Elotrain Course "Semiconductor Components"

EloTrain course
"Semiconductor Components"
Course number: SH5002-7E Version 1.0
Author: Lucas-Nülle team
Lucas-Nülle GmbH · Siemensstraße 2 · D-50170 Kerpen (Sindorf) · Tel.: +49 2273 567-0
www.lucas-nuelle.com
Copyright © 2004 LUCAS-NÜLLE GmbH.
All rights reserved.
LUCAS-NÜLLE Lehr- und Messgeräte GmbH

Siemensstraße 2 D-50170 Kerpen
EloTrain Semiconductor Components
Training objectives 1
Practical example: laser diode control 3
Training objectives and introduction 5
Diode in the DC and AC circuit 7
Valve action 11
Characteristics 15
Half-wave and bridge rectifiers 21
Traíning objectives and introduction 23
Half-wave rectifier 27
Bridge rectifier 35
Light emitting diode 43
Experiment procedure 49
Zener diode 53
Input, output and control characteristics of a transistor 65
Current control characteristic 69
Input characteristics 75
Output characteristics 81
Simple transistor circuits 87
Transistor in the common emitter and common collector circuit 89
Common emitter configuraiton 93
Common collector configuration 97
Transistor operating as a switch 103
Characteristics of a field effect transistor FET 111
Experiment 1 117
Experiment 2 123
Three-phase bridge circuit 133
Bridge rectifiers 139
Practical example of a thyristor operating as a switch 143

Experiment: characteristics 149
Experiment: switch 153
Practical example of a dimmer/phase-control using thyristor, triac and diac 159
Characteristics of diacs and triacs 163
Diac 167
Triac 173
Practical example: horn 183
Copyright 192
Training objectives
Training objectives
Welcome to the EloTrain Semiconductor Components course! The team at
LUCAS-NÜLLE wishes you lots of fun and success working through the course
topics and completing the experiments. The following pages provide you with
an overview of course content and required equipment.
Introduction
This introduction provides you with a brief overview of this course. Using simple practical
examples the function and operation of semiconductor components like diodes and field
effect transistors will be demonstrated. By recording characteristics, adjusting basic
settings and trying out circuit combinations you will become familiar with the basic
functions of these components. The individual experiments are designed so that they can
be performed individually and without necessarily having to carry out the previous
experiment. However, we do recommend that you proceed chapter by chapter and
explore the practical examples in their overall context.
Training content
 Diode laser control
Based on the example of diode control using here a light emitting diode instead, a
multistaged circuit will be tested. Implementing various stages with bridge rectifiers
and voltage stabilisation and constant power source you will explore semiconductor
components and their basic circuitry:
 Diodes, zener diode, light emitting diode (bridge rectifiers and voltage
stabilisation)
 Universal NPN transistors (common base configuration)
 Field effect transistor (constant current source)
 Simple transistor circuits
here we take a single-stage transistor preamplifier circuit and explore how the
common emitter and common collector circuit works
 Thyristor as switch
An important application in power electronics is the use of a thyristor as a power
switch. This circuit example demonstrates clearly and understandibly how the
thyristor is triggered (turned on) and blocked (turned off).
1
Training objectives
 Dimmer with diac and thyristor or triac

Based on the example of phase angle control the response of the following
semiconductor components is explored:
 Diac as a trigger
 Triac as a switch in a half-wave control

 Thyristor as a switch in full-wave control
 Signal horn
In this application a unijunction transistor is investigated in its basic properties.
Translator's note: There may be some German abbreviations in the equations or

diagrams. UE = Uin (voltage input), UA = Uout(voltage output),
Uss = Upp (voltage peak-to-peak)
2
Practical example: laser diode control
3
4
Training objectives and introduction

In this practical example, laser diode control is used to study how important
semiconductor components operate in context. The circuit consists of a bridge
rectifier comprised of individual diodes, a voltage stabiliser with transistor
and zener diode as well as a constant current source made up of a field
effect transistor. A simple light emitting diode is used to simulate the
operation of a laser diode.
In the following circuit diagram the entire circuit is depicted. Please proceed stage by
stage, one at a time until all of the components of the circuit have been assembled.
Commence with the assembly of the first stage, comprising the diode in the DC and AC
circuit, then go on to the bridge circuit etc. Each stage partially extends the assembled
circuit until it is complete.
In the upper, right-hand corner of the patch panel the individual semiconductor
components are measured, dimensioned and characterised. It is also there that usually
the characteristics are recorded too. After these measurements are conducted, the circuit,
if necessary, is completed and then any additional measurements are carried out on the
main circuit.
Circuit diagram
The main circuit of the laser diode control has the following circuit diagram. In the course
of carrying out the sub-experiments you will become familiar in detail with the circuit's
individual segments and their respective functions:
Assemble the main circuit step by step. Individual experiments are set up and
measurements are performed in a subsection of the overall experiment.
5
Testing station diagram

To be able to measure the characteristics of single components like transistors or zener
diodes, a special circuit is set aside. The components to be examined can be removed
from the circuit, to the extent that there are not more than one, and plugged into the
predefined position in the testing station.
Always disconnect the power supply and signal source prior to removing components
from the circuit or plugging them into it.0 Otherwise, electrical damage can be inflicted
on the components.
Introduction
Electronic circuits frequently feature multi-stage design. This can, for example, include
pre-amplifier stages and main amplifier stages. But you may also find completely different
functional stages. Accordingly, signal generators, impedance transformers and phase-
shifters and power output stages may also form subassemblies of a single circuit. The
control used here demonstrates this and features three stages consisting of a bridge
rectifier (see 1), the voltage stabiliser (see 2) and the constant current source (see 3).
Each of these components is derived in detail from the overall function of the circuit, their
individual components measured and their characteristics recorded in a separate test
station and discussed in detail.
After completing the experiments on the individual functional assembly units the entire
circuit is examined and put into operation in context.
6
Diodes in the DC and AC circuit
7
8

In this section we will learn how a semiconductor diode operates. You will
record the current flowing through the diode for various amperages and
voltage directions with the aid of an oscilloscope and then interpret the results.
Training content
 Recording a voltage and current characteristic
 Reading the breakdown voltage
 Reversing and conducting state response of the diode
Introduction
Modern diodes are semiconductor components, which have attained supreme importance
in electrical engineering and electronics thanks to their compact design and robust
nature. In the past, vacuum diodes were used with a heated cathode and anode. Today,
silicon is the most important basic material.
Figure 1:
Various models of semiconductor
diodes, which differ in terms of their
voltage-proof capacity, current
carrying capacity and switching
frequency. Precise specifications
pertaining to this are provided by the
manufacturer on a so-called data
sheet.
Diodes are usually equipped with two

terminals.
Figure 2:
Even today's semiconductor diodes
are still shown as an anode and
cathode.
Anode Cathode
9
Figure 3:
Forward (conducting state)
characteristics of silicon and
germanium diodes
Functional description:
The ideal diode acts like a valve for electrical current. It allows current to flow through
from the anode to the cathode in the forward (conducting) direction, while blocking current
flowing from the cathode to the anode in the reverse (blocking) direction. The forward or
conducting direction of the current can be recognised by the arrow in the circuit symbol
(Figure 2).
Real diodes:
A component type designation (Fig. 1) is printed on the real component. The cathode is
designated either with a ring or in the case of larger models by a circuit symbol or letter.
Occasionally, there are also types that omit the designation altogether. Then, you have
to refer to the corresponding data sheet of the manufacturer or perform a measurement
using the diode tester.
The real diode deviates only slightly in its properties from the ideal diode. But it features
neither ideal forward nor ideal blocking attributes. This is particularly recognisable in the
diode characteristic (Fig. 3). At high frequencies additional adverse effects can be noticed
which, however, we will ignored here.
 Forward or conducting direction:

