Journal of Geodesy (1998) 72: 154±160
A Meissl-modi®ed VanõÂ cÏek and Kleusberg kernel to reduce
the truncation error in gravimetric geoid computations
W. E. Featherstone1 , J. D. Evans2 , J. G. Olliver3
1
School of Spatial Sciences, Curtin University of Technology, GPO Box U1987, Perth WA 6845, Australia
Tel: +61 8 9266 2734; fax: +61 8 9266 2703; e-mail: Featherstone_WE@cc.curtin.edu.au
2
Department of Mathematics, University of Wales, Aberystwyth, Ceredigion S723 3BZ, Wales
Tel: +44 1970 622751; fax: +44 1970 622777; e-mail: JDEvans@compuserve.com
3
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, 62 Banbury Road, Oxford OX1 6PN, England
Tel: +44 1865 274581; fax: +44 1865 272072; e-mail: Joe.Olliver@earth.ox.ac.uk
Received: 14 October 1996 / Accepted: 20 October 1997
Abstract. A deterministic modi®cation of Stokes's inte-
gration kernel is presented which reduces the truncation
error when regional gravity data are used in conjunction
with a global geopotential model to compute a gravi-
metric geoid. The modi®cation makes use of a combi-
nation of two existing modi®cations from VanõÂ cÏek and
Kleusberg and Meissl. The former modi®cation applies
a root mean square minimisation to the upper bound of
the truncation error, whilst the latter causes the Fourier
series expansion of the truncation error to coverage to
zero more rapidly by setting the kernel to zero at the
truncation radius. Green's second identity is used to
demonstrate that the truncation error converges to zero
faster when a Meissl-type modi®cation is made to the
VanõÂ cÏek and Kleusberg kernel. A special case of this
modi®cation is proposed by choosing the degree of
modi®cation and integration cap-size such that the
VanõÂ cÏek and Kleusberg kernel passes through zero at the
truncation radius.
Key words. Gravimetric geoid determination

Modi®ed kernels
Truncation error reduction
1 Introduction
The routine remove-restore approach to gravimetric
geoid computation is to combine a global geopotential
model with terrestrial gravity observations and a digital
terrain model about the area of interest. Formally,
Stokes's (1849) formula requires that gravity data are
used over the whole Earth, even to compute the residual
geoid undulations relative to the geopotential model.
However, for many reasons the global coverage of
gravity data is incomplete. As such, the computation is
performed using only those data that surround and
Correspondence to: W.E. Featherstone
include the area in which the geoid is desired. In other
words, when the residual Stokes integration is perform-
ed over a limited area, a truncation error …dNst † results in
the geoid height.
Following Rapp and Rummel (1975), the gravimetric
estimate of the geoid height …N † in the remove-restore
scheme can be divided into the following three contri-
butions:
N ˆ NLÿ1 ‡ Nst ‡ dNst …1†
where NLÿ1 is the long-wavelength contribution of the
global geopotential model, complete to spherical har-
monic degree and order …L ÿ 1†, and Nst is the residual
geoid contribution from Stokes's formula
Z 2pZ p
R
Nst ˆ S…w†DgL sin w dw da …2†
4pc 0 0
where R is the Earth's radius, c is normal gravity on the
reference ellipsoid, DgL are the residual terrestrial
gravity anomalies which have been reduced by the
corresponding spherical harmonic degree and order
…L ÿ 1† of the global geopotential model, w is the
spherical distance of each gravity anomaly from the
computation point, and S…w† is the spherical Stokes
integration kernel, which is expressed as a Fourier series
of Legendre's polynomials Pn …cos w† as
X
1
2n ‡ 1
S…w† ˆ Pn …cos w† …3†
nˆ2
nÿ1
In practice, the Stokes integration in Eq. (2) is usually
performed over a limited or truncated spherical cap,
which is bound by the surface spherical distance w  w0 .
