obtained results show that
the annual average concentration of SO2, NO2, and O3 was
less than the air quality guideline values of 50 μg/m3, 40 μg/
m3, and 100 μg/m3, respectively, prescribed by the NAAQS
of India (NAAQS 2009). However, CO concentration
exceeded the NAAQS guideline value of 4 mg/m3 in all the
locations except that in residential areas. In general, emission
from heavy-duty vehicles, private vehicle, and public trans-
port in traffic areas are the major source of environmental
pollution including PM, SO2, NO2, and CO in the city atmo-
sphere (Smith et al. 2015; Nasrudin et al. 2013; Pardo et al.
2011). The exceeded levels of PM and CO observed in this
study may be due to vehicular pollution. The study by Soylu
(2007) observed that petrol-fuelled vehicles are the main
source of PM and CO, while NOx, SO2, and PM mainly orig-
inate from heavy-duty diesel-fuelled vehicles. Comparatively
low levels of O3 detected in the urban residential area may be
due to high reactivity of nitrogen oxides with O3 (Salem et al.
2009). Cavalcante et al. (2017) found that the topography and
heavy building construction significantly increased the partic-
ulate matter concentration in the urban environment.
Additionally, industrial areas are dominated by high construc-
tion activity for industrial and ongoing residential areas. In
urban conditions, small aerosol particles are mostly emitted
from combustion processes, i.e., car engines and industries.
However, the high concentration of gaseous pollutants and
atmospheric reactions are able to produce sufficient amount
of condensable gases for gas to particle conversion. Since the
relationship between ambient air pollutants, especially fine
particulate matter, and cardiovascular risk has been well iden-
tified, periodic monitoring and preventive measures are very
essential.
Seasonal variation
The variation in particulate and gaseous pollutant concentra-
tions among different months and seasons are illustrated in
Table 5 and Figs. 4 and 5. The minimum PM concentration
was observed during April and the maximum was in June.
There was a monthly fluctuation in the pollutant concentration
(Fig. 4). Although PM concentrations among various season
are not statistically significant (GLM: PM 10 F = 0.293,
p > 0.05, and PM 2.5 F = 0.196, p > 0.05), comparatively
higher concentrations were recorded in southwest monsoon
season (PM10 80.3 μg/m3; PM2.5 45.1 μg/m3). While PM2.5
levels exceeded the NAAQS guideline values of 40 μg/m3 in
southwest monsoons, PM10 levels exceeded the guideline val-
ue of 60 μg/m3 in all the seasons (Table 5). The reasons for the
fluctuation of pollutants are not only caused by seasonal var-
iations but also by meteorological factors such as atmospheric
wind speed, relavtive humidity, and temperature. Brick
manufacturing is a fast-growing industry along with vehicle
Air Qual Atmos Health

2.22 ± 0.75 c (1.07–3.67)

1.43 ± 0.81 (0.23–2.87)

0.88 ± 0.57 (0.06–2.17)

1.34 ± 1.04 (0.17–3.93)
exhaust and road dust, contributing to the particulate air pol-
lutant. There are about 120 brick kilns that use both coal and
wood as main fuels with seasonal operation on the northwest

Significantly higher concentrations of O3 (GLM, F = 25.594, p < 0.05) and CO (GLM, F = 31.023, p < 0.05) were detected during summer compared to those during winter and monsoons
and southeast sides of the city. However, there is no seasonal

O3 (μg/m3)

SO2 (GLM, F = 3.934, p < 0.05) and NO2 (GLM, F = 4.540, p < 0.05) concentrations were significantly higher during southwest monsoon compared to those during summer and winter
variation in PM concentration observed in this study. The
particulate pollutants are directly emitted into the atmosphere
through natural (wildfires) and manmade processes including
transportation, industrial process, land cleaning, and solid
7.73 ± 1.86 c (3.45–10.7)
4.52 ± 2.38 (0.62–8.92)

3.34 ± 2.13 (0.14–8.51)

waste disposal (Querol et al. 2001; Viana et al. 2006; Adachi
4.37 ± 3.3 (0.11–10.4)
and Tainosho 2004).
The maximum concentration of SO2 (7.86 μg/m3) and NO2
(13 μg/m3) was recorded during southwest monsoon com-
CO (mg/m3)

pared to summer and winter. Table 5 shows a significant var-

iation among different seasons (GLM: SO 2 F = 3.934,
p < 0.05, and NO2 F = 4.54, p < 0.05). It may be noted that
Variation in concentrations (mean ± SD, min–max) of ambient air pollutants among various seasons in Coimbatore, India (2013–2014)

the weather conditions in summer were usually associated

with the high temperatures and long duration of intense sun-
12.1 ± 2.19 (8.06–15.9)

12.2 ± 2.41 (6.77–15.7)

11.8 ± 1.87 (8.71–15.9)