Diodes have a very low forward voltage of approx. 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for
germanium diodes. Furthermore, they have a forward DC resistance which can be
seen in the slope of the diode characteristic.
Diodes are subject to limits which may not be exceeded. In the forward range it is
the maximum permissible current in particular that may not be exceeded.
 Reverse or blocking properties:
Diodes have only a finite voltage-proof capability, which however can vary from type
to type. In the reversing or blocking range it is the maximum permissible blocking
voltage that must be taken into consideration.
10
Valve action
Circuit diagram
The following circuit diagram is used for this experiment:
Components
The following components are needed for the experiment:
Parts Id no. Designation

2 SO5126-5M Cable
7 SO5124-6F Bridge, small
1 PS4121-2N R 100
1 PS4122-7C Diode 1N4007
11
Cable connections
The following cable connections are used in this experiment:
Designation Symbol Equipment Socket
VARIABLE DC POWER
VAR DC
SUPPLY
MULTI POWER
GND SUPPLY 60VA /
500KHz
Connect the specified socket to the designated plug connection on the layout diagram.
Equipment
The following equipment are needed for the experiment including their corresponding
settings:
Equipment Settings
Black cable Ground

Red cable 400 mA input
Control knob mA DC
Please insert the red and
black probes into the
designated socket terminals
12
Experiment setup
Please set up the experiment now as a testing station in the upper right corner of the
patch panel. Begin with the following:
 Plug-in bridges
 Electronic components
 Measuring instruments and cables
13
Experiment procedure and exercises
Connect the power supply to the positions designated in the experiment set-up. Set
the output voltage to a value of approx. 4 V. How high is the current which flows in the
line (forward) direction through the diode?
ILine= ______________________ mA
Now reverse the direction of the diode, i.e. in the reverse direction in the circuit.
Repeat the measurement carried out previously. How high is the current when the
diode is connected in the reverse direction?
Bear in mind that
Ireverse= ______________________ mA
reverse currents
are usually very
small.
14
Characteristics
The following circuit diagram is used in this experiment:
Components
The following components are needed for this experiment:

2 SO5126-5M Cables
12 SO5124-6F Bridges, small
1 PS4121-2N R 100
1 PS4122-7C Diode 1N4007
15
Cable connections
Designation Symbol Equipment Sockets
FUNCTION
FG
GENERATOR
MULTI POWER
GND SUPPLY 60VA /
500KHz
Connect the specified sockets with the plug terminals designated in the layout diagram.
16
Equipment
The following equipment is needed in this experiment including the corresponding
settings:
Equipment Settings
Channel A Channel B
Sensitivity 1 V/DIV 1 V/DIV
Coupling DC DC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Time base 2 msec/DIV
Modus X/T
Trigger channel A
Trigger edge pos
Curve shape sinusoidal

Amplitude 4V
Frequency factor x1
Frequency 50Hz
17
Experiment set-up
Please set up the experiment now as a testing station in the upper right corner of the
patch panel.

After completing the experiment the user is able to:
 recognise the oscilloscope trace of a diode.

 read the reversing voltage
 measure the characteristic of a diode
Connect the AC power supply to the locations designated ~ in the experiment set-up.
On the function generator set the output voltage to a value of approx. 4 V. Connect
the measurement terminals of the oscilloscope to the prescribed positions and set the
instrument to the parameters specified above. Record the oscilloscope trace in the
diagram.
18
How high is the breakdown voltage of the diode?

You can identify
the breakdown
voltage by the
severed half-
wave on channel
A of the
oscilloscope. To
Ubreak = ______________________ V
attain a better
reading of the the
voltage value set
the input
sensitivity of
channel A briefly
to 0.5 V/div.
19
Exchange the 100 ohm resistor for a 330 ohm resistor. How does the reversing
voltage respond now?
As previously




 It remains approximately constant. conduct the
measurement
 The reversing voltage is tripled.




with the higher
 The reversing voltage is reduced to one third.



 sensitivity of
channel A.
Now set the oscilloscope to the X/Y display modus. Record the characteristic in the
diagram.
20
Half-wave and bridge rectifiers
21
22

In this experiment you will become familiar with the rectifier component. The
response of a simple half-wave rectifier and bridge rectifier is explored and
characterised by performing measurements on various loads.
Training content
 Half-wave rectifier
 Bridge rectifier
 Smoothing and residual ripple
 Load resistance
Introduction
Generally speaking, mains voltages are not suitable for powering electronic equipment
directly. They first have to be transformed to a suitable voltage and then rectified and
smoothed. An additional controller keeps the voltage at a constant value independent of
the load.
This description and the following experiments focus on the rectifier and its associated
smoothing network.
Using modern semiconductor diodes available nowadays, rectifiers are easy to design
for all power ranges. From all the many possible rectifier circuits which are feasible, there
are two which play a particularly important role because of their popularity and general
use.
In addition to the actual rectifier circuit there is almost always a smoothing network
needed to "smooth" the "pulsating" voltage or, if necessary, to reduce the current spikes.
23
Smoothing with
Half-wave (one- Capacitor
Bridge rectifier capacitor and
way) rectifier smoothing
inductor
Half-wave or one-way rectifier