As Stokes's integration kernel is non-zero in the region
w0 < w  p, the neglect of the residual gravity anoma-
lies in these remote zones can adversely a€ect the
gravimetrically computed geoid. This comprises the
truncation error, and is given by
Z 2pZ p
R
dNst ˆ S…w†DgL sin w dw da …4†
4pc 0 w0

It is this truncation error that should be reduced,
ideally to zero, in the region w0 < w  p in order for the
correct residual geoid height to be evaluated from only a
truncated integration of Eq. (2). A kernel modi®cation is
used e€ectively to alter the shape of Stokes's kernel in
such a way that the truncation error in Eq. (4) is reduced,
preferably to the point at which it can be safely ne-
glected. Only when this condition is satis®ed can the tern
…dNst † be safely omitted from Eq. (1). Therefore, the
objective of a kernel modi®cation is to reduce the trun-
cation error to a level which is acceptable for modern
geodetic applications, such as the determination of or-
thometric heights from the Global Positioning System.
Many authors have investigated the theoretical basis
for the reduction of the truncation error using modi®ed
integration kernels. These include deterministic ap-
proaches (Molodensky et al. 1962; de Witte 1967; Wong
and Gore 1969; Meissl 1971a; Heck and GruÈninger
1987; VanõÂ cÏek and Kleusberg 1987; VanõÂ cÏek and SjoÈberg
1991) and stochastic approaches (Wenzel 1982; SjoÈberg
1984; SjoÈberg 1991; VanõÂ cÏek and SjoÈberg 1991). The
practical application of modi®ed kernels in gravimetric
geoid determination and the estimation of the magni-
tude of the truncation error have also been made by, for
example, Rapp and Rummel (1975), Jekeli (1980, 1981),
Wichiencharoen (1984), SjoÈberg (1986), Petrovskaya
and Pishchukhina (1990), VanõÂ cÏek et al. (1990) and
Smeets (1994).
This paper presents a deterministic Meissl-type
modi®cation to the Molodensky-type kernel formulated
by VanõÂ cÏek and Kleusberg (1987), and is analogous with
the combination made by Heck and GruÈninger (1987).
The Fourier series of the truncation error is de®ned,
followed by a summary of the relevant deterministic
modi®cations of Wong and Gore (1969), VanõÂ cÏek and
Kleusberg (1987) and Meissl (1971a). An approach
similar to that taken by Meissl is subsequently applied
to the already-modi®ed kernel of VanõÂ cÏek and Kleus-
berg. Green's second identity is then used to demon-
strate that the Fourier series of the truncation error
associated with this hybrid modi®ed kernel converges to
zero faster when the kernel is set to zero at the trunca-
tion radius w0 .
2 The basis of kernel modi®cation
Using the approach of Molodensky et al. (1962), Eq. (3)
is rede®ned in the region w0 < w  p as
X
1
2n ‡ 1
S…w† ˆ Qn …w0 †Pn …cos w† …5†
nˆ2
2
where
Z remove-restore technique. Alternatively, the low-degree
p
Qn …w0 † ˆ S…w†Pn …cos w† sin w dw …6†
w0
which de®nes the Molodensky truncation coecients,
and whose numerical values can be computed using the
recursive algorithms given by Paul (1973). Also, Eq. (5)
155
reduces to Eq. (3) when w0 ˆ 0 because the orthogo-
nality relations of Legendre's polynomials over the
2
sphere show that Qn …0† ˆ nÿ1 for 2  n < 1.
Equation (5) is substituted into Eq. (4) for L ˆ 2 to
give
R X 1
dNst ˆ …2n ‡ 1†Qn …w0 †
8pc nˆ2
Z 2pZ p
 Dg Pn …cos w† sin w dw da …7†
0 w0
and Eq. 1.71 of Heiskanen and Moritz (1967) is used to
replace the integral term, which yields a series expansion
of the truncation error in terms of the surface spherical
harmonics of the gravity anomalies
RX 1
dNst ˆ Qn …w0 †Dgn …8†
2c nˆ2
Equation (8) shows that the truncation error is a
function of the truncation coecients. Similarly, Eq. (6)
shows that the truncation coecients are a function of
the integration kernel. Therefore, a modi®cation to the
integration kernel provides the basis for reducing the
impact of the truncation error on any gravimetric de-
termination of the geoid.