13 ± 1.81 b (9.14–15.9)

light (Gaur et al. 2014). This would have resulted in the oc-
currence of photochemical reactions on conversion of NOx
NO2 (μg/m3)

into nitrates and SO2 into sulfates. The concentrations of the

seasonal variations show significant difference among seasons
(p < 0.05). The level of NO2 was significantly higher during
Concentration of PM10 (GLM, F = 0.293, p > 0.05) and PM2.5 (GLM, F = 0.196, p > 0.05) not varying significantly

monsoon followed by summer and winter. Suitable meteoro-

logical conditions for NOx formation could be the reason for
7.19 ± 1.69 (3.92–9.75)
6.48 ± 1.75 (3.12–9.63)

7.24 ± 1.24 (4.34–9.01)

7.86 ± 1.55 b (4.52–12)

the highest values of NO2 in monsoon. However, lower levels

of NO2 in summer might be due to more photo-oxidation
reaction and stronger vertical turbulence.
SO2 (μg/m3)

Table 5 illustrates the variation in CO and O3 concentra-

tions among different seasons. It can be seen from these tables
that the significantly higher concentration of CO (7.73 μg/m3)
and O3 (2.22 μg/m3) was observed during summer (GLM F =
31.023, p < 0.05; O3 F = 25.594, p < 0.05). The differences in
34.6 ± 11.2 (16.5–60.7)
34.2 ± 12.1 (15.1–71.1)

45.1 ± 17.7 (10.1–85.4)

37.3 ± 14.7 (10.1–65.8)

O3 levels are mainly influenced by the meteorological factors,

boundary layer processes, and anthropogenic activities
PM2.5 (μg/m3) a

(Reddy et al. 2012). Higher solar radiation and temperature

during summer could be the cause of more photochemical O3
production. Lower O3 levels were recorded in winter, which
could be attributed to the shorter daylight hours and larger
solar zenith angles (Wang et al. 2012). This is in agreement
with the studies carried out by Kumar et al. (2014), in Delhi,
68.5 ± 20.8 (34.7–121)
80.3 ± 24.4 (23.4–135)
71.4 ± 20.8 (39.1–119)

71.5 ± 18.9 (24.7–112)

India. The meteorological parameters strongly influence the

profile of O3 cycles (Filella and Peñuelas 2006). Figure 5
PM10 (μg/m3)a

shows that the variation in O3 concentration in different sea-

sons and months. It indicates that concentrations were ob-
served at maximum during summer. It was reported that O3
levels increase with the increase in solar radiation (Kumar
et al. 2014) and decreasing levels were attributed to its reac-
tion with NO present in the atmosphere and the absence of
Southwest monsoon
Northeast monsoon

solar reaction (Duenas et al. 2004; Carnero et al. 2010).

Hence, the recorded monthly variation may mainly be
correlated with the prevailing meteorological conditions.
Summer
Table 5

Season

Winter

However, O3 concentrations observed in the present study

were lower than the levels reported in Nainital (25–67 ppb),
b
a

c

Fig. 4 Monthly and seasonal
variations in ambient particulate
matters in Coimbatore, India
(December 2013 to November
2014)
Chennai (10–23 ppb), Tiruchirappalli (93.2 ppb), Delhi urban
and industry (5–20 ppb), and Delhi traffic (29.1 ppb) (Kumar
et al. 2010; Pulikesia et al. 2006; Mohanraj et al. 2011; Jain
et al. 2005; Kumar et al. 2014). Although the present study
recorded low levels of nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and
O3, significant impacts on human health have been reported
with even short-term exposure to these pollutants (Ghozikali
et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2018).
Influence of meteorological factors
In general, the changes in the meteorological conditions cause
more variation in air pollutant concentrations than changes in
pollutant emissions over a monthly or seasonal period (Chang
and Lee 2007). Hence, to examine the influence of meteoro-
logical conditions and other pollutants, Pearson correlation
analysis was carried out between the meteorological parameters
and air pollutants are given in Table 6. There was a significant
positive/negative correlation between meteorological parame-
ters and air pollutants. Many of the pollutants detected were
positively correlated with temperature and wind speed.
However, CO and O3 negatively correlated with relative
Fig. 5 Monthly and seasonal
variations in ambient gaseous
pollutants in Coimbatore, India
(December 2013 to November
2014)
Air Qual Atmos Health
humidity. As reported in several earlier studies (Khoder 2009;
Kumar et al. 2014; Swamy et al. 2012), a positive correlation
between temperature and O3 was also observed. However, the
significant correlation indicates that the dependence of O3 on
temperature is not by chance, but at the same time the amount
of variations in O3 that can be predicted by the variation in
temperature is weak as the value is only 0.17 (Table 6). The
high temperature has a direct influence on accelerated chemical
reactions in the atmosphere for the higher O3 concentrations
(Pudasainee et al. 2006; Han et al. 2011). However, the studies
regarding meteorological influence on urban air pollution over
the Indian subcontinent are currently limited. The negative cor-
relation between O3 and relative humidity found in the current
study is in agreement with the results of the studies of Swamy
et al. (2012) and Kumar et al. (2014). O3 concentrations in the
present study were lower compared to those reported at other
urban locations in India (Chelani 2012; Debaje and Kakade
2009; Kumar et al. 2010; Reddy et al. 2010). The present study
shows r2 value of 0.79 for total suspended particles (TSP) and
PM10. Earlier studies on the ambient air of Tuticorin City
(Sivaramasundaram and Muthusubramanian 2010) reported r2
values ranged from 0.38 to 0.73 at various locations. An earlier
Air Qual Atmos Health