Due to the valve action of the diode only the positive half-wave of the sinusoidal AC
voltage is allowed to pass through while the negative half-wave is cut-off. The result is a
"pulsating voltage" or a DC ripple voltage, which is composed of a DC voltage and a
superpositioned AC voltage.
The average value of the DC voltage UD AV corresponds to the voltage-time surface area
of a period.
The frequency of the fundamental wave of the superpositioned AC voltage amounts to 50
Hz.
Note: The have-wave circuit should not be used for transformer power supply units (or
only for low power levels), because the transformer is under a load with a DC component.
24
The amplitude of the output voltage is reduced from its original input voltage by the value
of the diode's conducting voltage of approx. 0.7 V.
Bridge rectifier
There are always two diodes simultaneously in operation in the current's flow direction of
the bridge rectifier, while the other two diodes remain in blocking mode. During the
positive and negative half-wave these functions are performed by different diodes as can
be seen in the following images.
For the positive half-wave the For the negative half-wave the
diodes D2 and D3 conduct diodes D1 and D4 conduct
current while D1 and D4 block current while D2 and D3 block.
This again results in a DC voltage with ripple. Unlike the case with half-wave rectification
the ripple is considerably reduced, and the arithmetic mean and frequency of the ripple
voltage have doubled over half-wave rectification.
25
The amplitude of the output voltage is reduced compared to the input voltage by the value
of two diode conducting voltages, i.e. by approx. 1.4V.
Residual ripple
By using a capacitor connected in parallel to the load, charge carriers can
be intermediately stored. This can then be used by the load when the voltage drops
below the required value in the course of a period between the rising and falling phase.
As soon as the voltage reaches the required level again the capacitor charges up.
The voltage differential at the capacitor ranging between the minimum and maximum is
called the ripple voltage or residual ripple. This is frequently specified as a
percentage reflecting the ratio to the total voltage.
26
Half-wave rectifier
Circuit diagram
Components

2 SO5126-5M Cable
1 PS4121-3Q R 10k
1 PS4122-2E C 1µ
1 PS4122-7C Diode 1N4007
27
Cable connections
The following cable connections are used in these experiments:
FUNCTION
FG
GENERATOR
MULTI POWER
GND SUPPLY 60VA /
500KHz
Connect the specified sockets to the plug-in position designated as such on the layout
diagram.
28
Equipment
The following equipment are needed with their corresponding settings for the experiment:
Equipment Settings
Channel Channel
A B
Coupling DC DC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/T
Trigger channel A
Trigger edge positive

Amplitude 5V
Frequency factor x1
Frequency 50 Hz
29
Experiment setup
Please set up the experiment as a testing station in the upper right hand corner of the
 Bridging plugs
30
Set the oscilloscope as specified above. Enter the oscilloscope trace below.
How high is the maximum voltage at the resistor?

Set the
oscilloscope so
that you can take
an optional
reading from the
oscilloscope. If
Upp = ______________________ V needed reduce
the time base
setting so that the
positive half-wave
is positioned in
the middle of the
oscillogram.
31
How high is the minimum voltage at the resistor?

Set the
oscilloscope so
that you can take
an optional
reading from the
oscilloscope. If
needed increase
UMin = ______________________ V
the time base
setting so that the
flat segment of
the curve is
positioned in the
middle of the
oscillogram.
Change the frequency of the function generator to 200 Hz. Enter the oscilloscope
trace below. Bear in mind that a faster (lower) time base max be needed. Enter the
oscilloscope trace below.
32
Change the frequency of the function generator to 200 Hz. How high is the maximum
voltage at the resistor now?
Set the time base
so that you obtain
the optimum
UMax = ______________________ V reading with the
value in the
middle of the
osclloscope.
How high is the minimum voltage at the resistor?

UMin = V
Exchange the 10 kOhm resistor for a 4.7 4.7 kOhm resistor and set the frequency to
50 Hz. How high is the minimum voltage at the resistor?
UMin = V
Reset the frequency back to 200 Hz. How high is the minimum voltage at the resistor?
UMin = V
Compute the ripple from the above measurements!

Q10k,50Hz = ______________________ %
Q10k,200Hz = ______________________ %
Q4.7k,50Hz = ______________________ %
Q4.7k,2000Hz = ______________________ %
33
Which of the following statements are correct? The ripple...




 becomes lower as the load increases.




 becomes higher as the frequency increases. Do not forget
the results that




 always remains the same.
you obtained




 becomes lower as the load decreases. above!




 becomes higher as the frequency decreases.
34
Bridge rectifiers
Circuit diagram
Components

2 SO5126-5M Cables
1 PS4121-3L R 4,7k
1 PS4122-1W C 1µ
4 PS4122-7C Diode 1N4007
35
Cable connections
FUNCTION
FG
GENERATOR
MULTI POWER
GND SUPPLY 60VA /
500KHz
Connect the specified sockets with the corresponding connections on the layout diagram.
36
Equipment
The following equipment with their corresponding settings are needed for this experiment:
Equipment Settings
Channel
Channel A
B
Coupling DC DC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/T
Trigger channel A
Trigger edge pos

Amplitude 4V
Frequency factor x1
Frequency 50 Hz
Experiment setup
Now please set up the experiment in the following sequence on the patch panel.
 Bridging plugs, starting at pad 109

Please bear in mind: there are no grounding bridges connected between the power
supply and the blue ground line of the patch panelt!
37
38

 recognise the output voltage of a bridge rectifier

 assess the ripple due to load.
 recognise the oscillograph of a partially damaged bridge rectifier.
Now set the oscilloscope to X/Y display mode. Please remove the capacitor from the
circuit and enter the oscillscope trace below.
Set the input voltage to a value of 4 V peak voltage. How high is the peak voltage on
the output side of the bridge rectifier?
Set the
osciilloscope so
that you can get
Upp = ______________________ V
an optimum
reading of the
values.
39
Why is the peak voltage on the output side lower than the input voltage?
Remember that




 The voltage is lower because the signal is time-shifted. the current at
 The voltage is lower because a voltage of approx. 0.7 V



 each phase
drops across each diode. has to pass
 The voltage is lower because it is closer to the load.



 through two
diodes!
Why is the output voltage between the two half-wave arum ist die Ausgangsspannung
zwischen den beiden Halbwellen flach?




 A voltage of 0.7 V respectively drops across each diode.
For that reason there is no voltage present below an input
voltage of approx. 1.4 V.
 The entire voltage drops across the load resistor.




 The output voltage is interferred with the oscilloscope




measurement.
Now connect the capacitor to the position specified. Enter the oscilloscope trace
taken below.
40
Measure the ripple. Enter this value below!

The voltage can
also be measured
URW= ______________________ V
using the
multimeter.
Remove one diode from the circuit. Enter the oscilloscope trace recorded below.
41
What do you observe on the oscillograph?