This, of course, neglects any errors in the global
geopotential model, terrestrial gravity and terrain data,
and discretisation or omission errors associated with the
numerical evaluation of Stokes's formula. None of these
auxiliary error sources will be considered here.
3 The relevant deterministic kernels
3.1 Wong and Gore's (1969) modi®cation
Equation (3) shows that the unmodi®ed Stokes kernel
can be expressed as a Fourier series of Legendre's
polynomials from 2 to 1. When a global geopotential
model of spherical harmonic degree and order …L ÿ 1† is
included in Eq. (2), the low-degree terms from 2 to
…L ÿ 1†, inclusive, are no longer required in Stokes's
integral due to the orthogonality of spherical harmonics
over the sphere. However, if the integration is only
performed over a spherical cap of radius w0 , this
condition breaks down. Therefore, these low-degree
harmonics must be removed in some way, otherwise the
unmodi®ed Stokes formula will distort the long-wave-
length contribution to the geoid.
This can be achieved by removing the corresponding
degree and order of gravity anomalies implied by a
global geopotential model, as is the usual practice in the
Legendre polynomials …2  n < L† can be removed from
the Stokes kernel (de Witte 1967; Wong and Gore 1969).
A combination of these can also be used, where the
degree of kernel modi®cation …M ÿ 1† is not necessarily
equal to the degree and order of the global geopotential
model …L ÿ 1†. However, either L or M must at least
156

correspond to the maximum degree and order of the kS M …w†kkDgL k  kS…w†kkDgk for w > w0 :
global geopotential model utilised.
The removal of the Legendre polynomials from Eq. Therefore, the truncation error for a combination of
(3) introduces a kernel that is higher than second-degree, a low-degree modi®ed integration kernel and a high-
and has been called the spheroidal Stokes kernel by degree …L > M† global geopotential model is
VanõÂ cÏek and Kleusberg (1987) and VanõÂ cÏek and SjoÈberg Z 2pZ p
R
(1991); also see de Witte (1967) and Wong and Gore dNLM ˆ S M …w†DgL sin w dw da
(1969). This is 4pc 0 w0

X RX 1
Mÿ1
2n ‡ 1 ˆ QM …w †Dgn
S M …w† ˆ S…w† ÿ Pn …cos w† …9† 2c nˆL n 0
nˆ2
nÿ1 " #
RX 1 X
M ÿ1
2k ‡ 1
When using this spheroidal Stokes kernel in Eq. (2), ˆ Qn …w0 † ÿ enk …w0 † Dgn …13†
the truncation coecients (Eq. 6) become the spheroidal 2c nˆL kˆ2
kÿ1
truncation coecients, and are given by
Z p where
Z
QMn …w 0 † ˆ S M …w†Pn …cos w† sin w dw …10† p
w0 enk …w0 † ˆ Pk …cos w†Pn …cos w† sin w dw …14†
w0
The corresponding truncation error, in spatial and
spectral form, respectively, is and whose numerical values can be determined using the
recurrence relation given in Paul (1973).
Z 2pZ p
R In the following discussions only a high-degree global
dN M ˆ S M …w†Dg sin w dw da geopotential model …L ÿ 1† in conjunction with a low-
4pc 0 w0
degree kernel modi®cation …M ÿ 1† will be considered.
RX 1
ˆ QM …w †Dgn …11†
2c nˆ2 n 0
3.2 VanõÂcÏek and Kleusberg's (1987) modi®cation
Simply by observing Fig. 3 in VanõÂ cÏek and Kleusberg
(1987), one can see that the spheroidal kernel (Eq. 9) In a similar manner to Molodensky et al. (1962), who
tapers o€ to zero for smaller truncation radii …w0 †. make a modi®cation to the spherical Stokes kernel (cf.