Table 6 Pearson correlation analysis between gaseous and particulate pollutants, and meteorological parameters

PM10 PM2.5 SO2 NO2 CO O3 Temperature Wind speed RH

PM10 1 0.79** 0.18* 0.26** 0.18* 0.18* − 0.05 0.17* 0.16*

PM2.5 1 0.27** 0.20** 0.13 0.15* 0 0.24** 0.14
SO2 1 0.25** 0.22** 0.10 0.14 0.25** 0.17*
NO2 1 0.13 0.16* 0 0.09 0.29**
CO 1 0.59** 0.23** 0.09 − 0.13
O3 1 0.17* 0.08 − 0.07
Temperature 1 0.20** − 0.09
Wind speed 1 0.28**
RH 1

RH relative humidity
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed); *correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

study has reported the r2 of 0.69 in the ambient air of Mumbai of cities and increased automobile traffic that typically occur
(Gupta et al. 2004), and these presented values could be com- as countries industrialize. An unplanned growth of both in-
parable to the values obtained in the present study. dustrial and residential areas as happened in many cities of
To examine the possible relationships between the pollut- developing countries has further enhanced the air pollution
ant concentrations and various meteorological parameters, problem.
stepwise multiple linear regression (MLR) analysis was per-
formed between the pollutant concentrations of current con-
cern (as dependent variables) and the meteorological parame- Conclusions
ters (as independent variables). The results of the multiple
regression analysis have been given in Table 7. The major Spatial and seasonal pattern analyses of air quality parameters
meteorological parameters which influence the pollutant are important for source identification. Moreover, this pattern
levels are temperature, wind speed, and relative humidity. of analysis focuses management strategies on the effects of
The regression coefficients suggested an inverse relation concerning pollutants. This study monitored the ambient air
between temperature and particulate concentrations. On the quality status at four different locations (industrial, commer-
other hand, O3 is inversely proportional to the relative cial, residential, and traffic) in urban areas of Coimbatore,
humidity. However, wind speed directly correlated with India, during 2013–2014. Results showed that pollutants were
particulate matter. This indicated that wind speed favored varying among locations and seasons. While PM2.5 levels
better dispersion of particulate matter across the city and exceeded NAAQS guideline values in industrial areas, PM10
consequently higher particulate concentrations. This and CO exceeded in all locations. However, other pollutants
suggested the predominance of the local sources existing in were below the guideline values. As discussed elsewhere, the
the study area. The study of Shrestha et al. (2000) also showed air pollutants in ambient air have a significant health impact.
that the ambient concentrations of particulate matter and its The formation of O3 is enhanced during the summer under
chemical components could strongly be influenced by the optimal meteorological conditions which enhance photo-
wind dynamics in a study area. The positive relationship chemical oxidation. Similarly, CO levels were almost doubled
between respirable particulate matters and temperature could in industrial areas compared to those in commercial and resi-
be attributed to the photochemical production of particulates. dential areas and exceeded the guideline values. O 3
Additionally, during higher temperature, the planetary
boundary layer height is higher causing increased mixing of
Table 7 Multiple regression analysis results for the pollutant
pollutants to higher elevation. The study by Liu et al. (2018)
concentrations, and meteorological parameters
observed that the variations of boundary layer height influence
the diurnal and daily load of particulate pollutant concentra- Parameters Regression coefficient
tion. Thus, in addition to photochemical processes, the struc-
PM10 PM2.5 SO2 NO2 CO O3
ture of the boundary layer should also be investigated.
Photochemical O3 production in the troposphere is greatly Temperature − 0.88 − 0.29 0.09 0.03 0.31 0.07
influenced by meteorological parameters. Air pollution is be- Wind speed 0.77 0.79 0.06 0.01 0.06 0.02
ing exacerbated by specific events such as rapid economic Relative humidity 0.17 0.08 0.02 0.05 − 0.03 − 0.01
development; higher level of energy consumption; expansion

concentrations at industrial areas were higher as compared to
those at commercial and residential areas. Correlation analysis
indicated that CO and O3 concentrations showed significant
correlation with temperature and relative humidity. Although
the meteorological parameters strongly influenced the profile
of ambient air pollutants, long-term continuous measurements
of ambient air pollutant and meteorological variables are es-
sential to better identify the characterization of air pollutants at
diverse locations. Further comprehensive studies are required
to understand the mechanism of effect. Since elevated levels
of PM and CO also have an adverse impact on human health
and environment, investigation using an appropriate risk anal-
ysis must also be carried out in future studies.
Acknowledgments The authors thankfully acknowledge the assistance
rendered by all the research scholars in the department of
Environmental Science, PSGCAS, and Coimbatore, India.
Funding information The work was financially supported by the FIST-
DST, Govt of India, and partly by PG and Research Grant, Department of
Environmental Science, PSG CAS, Coimbatore, India.
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