 The oscillograph trace does not change. The removal of
 The oscillograph trace corresponds exactly to the half-wave



 one diode is
rectifier. comparable to
 The oscillograph trace corresponds roughly to that of the



 the damage of
half-wave rectifier, but the output voltage is lower by one component
another 0.7 V, making it a total of 1.4 V lower than that of by an
the half-wave rectifier excessive load.
42
Light emitting diode
43
44

Light emitting diodes or LEDs are essential for many electronic circuits. On
the following pages you will become familiar with various types and learn to
characterise them on the basis of their threshold voltage.
In this experiment the threshold voltage of various light emitting diodes will be examined
and compared to the threshold voltage of a silicon and germanium diode.
Introduction
Optoelectronics is a segment of electronics which involves the conversion of optical
signals into electrical signals and viceversa. Optoelectronics also entails the coupling of
optical and electronic signals. Knowledge of optoelectronics forms the foundation for its
application in the area of communications engineering and in the transmission of optical
signals via fibre optic waveguides.
Optical signals can be in located in the visible light range. In principle the range of optical
radiation spans from infrared all the way into the ultraviolet range.
Standard light-emitting sources include:
 LEDs in diverse visible colours

 IR-LEDs
 Laser diodes
Standard light sensitive receivers include:
 Photoresistors
 Photodiodes
 Phototransistors
 Photothyristors
 Solar cells
LEDs
LEDs or light emitting diodes exist in various colours. The most common of these are red,
green and yellow LEDs. In recent times blue LEDs have emerged thanks to requirements
from the car industry (headlamp control lights). In addition to visible colours there are also
LEDs which emit light which is invisible to the human eye, infrared light.
The current-voltage characteristics of LEDs differ only slightly from those of normal
diodes. The break voltage of the characteristic depends on the colour of the LED.
45
Threshold
Colour
voltage
IR 1.3 V
1.6 V - 1.8
red
V
orange 2.0 V
yellow 2.2 V
green 2.4 V
blue 4V - 4.5 V
The radiation strength is for all intents and purposes practically proportional to the diode
current. However, LEDs possess limiting values which may not be exceeded as otherwise
the component becomes damaged. The precise data on this can be taken from the
manufacturer's data sheet.
Phototransistors
Like the photodiode the phototransistor is an optical signal detector. Various types of
phototransistors have varing spectral sensitivity. For that reason they always have to be
matched to the transmitter.
As in the case of a normal transistor, the phototransistor is equipped with an emitter and
collector. But the base is not available to function as the third terminal. Instead the base-
collector junction is designed with an expanded surface. When subject to light radiation a
base current is evoked through photon absorption, which thanks to current amplification
attracts an even larger collector-emitter current.
The family of output characteristics differ insignificantly from that of a standard transistor.
The rise and fall times of commercially available phototransistors are at a few ľs, while the
limiting frequency is correspondingly at a few hundred kHz.
The transistor is already supplied by a fixed power supply of 15 V having a series resistor
R6 = 18 kOhm at the collector upstream and the emitter connected to ground.
46
Optocouplers
When the emitter and receiver are integrated in a self-contained unit, this is referred to as
a n optocoupler. Optocouplers serve primarily to isolate electrical potential. As such
people are able to operate and control life-threatening voltages without any problems
using optocouplers and photothyristors because the couplers keep the hazardous
electrical potential at a distance. In the area of digital technology the isolation of electrical
potential using optocouplers is needed to avoid "hum" from feedback loops.
Fork light barriers

Light barriers are a typical application of optoelectronics. If receiver and emitter are in
very close proximity and permanently attached to a U-shaped fork, this is called a fork
light barrier. Fork light barriers are used, for example, to count the increments of a
rotating disc or simply to test whether a tool is present or not.
The fork light barrier found on the card OBP847 is equipped with both an
 IR-LED as well as a
 Phototransistor
47
48
Experiment procedure
Circuit diagram
Components
The following components are used in this experiment:

2 SO5126-5M Cables
1 PS4121-2N R 100
1 PS4123-5E LED green
1 PS4123-5B LED red
1 PS4122-7C Diode 1N4007
1 PS4122-7D Diode Ge AA118
1 PS4122-8A Z-Diode 4.7 V
49
Cable connections
5V / 1A DC Power Supply
MULTI POWER
GND SUPPLY 60VA /
500KHz
Equipment
The following equipment with their corresponding settings are needed for the experiment:
Equipment Settings
Black cable Ground

Red cable V Ohm input
Control knob V DC
Please plug in the red
and black probes at
the specified
locations
Experiment set-up
Now please set up the experiment as a testing station in the upper right hand corner of
the patch panel. Begin with the following:
 Bridging plugs
50

Compute the currents based on the voltage across the resistor by applying Ohm's
law.
Measure the threshold voltage at the various types of light emitting diodes or diodes.
To do this connect the corresponding diode at the specified position and then please
enter the voltage drop across the diode and the associated current. Begin with the red
light emitting diode.
US = _______ V
IS = _______ mA
Now connect the green to the location where the diode was. Measure the voltage and
current and enter the values below.
US = _______ V
IS = _______ mA
51
Now connect the germanium diode into the diode position. Measure the voltage and
current and enter these values below.
US = _______ V
IS = _______ mA
Now connect the silicon diode into the diode position. Measure the voltage and
current and enter the values below.
US = _______ V
IS = _______ mA
Now connect the zener diode into the diode position. Measure the voltage and current
and enter the values below.
US = _______ V
IS = _______ mA
52
Zener diode
53
54

The zener diode constitutes an essential component of many circuits. Since
the diode's production process dictates that a certain constant voltage always
drops across this component, this diode is often used to stabilise voltages.
Training content
Zener diodes or Z-diodes for short were named after the physicist C.M. Zener. In
electronics Z-diodes have become so important thanks to their voltage limiting
properties.
Figure 1:
Z-diodes with
various Zener
voltages and
varying maximum
levels of power
loss.
55
Figure 2:
Normally
the Zener voltage,
here 18V, is
printed on the
component. As in
the case of other
diodes the
cathode is
labelled with a
ring.
Figure 3:
Circuit symbol of
the Zener diode.
Anode Cathode
Figure 4:
Conducting and
blocking
characteristic of
a Zener diode.
56
Functional description:
Zener diodes also act like a valve for electric current. They allow the current to pass in the
forward or conducting direction, from anode to cathode and respond overall like normal
silicon diodes here. In the reverse direction they block but only up to a specifically
defined voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. When Zener voltage levels are reached the
Zener diode conducts through.
The Zener voltage is predetermined during the production process. There are various
types starting with low voltages, like e.g. 2.7V up to ranges exceeding 100 V. Zener
diodes are normally operated in the blocking direction.
Real diodes:
A type designation is printed on real diodes (see Figures 1+2). The cathode is designated
using a coloured ring. The breakdown voltage, i.e. Zener voltage is also printed on the
diode (Fig. 2).
The properties of real diodes differ only slightly from ideal diodes having neither ideal
forward conducting nor ideal blocking properties. These attributes are particularly obvious
in the Z-diode characteristic (Fig. 4). At high frequencies even more disturbing effects can
be seen which however will be ignored here.
 Conducting direction:
Z-diodes possess a low conducting state voltage of approx. 0.7 V. The conducting
state region is not of interest for typical applications.
 Blocking properties:
Z-diodes become conductive starting at the Zener voltage. This means they have a
low resistance, whose value can be determined from the slope of the blocking
characteristic.
Z- diodes have limiting data, e.g. maximum temperature or maximum power
dissipation which may not be exceeded.
57
58
Circuit diagram
Components
The following components are used in this experiment:

2 SO5126-5M Cables
1 PS4121-2N R 100
1 PS4122-8A Z-diode 4.7 V
59
Cable connections
FUNCTION
FG
GENERATOR
MULTI POWER
GND SUPPLY 60 VA /
500 KHz
Connect the specified sockets to the plug-in position shown in the layout diagram.
60
Equipment
The following equipment is required including the corresponding settings for the
experiment:
Equipment Settings
Channel
Channel A
B
Coupling DC DC
Polarity inv norm
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/Y
Trigger channel -
Trigger edge -

Amplitude 8V
Frequency factor x1
Frequency 50Hz
61
Experiment set-up
Please now set up the experiment as a testing station in the upper right hand corner of
the patch panel. Begin as follows:
 Bridging plugs
62

Set the oscilloscope and the function generator to the values specified above and
enter the voltage-current characteristic of the Zener diode into the diagram
below. Make sure that you obtain a good reading of the Zener diode's breakdown
voltage.
The Zener diode begins conducting as of a certain voltage, the threshold voltage, and
the amperage increases quite abruptly. In the normal forward (line) direction the
voltage corresponds to that of a standard diode. How high is the low threshold
voltage?
USw=______________________ V
How high is the higher threshold voltage in the reverse (line) direction?
USw=______________________ V
63
64
Input, output and control characteristic of a transistor
65
66

In this experiment we will be exploring and measuring the properties of a
bipolar transistor on the basis of different characteristics.
Training content
 Basic operation of a bipolar transistor
 Measuring the current control, input and output characteristics
Introduction
Transistors have revolutionised the world of electronics ever since they were introduced
after the second World War. Their ever decreasing size and their tremendous versatility
have made them into the most useful and important electronic components in existence.
In the current course we will be dealing with two possible configurations of basic
transistor circuits.
The first transistors, also known as bipolar transistors, comprised two semiconductor
layers encapsulating a third layer. Semiconductor materials are characterised by, among
other things, the property that the number of electrons which conduct electricity can be
increased or decreased simply by adding impurities. This procedure is referred to as
doping. This process is used to manufacture n-type, i.e. negative charged material with
a surplus of electrons as well as p-type, i.e. positive materials featuring a relative
deficiency of electrons. In the latter case, so-called holes arise which correspond to the
missing electrons. These holes behave as if they were positive charge carriers similar to
electrons which carry negative charges.
The two different types of material can be combined to make a single component. Here,
the p-type material is arranged on one side and the n-type material is on the other so
that a junction arises in the middle. This structure is a very good conductor of electricity if
a positive voltage relative to the n-type's side is applied to the p-type side (constituting a
forward bias). if, however, the component's n-type material connected to the positive end
of the circuit (reverse bias), it is very difficult for the charge carriers (electrons and holes)
to pass through the junction thus blocking the current flow. This is the basic operating
principle of the diode, a component, which is conductive in one direction only.
67
Bipolar transistors feature semiconductor material of the same type on both sides with
a thin layer of the opposite type in between. The two sides of the same type are
designated collector and emitter zones, the layer in the middle is termed the base. At first
glance, this arrangement looks like two interlinked diodes. You might expect that no
current is able to flow between the collector and the emitter since a reverse voltage is
always being applied to one of the two "diode junctions". The secret to this arrangement
is in the thin layer of the base zone. Charge carriers can always bridge a small gap over
the junction. If the base zone is supplied with additional charge carriers by applying a
voltage to it, sufficient charge carriers are present to bridge the gap and current begins
flowing. Due to the fact that the current flow between collector and emitter is only
"switched on" when sufficient voltage and power is present at the base, these kinds of
transistors can be used as electronic switches which can be switched on and off
depending on the current supply to the base.
Just how much current flows between the collector and the emitter depends on the
number of charge carriers in the base zone so that changes in the voltage and amperage
at the base can lead to a stronger or weaker current flow between the collector and
emitter. Even a slight change at the base can lead to a substantial change in voltage
between collector and emitter. This relationship remains linear over a wide range: a
modified voltage signal at the base is reproduced exactly between the collector and
emitter but with considerable greater voltage change. Thus, the transistor serves to
amplify the signal. This is the second conventional area of application for transistors.
68
Current control characteristic

Circuit diagram
69
Components
The following components are using in this experiment:

3 SO5126-5M Cables
1 PS4121-2N R 100
1 PS4121-3Q R 10k
1 PS4123-1C NPN BC 547
Cable connections
FUNCTION
FG
GENERATOR
MULTI POWER
DC 5V SUPPLY 60VA /
500KHz
MULTI POWER
GND SUPPLY 60VA /
500KHz
Connect the specified sockets to the designated plug-in positions on the layout diagram.
70
Equipment
The following equipment is required for this experiment including the corresponding
settings:
Equipment Settings
Channel
Channel A
B
Coupling DC DC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/Y
Trigger channel -
Trigger edge -

Amplitude 3V
Frequency factor x1
Frequency 50 Hz
71
Experiment set-up
Now please set up the experiment as a testing field in the upper right hand corner of the
 Bridging plugs
 Meters and cables
72

 measure control characteristics of a transistor

 compute the current amplification of a transistor based on the characteristic
Set the oscilloscope and function generator to the values specified above. Display the
control characteristic of the transistor on the oscilloscope and enter the oscillograph
trace in the diagram below.
Now compute the current amplification of the transistor. This is the relationship between
the collector current the base current
73
The currents are calculated from the voltage drop across the resistors. Measure the
voltage drop across the two resistors up to the bend in the curve and compute the
currents.
Calculate the current amplification as shown above

First compute the
V = ______________________
actual currents!
Now replace the R2 resistor with a 330 Ohm resistor and repeat the previous experiment.
Compute the current amplification as specified above

First calculate the
V = ______________________
actual currents!
Why is the current amplification almost the same even though your have changed the
collector resistance?




 The current amplification is constant due to the fact that the
supply voltage has remained the same.
 The current amplification is essentially a transistor-specific




value and has nothing to do with the circuit.
 It is the series resistance at the base of the transistor that




determines the current amplification and thus did not
change.
74
Input characteristic
Circuit diagram
75
Components

3 SO5126-5M Cables
1 PS4121-2N R 100
1 PS4121-3Q R 10k
1 PS4123-1C NPN BC 547
Cable connections
FUNCTION
FG
GENERATOR
MULTI POWER
DC 5V SUPPLY 60VA /
500KHz
MULTI POWER
GND SUPPLY 60VA /
500KHz
Connect the specified sockets to the plug connections designated in the layout diagram.
76
Equipment
The following equipment is needed for the experiment including the corresponding
settings:
Equipment Settings
Channel
Channel A
B
200
Sensitivity 2 V/DIV
mV/DIV
Coupling DC DC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/Y
Trigger channel -
Trigger edge -

Amplitude 7V
Frequency Factor x1
Frequency 50 Hz
77
Experiment set-up
Now set up the experiment as a testing station in the top right corner of the patch
panel. Begin with the following components:
 Bridging plugs
78
Display the input characteristic of the transistor on the oscilloscope.
Which of the following statements about the transistor's input characteristic is correct?




 The characteristic corresponds to that of a resistor.