Moreover, kS M …w†k  kS…w†k for w > w0 . Therefore, Eqs. 5 and 8), Vanõ cÏek and Kleusberg (1987) make a
the impact of the truncation error is reduced, as is the modi®cation to the spheroidal Stokes kernel (Eq. 9).
requirement for integration over the whole Earth. This approach minimises the upper bound of the
However, if higher degrees of Legendre polynomials are truncation error in a root mean squares sense (VanõÂ cÏek
removed from the kernel, it can act as a high-pass ®lter and SjoÈberg 1991).
and thus prevent the inclusion of intermediate wave- The VanõÂ cÏek and Kleusberg kernel is de®ned by
length geoid information, which is strongly suspected to
be in error in the geopotential model. X
M ÿ1
2k ‡ 1
M
Svk …w† ˆ S M …w† ÿ tk …w0 †Pk …cos w† …15†
Alternatively, the truncation error can be reduced by 2
kˆ2
subtracting the global geopotential model-derived
gravity anomalies from the terrestrial gravity anomalies and the VanõÂ cÏek and Kleusberg (or spheroidal Mo-
used in Eq. (2). This approach has already been referred lodensky) truncation coecients, QM n …w0 †, and the
to as the remove-restore technique, and the corre- modi®cation coecients, tk …w0 †, are determined via
sponding truncation error is
X
Mÿ1
2k ‡ 1
Z 2pZ p QM
R n …w0 † ˆ tk …w0 † enk …w0 †
dNL ˆ S…w†DgL sin w dw da kˆ2
2
4pc 0 w0
X
Mÿ1
2k ‡ 1
RX 1
ˆ Qn …w0 † ÿ enk …w0 †
ˆ Qn …w0 †Dgn …12† kˆ2
kÿ1
2c nˆL Z p
M
ˆ Svk …w†Pn …cos w† sin w dw …16†
and is thus reduced because kDgL k  kDgk for w > w0 , w0
which indicates the use of the remove-restore technique as
a means to reduce the truncation error to a certain extent. Equations (16), (14) and (6) produce …M ÿ 2† equations
To avoid the possibility of high-pass ®ltering by a that are linear in tk …w0 †. Once the integration cap-size
high-degree modi®ed kernel, a preferable approach is to …w0 † is selected, the tk …w0 † coecients can be evaluated
use only a high-degree global geopotential model in for 2  k < M using matrix inversion. These coecients
conjunction with a low-degree spheroidal Stokes kernel are then used in Eq. (15) to compute the VanõÂ cÏek and
(cf. Jekeli 1981). This approach still reduces the trun- Kleusberg modi®ed kernel, and thence the geoid.
cation error on the gravimetric geoid because The corresponding truncation error for M  L is
 157

Z 2pZ p
L R of the Meissl truncation error (cf. Jekeli 1981; Heck and
dNvk ˆ S M …w†DgL sin w dw da GruÈninger 1987). Consequently, Meissl's modi®cation
4pc 0 w0 vk
to the Stokes kernel causes the truncation error to
RX 1
converge to zero at a greater rate, especially when used
ˆ QM …w0 †Dgn …17†
2c nˆL n in conjunction with the remove-restore approach.

Following the argument used for the spheroidal trunca-

tion error, VanõÂ cÏek and SjoÈberg (1991) note that 4 The hybrid kernel modi®cation
M
kSvk …w†kkDgL k  kS…w†kkDgL k for w > w0 . Therefore,
this modi®cation to the spheroidal Stokes kernel reduces An argument similar to that of Meissl will be used to
the truncation error to a greater extent than either the show that this type of modi®cation to VanõÂ cÏek and
remove-restore technique or the Wong and Gore Kleusberg's kernel can reduce the truncation error still
(spheroidal) kernel. further. In this case, the integration kernel is set to zero
at the truncation radius by subtracting the value of the
VanõÂ cÏek and Kleusberg kernel (Eq. 15) at w0 . This
3.3 Meissl's (1971a) modi®cation produces what will be termed the Meissl-modi®ed
VanõÂ cÏek and Kleusberg kernel
Meissl (1971a) shows that the truncation error series in M M M
Eq. (8) converges to zero faster with increasing spherical Smvk …w† ˆ Svk …w† ÿ Svk …w0 † for 0  w  w0 …20†
harmonic degree …n† when the integration kernel is zero
at the truncation radius w0 . Therefore, the e€ect of the
truncation error on the geoid will be diminished at a
4.1 The application of Green's second identity
greater rate when compared with an unmodi®ed kernel.