 The characteristic corresponds to that of a diode.




 The current through the base of the transistor initially
increases very weakly and then abruptly.




 The voltage at the base is proportional to the current flowing
through the resistor.




 The current flowing through the resistor is proportional to
the voltage across the resistor.
79
80
Output characteristic
Circuit diagram
Components
The following components are used for this experiment:

3 SO5126-5M Cables
1 PS4121-2U R 330
1 PS4121-3C R 1k
1 PS4121-8G Potentiometer 10k
1 PS4123-1C NPN BC 547
81
Cable connections
Following cable connections are used for this experiment:
FUNCTION
FG
GENERATOR
MULTI POWER
DC 5V SUPPLY 60VA /
500KHz
MULTI POWER
GND SUPPLY 60VA /
500KHz
Connect the specified sockets to the plug connections shown in the layout diagram.
82
Equipment
The following equipment are needed for this experiment including the corresponding
settings:
Equipment Settings
Black cable Ground

Control knob V DC
Please insert the
red and black
probes at the
designated
locations
Channel A Channel B
Sensitivity 200 mV/DIV 2 V/DIV
Coupling DC DC
Polarity inv inv
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/Y
Trigger channel -
Trigger edge -

Amplitude 4.5 V
Frequency Factor x1
Frequency 50 Hz
83
Experiment set-up
the patch panel. Start with the following:
 Bridging plugs
Set the oscilloscope and the function generator as specified above. Set the potentiometer
so that a voltage of 0.5 V drops across the 1kOhm resistor.
84
Record the output characteristic with the oscilloscope and copy the oscillograph trace into
the diagram. Repeat the experiment for the voltages 0.75 Volt, 1V and 1.5 V at the base
resistor. Copy this oscillograph trace into the diagram too.
How high are the current drops at the base resistor?

V across the 1kOhm
______________________
0.5 resistor corresponds
µA
to
V across the 1kOhm The current is
______________________ computed from
µA the voltage drop
to
and teh
V across the 1kOhm resistance in
______________________
1.0 resistor corresponds accordance with
µA
to Ohm's law!
V across the 1kOhm
______________________
µA
to
85
What is the significance of the typical bend in the output characteristic?




 The oscilloscope cannot display any higher values on the y-
axis. The transistor
has a current
 The preset base current is limited by the transistor's




amplification of
constant current amplfication.
approx. 150
 The collector resistance limits the current flowing through



 times.
the transistor.
How high is the maximum collector current for a base current of 1000µA? Compare
the computed result to the value of the measurement curve.
The currents can
be calculated
from the voltage
Maximum computed ______________________ drops across the
current mA respective
Maximum current ______________________ resistors. The
reading mA current
amplification
factor is 150
times.
86
Simple transistor circuits
87
88
Transistors in common emitter and common collector

configuration
89
90

In this module transistor operation is examined in two basic transistor circuit
configurations, namely the common emitter and common collector
configurations.
Training content
 Operating point (default setting)
 Common emitter and collector connection
Introduction
The experiments performed in this module involve two basic circuit configurations using
transistors. They are termed common emitter connection and common collector
connection. The two circuits themselves are very similar in design. The difference is that
in the common emitter circuit the input is located between the base and the emitter and
the output between the collector and the emitter (i.e. the emitter is the common reference
point for the input and output signal). In contrast, the common collector configuration
features the collector as the common reference point for the input and output signal
with the output being connected to the emitter.
The voltage attributes of both circuits can be improved by adding a feedback loop through
which the output signal is received and added to the input signal at the base. A feedback
loop can be realised with the help of a resistor (resistive feedback) or with capacitors
(capacitive feedback). The effects of the two types of feedback are examined in the
following experiments.
91
Common emitter connection Common collector connection
92
Common emitter configuration

Circuit diagram
Components

4 SO5124-6E Bridges, large
27 PS5124-6F Bridges, small
1 PS4121-3A R 680
1 PS4121-3L R 4.7k
1 PS4121-3Q R 10k
1 PS4121-4A R 47k
1 PS4122-2E C 1µ
1 PS4122-4D C 10µ
1 PS4123-1C NPN BC 547
93
Equipment
The following equipment is needed for this experiment including the corresponding
settings:
Equipment Settings
Black cable Ground

Control knob V DC
Please plug in
the red and
black probes at
the specified
connection
locations
Channel
Channel A
B
500
Sensitivity 50 mV/DIV
mV/DIV
Coupling AC AC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Time base 200 µsec/DIV
Mode X/T
Trigger channel A

0.1V (-10dB
Amplitude
output)
Frequency factor x100
Frequency 1.5 KHz
94
Experiment setup
Now please set up the experiment on the plug-in patch panel in the following sequence.
 Bridging plubs, starting with pad 110

95

Set the transistor's operating point so that the voltage between the collector and emitter
equals approximately half the power supply voltage. Measure the voltage using the
voltmeter. Please bear in mind that even small changes in the potentiometer's setting can
cause huge changes in voltage level.
Now connect the function generator and the oscilloscope to the circuit as shown above. In
the case of the function generator use the output attenuated by -10 db. Measure the
signals with the oscilloscope and enter the oscillograph trace into the diagram below.
Use the voltmeter to measre the peak-to-peak voltage at the OA. Use the oscilloscope
to measure the peak-to-peak voltage at the output OB. Then divide the output voltage
by the input voltage in order to determine the gain factor of the circuit.
Input voltage Uin = _______
Output voltage Uout = _______
Gain factor = _______
96
Common collector configuration

Circuit diagram
Components

4 SO5124-6E Bridge, large
30 PS5124-6F Bridge, small
1 PS4121-3A R 680
1 PS4121-3C R 1k
3 PS4121-3Q R 10k
1 PS4122-2E C 1µ
1 PS4122-4D C 10µ
1 PS4123-1C NPN BC 547
97
Equipment
The following equipment are needed for the experiment including the corresponding
settings:
Equipment Settings
Black cable Ground

Control knob V DC
Please insert the
red and black
probes to the
designated
connection
points
Channel A Channel B
Sensitivity 500 mV/DIV 500 mV/DIV
Coupling DC DC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/T
Trigger channel A

Amplitude 1 Vpp
Frequency factor x100
Frequency 1KHz
98
Experiment set-up

99
Put the circuit into operation but without the function generator connected but
with bridge B1 connected. Bridge B2 is disconnected. By adjusting the control knob of
the potentiometer P1 set the operating point of the transistor so that the voltage at the
transistor's emitter amounts to approximately the half of the supply voltage (12 V).
How high is the measured voltage at the transistor's emitter?
To carry out the
measurement set
Emitter voltage = ______________________ V the multimeter to
the DC voltage
range!
Now set an AC sinusoidal voltage of 2 VSS (VPP = peak to peak) with a frequency of 1
kHz on the function generator and connect it to the circuit. Measure the input and
output voltage and record the curve's characteristic and enter the the oscillograph
trace below:
100
Use the
Input voltage Uin = Vpp oscilloscope to
Output voltage Uout = Vpp measure the
voltage!
Compute the circuit gain by dividing the output voltage by the input voltage.
Gain = ______________________ V = Uout / Uin
You should now determine the circuit's input impedance. To do this remove bridge B1,
by means of which the resistor RV with 10 kOhm is connected in series to the input.
Measure the input voltage of the circuit behind RV and in front of C1(= input voltage at
the capacitor).
Use the
oscilloscope to
Input voltage (Uin2) = ______________________ V
measure the
voltage !
101
Now calculate the input impedance using the equation:
Input impedance = ______________________ kOhm
Which statements about the common collector circuit are true?




 The output signal is inverted with respect to the input signal
 The output signal is not inverted with respect to the input




signal Several correct
 In the common collector connection the collector



 answers are
is connected directly to the supply voltage possible !
 In the common collector connection the collector is




connected directly to ground
102
Transistor operating as a switch
103
104

This experiment demonstrates how the common emitter configuraiton can be
used as a switch
Training content
 Transistor operating as a switch
Introduction
Here the DC behaviour of the transistor is demonstrated. If the transistor is not
conducting then the voltage at the connection terminal should be the same as the supply
voltage since thanks to resistor R2 it is connected to the positive rail. However, if the
transistor is fully conductive, the terminal is connected by the transistor to the zero-volt
rail. Provided that the internal resistance of the transistor is considerably less than the
level of R2, the voltage at the output should drop to almost zero. However, this is only
true if sufficient voltage is applied to the common base thereby injecting enough charge
carriers to permit a current to flow between the emitter and the base.
The value at which this happens is determined in the experiment. It can also be observed
that the voltage drops rapidly as soon as the threshold voltage has been reached. In both
extreme cases the output is decribed as saturated. In both of these conditions the
transistor can be seen as fully conductive or fully blocking.
105
106
Circuit diagram
Components

0 SO5126-5M Cables
1 PS4123-8P Lamps, 15V E10
1 PS4121-2N R 100
1 PS4121-3L R 4.7k
1 PS4123-1G NPN BD 237
107
Experiment set-up

108
Connect one cable each to position A and one cable to position B. Set the power
supply to 30 V. Touch both ends of the cable. What can you observe?




 The lamps light up and remain lit continuously.




 The lamps light up as soon as contact is made at both ends. The current
Current flows through the fingers to the lamp. flowing through
the body at this




 The lamp lights up, the current flowing through the body is
low voltage is
amplified by the transistor multiply and is able to light up the
harmless.
lamp.
Several




 The lamp lights up as soon as contact is made with both answers are
ends. possible.




 The lamp never lights up because the voltage is far too low.
109
110
Characteristics of a field effect transistor FET
111
112

In this experiment the properties of an FET field effect transistor will be
explored and measured on the basis of various characteristics.
Training content
 How the field effect transistor FET operates
 How to measure the output characteristics
Introduction
The basic design of the transistor is comprised of three n- and p-doped silicon layers
including two p-n junctions. In the meantime, this bipolar transistor has been replaced in
many of its applications by more advanced transistor types, which feature only one p-n
junction. These components are referred to as field effect transistors or FETs. As a rule,
the manufacture of field effect transistors is cheaper and easier than bipolar transistors
and their construction is better suited for still further minaturisation. Most transistors built
into ICs and microprocessors are FETs.
N-channel FET
A simple field effect transistor consists of a

thin block of doped silicon. In the middle of this
block there is a region treated with the exact
opposite type of doping material. This is done by
adding suitable impurities at a single point that
then spreads out into the silicon creating an
electrical connection to this region. In addition to
this there are two further connections set up to the
two ends of the block. The connection to the
middle region with opposite doping is called
a gate, the two connections at both ends are
called the source and drain . The region with
oppositely doped material comprising the gate is

sized so that there is just a narrow silicon
channel left behind with the original doping
material. If the original silicon was n-doped, the
gate is p-doped and a narrow, n-doped channel is left behind. For that reason these
components are referred to as N-channel FETs. If, similarly p-doped material is used
with an n-doped gate, this is referred to as P-channel FETs. N-channel FETs are used
113
more frequently than FETs of the P-channel type. The reason for this is that their most
important charge carriers are electrons which are more mobile than holes are, which
assume the role of charge carrier in P-channel FETs. Consequently, FETs of the N-
channel variety are usually faster than those of the P-channel type.
N-channel FETs normally feature a gate voltage that is negative with respect to the
source. This means that the p-n junction in the FET is usually reverse biased. The
transistor effect is produced by the barrier or depletion layer, which forms in the reverse
or blocking direction at the junction. A barrier layer arises when the electrons of
the material with n-doping located at the surface of the junction combine with the holes of
the p-doped material. This leads to a relative lack of respective majority charge
carriers on both sides of the depletion junction. The n-doped material in the proximity of
the depletion zone loses electrons, the p-doped material loses holes.
If a reverse-bias voltage is now applied across the depletion zone reversing polarity in the
depletion layer, the respective minority charge carriers, i.e. the electrons in the p-doped
material and the holes in the n-doped material are attracted to the junction so that even
more recombinations occur near the junction and the depletion layer is widened.
A widening of the field effect transistor's depletion layer leads to a narrowing of the
conducting channel. The depletion layer itself becomes less conductive because it
features comparatively less charge carriers. As such the widening of the depletion layer
through a negative biasing of the gate leads to a narrowing of the channel and thus to a
weaker current flow between the drain and the source. Thus the depletion layer also
becomes correspondingly smaller when a more positive voltage is applied to the gate.
The channel becomes wider thus boosting the current flow between the drain and source.
Small changes to the gate voltage can result in considerable changes in drain-source
current and consequently the drain voltage itself. For that reason, field effect
transistors just like bipolar transistors can be used as current and voltage amplifiers (see
basic transistor circuits SO4203-7E).
As is true for bipolar transistors, there are also standard configurations for amplifier
circuits with field effect transistors. The two most fundamental are the common source
configuration which corresponds to the common emitter configuration of bipolar
transistors and the common drain mode which in many respects resembles the common
collector configuration. Both configurations are investigated in the following experiments.
The figure below shows the characteristics of the i) output voltage and ii) input voltage of
a typical field effect transistor in a common source circuit.
114
115
116
Experiment 1
Circuit diagram
Components

3 SO5126-5M Cables
1 PS4121-3C R 1k
1 PS4121-3Q R 10k
1 PS4121-3U R 22k
1 PS4122-7C Diode 1N4007
1 PS4123-2H FET 2N3819
117
Cable connections
FUNCTION
FG
GENERATOR
MULTI POWER
GND SUPPLY 60VA /
500KHz
Connect the specified sockets to the plug-in connection locations indicated on the layout
diagram.
118
Equipment
The following equipment is needed for this experiment including the corresponding
settings:
Equipment Settings
Black cable Ground

Control knob V DC
Please insert the
red and black
probes into
the connection
locations
indicated
Channel
Channel A
B
Coupling DC DC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/Y
Trigger channel -
Trigger edge -

Amplitude 4V
Frequency factor x1
Frequency 50Hz
119
Experiment set-up
Now please assemble the experiment as a testing station in the upper right hand corner
of the patch panel. Commence with:
 Bridging plugs
120
Use the values specified above for the oscilloscope and function generator settings.
Set the potentiometer so that the voltage at the gate of the FET is approximately 230
mV.
Display the output characteristics on the oscilloscope and enter the oscillograph trace
below:
Then repeat the procedure but for voltage levels of 0.6 V, 0.9 V and 1.3 V.
Next draw the working line for the FET in the diagram.
How high is the no-load voltage?