Meissl's modi®cation is achieved by simply subtracting
Using the approach of Meissl (1971a), the spatial form of
the numerical value of the spherical Stokes kernel at the
VanõÂ cÏek and SjoÈberg's truncation error (Eq. 17) is
truncation radius, S…w0 †, from the original kernel. Thus,
expressed as a recurrence relation by using the following
the Meissl modi®ed kernel is de®ned as
analogy to Green's second identity in a plane (Meissl
Sme …w† ˆ S…w† ÿ S…w0 † for 0  w  w0 …18† 1971b, p. 43). This approach is permitted because Stokes's
formula is a convolution integral of Green's type.
Meissl (1971a) used Green's second identity to ex- ZZ I
press the Molodensky truncation coecients in Eq. (6)  2
as a recurrence relation. Setting the kernel to zero at the f r h ÿ hr2 f dB ˆ f f rh ÿ hrf g
n^ d…dB†
B dB
truncation radius ensures that the truncation error
converges to zero at a faster rate than for the unmodi®ed where f and h are two twice-di€erentiable and square-
Stokes kernel. This is because the Fourier coecients of integrable functions, B is any subarea on the surface of
a continuous kernel function converge to zero faster the unit sphere …r†, dB is the boundary of B, and n^ is a
than those of a discontinuous kernel function. This unit vector normal to dB but tangential to the surface of
particular derivation is not duplicated here and the the sphere, r and r2 are the gradient and Laplacian
reader is referred to Meissl (1971a). operators, respectively, both formulated in spherical
However, Jekeli (1981) and Smeets (1994) note that coordinates centred on the geoid computation point
the Meissl truncation error is not necessarily smaller than …r; w; a† for r ˆ 1, 0  w  p and 0  a  2p. Taking
that of the unmodi®ed Stokes formula, especially for the f ˆ SvkM
…w†; h ˆ rÿ2 Pn …cos w†; dB ˆ b (the circular
low-degree gravity ®eld. This can be overcome by using a boundary of the cap, rc , of radius w0 ), and B ˆ r ÿ rc
global geopotential model to provide the low-degree (the area outside the integration cap, rc ), together with
gravity ®eld via the remove-restore technique. Therefore, the result
the corresponding truncation error, when using the
Meissl modi®cation in the remove-restore scheme, is ÿPn …cos w†
rÿ2 Pn …cos w† ˆ 8n  1 …21†
Z 2pZ w0 n…n ‡ 1†
L R
dNme ˆ S…w0 †DgL sin w dw da yields
4pc 0 0
Z 2pZ p Z 2pZ p 
R
‡ S…w†DgL sin w dw da M
Svk …w†Pn …cos w†
4pc 0 w0 0 w0
1  
RX S…w0 †  Pn …cos w†r2 SvkM
…w†
ˆ Qn …w0 † ‡ Pnÿ1 …cos w0 † ‡ sin w dw da
2c nˆL …n ‡ 1† n…n ‡ 1†
 I 
1 M
ÿ cos w0 Pn …cos w0 † Dgn …19† ˆ rSvk …w0 †Pn …cos w0 †
n…n ‡ 1† b

where the recurrence relations of Legendre's polynomi- M
ÿ Svk …w0 † rPn …cos w0 †
n^ db …22†
als have been used to derive the spectral representation
158

The unit normal …^ n† to the boundary b is in the di- It is argued that if the integration kernel is set to
rection of decreasing w (i.e. towards the geoid compu- zero at the truncation radius, the ®rst term on the right-
tation point). Therefore, hand side of Eq. (26) vanishes. Most importantly, this
M
guarantees that the truncation error converges to zero
M ÿoSvk …w0 † according to n…n‡1† 1
as opposed to n‡1 1
as n ! 1.
rSvk …w0 †
n^ ˆ …23†
ow M
Therefore, under the condition Svk …w0 † ˆ 0, Eq. (26)
and becomes
 M
ÿoPn …cos w0 † ÿ1 oSvk …w0 †
rPn …cos w0 †
n^ ˆ …24† Q0M
n …w 0 † ˆ Pn …cos w0 † sin w0
ow n…n ‡ 1† ow
Z p 
where here and in what follows the notation ‡ r2 Svk
M
…w† Pn …cos w† sin w dw …28†
w0
og…w0 † og…w†
ˆ The truncation error associated with this hybrid mod-
ow @w
i®ed integration kernel (Eq. 20) is
is used for an arbitrary function g…w† which is usually Z 2pZ w0
M
Svk …w† or Pn …cos w†. L R M
H R 2p dNmvk ˆ Svk …w0 †DgL sin w dw da
The change of variable b db ˆ 0 sin w0 da, where 4pc 0 0
Z 2pZ p
sin w0 is the linear radius of the integration cap, is also R
applied to the right-hand side of Eq. (22). As the inte- ‡ S M …w†DgL sin w dw da …29†
4pc 0 w0 vk
gration kernel and Legendre polynomials are both iso-
tropic functions of w only, the integration of Eq. (22) with which is expressed in spectral form as
respect to azimuth …a† can be performed, which yields
Z p  L RX 1
Pn …cos w† r2 SvkM
…w† dNmvk ˆ Q0M …w0 † Dgn …30†
M
Svk …w†Pn …cos w† ‡ sin w dw 2c nˆL n
w0 n…n ‡ 1†
 Therefore, the series expansion of the truncation er-
sin w0 M oPn …cos w0 †
ˆ Svk …w0 † ror converges to zero at a greater rate when the Meissl-
n…n ‡ 1† ow type modi®cation is made to the Vanõ cÏek and Kleusberg
M

oSvk …w0 † kernel. Moreover, the use of a higher than second-de-
ÿ Pn …cos w0 † …25†
ow gree reference ®eld, as is required by VanõÂ cÏek and SjoÈ-
berg (1991), ensures that the low-degree harmonics in
Substituting Eq. (16) in Eq. (25) de®nes the VanõÂ cÏek and the gravity ®eld are absent, thus allowing this rapidly
Kleusberg truncation coecients as converging series to start from L… M†.
" The Meissl-modi®ed VanõÂ cÏek and Kleusberg trunca-
1 oPn …cos w0 † M tion coecients, Q0M
QM n …w0 †, are derived as follows: ®rstly,
n …w0 † ˆ Svk …w0 † sin w0
n…n ‡ 1† ow the error kernel associated with this modi®cation
M scheme is de®ned as
oSvk …w0 †
ÿ Pn …cos w0 † sin w0 8 M
ow < Svk …w0 † for 0  w  w0
Z p #
M
2 M Kmvk …w; w0 † ˆ …31†
ÿ r Svk …w† Pn …cos w† sin w dw …26† : M
w0
Svk …w† for w0 < w  p

The second and third terms on the right-hand side of such that
1
Eq. (26) converge to zero according to n…n‡1† as n ! 1. Z p
However, the behaviour of the ®rst term is less Q0M
n …w0 † ˆ M
Kmvk …w; w0 †Pn …cos w† sin w dw
0
straightforward because the ®rst derivatives of Legend- Z w0
re's polynomials do not necessarily converge to zero as ˆ M
Svk …w0 †Pn …cos w†sin w dw ‡ QM
n …w0 † …32†
rapidly. This is illustrated through the following recur- 0
sive relationship between Legendre's polynomials
Using Eqs. (21) and (23) in Eq. (32), and noting that the
oPn …cos w† ÿn M
term Svk …w0 † is constant, yields
ˆ ‰Pnÿ1 …cos w† ÿ cos w Pn …cos w†Š
ow sin w
M
Svk …w0 † sin w0 oPn …cos w0 †
which when evaluated at w ˆ w0 gives Q0M M
n …w0 † ˆ Qn …w0 † ÿ …33†
n…n ‡ 1† ow
oPn …cos w0 † ÿn
ˆ ‰Pnÿ1 …cos w0 † ÿ cos wPn …cos w0 †Š Then, using the recursive relationship for Legendre's
@w sin w0
polynomials (Eq. 27) gives the spectral form of the
…27† truncation error (Eq. 30) as


L RX 1 M
Svk …w0 †
dNmvk ˆ Pnÿ1 …cos w0 †
2c nˆL …n ‡ 1†
 The practical implementation of this new modi®ca-
ÿ cos w0 Pn …cos w0 † ‡ QM
n …w0 † Dgn …34†
which is analogous with Eq. (19).
4.2 The selection of w0 and M
From Eq. (31), the residual geoid solution inside the
integration cap may become biased as a consequence of
M
subtracting the constant value Svk …w0 †. However, this
should not be the case, as the zero-degree harmonics are
absent from both the gravity anomalies and geoid by
virtue of the formulation of Stokes's boundary-value
problem and Bruns's equation. As such, this bias in the
geoid is dealt with di€erently by the use of geometrical
constraints (Heiskanen and Moritz 1967).
Nevertheless, this question of a biased residual geoid
solution can be eliminated by choosing a condition such
that the Meissl-modi®ed VanõÂ cÏek and Kleusberg kernel
passes through zero at the truncation radius. This avoids
M
the need to subtract the value of Svk …w0 † according to
Eq. (20), whilst still eliminating the second term on the
right-hand side of Eq. (34), and thus maintains the rapid
convergence of the truncation error series de®ned by Eq.
(28).
This can be achieved in practice by choosing values
of M and w0 to de®ne the coecients tk …w0 † in such a
way that when used in Eq. (15) the kernel is zero at the
truncation radius. However, this requires that some it-
eration be performed as the tk …w0 † coecients are
themselves functions of w0 . This approach is similar to
that presented by Heck and GruÈninger (1987) where the
Wong and Gore (1967) modi®cation is chosen for some
particular degree of modi®cation M such that the ®rst
zero point of the spheroidal kernel (Eq. 9) coincides with
the truncation radius, or vice versa.
5 Summary and conclusion
Modi®cations to Stokes's formula are necessary in order
to reduce the truncation error which exists when gravity
data are used over a limited spherical cap to compute
the geoid. A proportion of this truncation error can be
reduced by using a global geopotential model via the
remove-restore technique. However, an error remains
due to the neglect of residual gravity anomalies in the
remote zones outside the integration cap.
In this paper, three deterministic modi®cations to the
original Stokes integration kernel have been combined
in order to reduce the truncation error still further. The
Wong and Gore modi®cation suppresses the low-degree
Legendre polynomials from Stokes's kernel, the VanõÂ cÏek
and Kleusberg modi®cation applies a root mean square
minimisation to the upper bound of the truncation er-
ror, whilst the Meissl modi®cation causes the truncation
error, when expressed as a Fourier series, to converge to
159
zero faster by forcing the kernel to zero at the truncation
radius.
tion is relatively straightforward by using Eq. (20) to
replace the Stokes kernel in Eq. (2). The VanõÂ cÏek and
Kleusberg kernel is determined using Eqs. (9), (15), (14)
and (16). Alternatively, the degree of spheroidal modi-
®cation or the integration cap-size, or both, can be se-
lected in such a way that the VanõÂ cÏek and Kleusberg
kernel passes through zero at the truncation radius.
The validity of this Meissl-modi®cation to the VanõÂ -
cÏek and Kleusberg kernel is veri®ed through the appli-
cation of Green's second identity, which clearly shows
that the truncation error is diminished at a greater rate
when using this approach.
Acknowledgements. This research was supported by Australian
Research Council grant AA49331318 and an Academic Links and
Interchange Scheme grant from the British Council to Will
Featherstone; both are gratefully acknowledged. We would also
like to thank the three reviewers for their time taken to consider
this manuscript.
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