UDD = V
121
122
Experiment 2
Circuit diagram
Components

2 SO5126-5M Cables
1 PS4121-3C R 1k
1 PS4121-3Q R 10k
1 PS4123-2H FET 2N3819
123
Equipment
The following equipment including the corresponding settings are needed for this
experiment:
Equipment Settings
Channel
Channel A
B
Coupling DC DC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/Y
Trigger channel -
Trigger edge -

Amplitude 5V
Frequency Factor x1
Frequency 50Hz
124
Experiment set-up
the patch panel. Commence with the following:
 Bridging plugs
125

Record the characteristics of the circuit on the oscilloscope and enter the oscillograph
trace below:
126
Circuit diagram
Components

2 SO5126-5M Cables
1 PS4121-2S R 220
2 PS4121-3L R 4.7k
1 PS4121-3Q R 10k
1 PS4122-4D C 10µ
1 PS4123-5B LED red
4 PS4122-7C Diode 1N4007
1 PS4122-8C Z-Diode 10V
1 PS4123-1C NPN BC 547
1 PS4123-2H FET 2N3819
127
Equipment
settings:
Equipment Settings
Black cable Ground

Control knob V DC
Please insert the
red and black
probes into the
connection
locations
indicated
Channel
Channel A
B
500 200
Sensitivity
mV/DIV mV/DIV
Coupling DC DC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/Y
Trigger channel -
Trigger edge -
Experiment set-up
Now please set up the experiment in the following sequence using the plug-in system.

128
First remove bridges A and B so that each subassembly can be measured on its own.
Connect the power supply to 24 Volt AC voltage and measure the voltage across the
10µF capacitor.
How high is the voltage across the capacitor?

U= ______________________ Volt
Now plug in the bridge at position A and measure the voltage at the transistor's emitter.
How high is the voltage at the emitter of the transistor?

Enter an optional
U= ______________________ Volt instructional text
here!
129
Why is the voltage at the transistor's emitter constant?




 The input voltage is constant.
 A constant voltage always drops at the Zener diode.




 The voltage at the emitter is always 0.7 V lower than that of




the base.
 The output load at the emitter is constant.




In the following the constant current subassembly is set and put into operation. Diode
lasers have to be supplied by a constant current in order to provide a steady beam of
radiated power. This current must always remain constant even when there are
fluctuations in the power supply. Here we shall be testing the effect on the circuit of
varying supply voltages.
Turn the potentiometer's control knob to the far right stop. Set the variable DC power
supply to approx. 10 V and then connect it to the constant current
power subassembly. Use the potentiometer to set the current flowing through the light
emitting diode to 2mA. Now change the voltage being supplied to approx. 7 V.
What observation can you make?




 The voltage remains constant.
 The current at the ammeter is virtually unmeasurable.




 The current changes here just like for a resistor.




130
Change the voltage to 15 V.
What can you observe now?




 The current continues to remain constant.
 The current becomes lower.




 The current becomes higher.




Now disconnect the voltage supply and plug in bridge B so that the last constant current
subassembly unit is supplied with power via the subassembly group of the stabilisation
circuit.
131
132
Three-phase bridge circuit
133
134

The three-phase bridge circuit (B6 circuit) only became more common with the advent
of thyristors and power diodes due to the fact that mercury vapor rectifiers were not
feasible.
The best way to picture the B6 circuit is to think of it as comprising 6 half-wave rectifier
circuits. The result is the following diagram:
By arranging the even and uneven diodes into two groups, the uneven group conducts
through during the positive half-wave and the even group conducts during the negative
half-wave.
135
The voltage sources correspond to the standard three-phase mains. Depending on

the commutation voltage's amplitude, the diodes either conduct or block. This process is
illustrated in the following animation:
136
The commutation voltages correspond to the line-to-line voltages of the individual phases.
A rectified output voltage is produced with 6 pulses as depicted in the following animation:
137
The period duration of the mains can be subdivided into six time segments, depending on
which diode pair is conducting.
138
Bridge rectifiers
Circuit diagram
Components

2 SO5126-5M Cables
1 PS4121-3C R 1K
6 PS4122-7C Diode 1N4007
139
Equipment
settings:
Equipment Settings
Black cable Ground

Control knob V DC
Please insert the
red and black
probe at the
connection
locations
indicated
Channel
Channel A
B
Coupling DC DC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/T
Trigger channel A
Trigger edge pos
Experiment set-up
Now please set up the experiment in the following sequence on the patch panel.

140

After performing the experiment the user is able to:
 Recognise the output voltage of a three-phase bridge rectifier

 To identify the oscillograph trace of a damaged bridge rectifier.
Now set the oscilloscope to X/T display modus. Record the oscillograph trace and
enter it below.
141
Measure the voltage across the resistor using the voltmeter in DC voltage setting.
How high is the DC voltage?
UDC=______________________ Volt
Now set the voltmeter to AC voltage mode and measure the AC voltage component of
the voltage.
Remember that
when the
voltmeter is set to
UAC=______________________ Volt AC voltage this
normally means
the rms value is
being measured.
142
Practical example of a thyristor operating as a switch
143
144

In this practical example it is demonstrate how a thhyristor can be used as an
electronic switch. We shall learn how to trigger and reset the thyristor.
Training content
 How a thyristor operates.
 Triggering and resetting the thyristor
 How to use the capacitor as a voltage source for the reset pulse
Introduction
Thyristors are semiconductor elements which are used in many applications instead
of mechanical switches and relays.
Just like a diode the thyristor has a forward (conducting) and reverse (blocking)
characteristic. In contrast to diodes the thyristor can only be conductive in the forward
direction, if a suitable voltage is applied to its third control electrode otherwise known as
its gate.
The thyristor is easily triggered, but cannot easily be put into a blocking or reverse mode.
This behaviour can easily be explained by examining its internal design and an equivalent
circuit diagram.
145
The four semiconductor layers with three p-n junctions make up at least one depletion
(barrier) layer depending on the polarity of the voltage being applied: there are two
depletion layers formed if the anode is negative with respect to the cathode, and only one
depletion layer if the anode is positive.
If the gate (control terminal) receives the appropriate voltage, the barrier layer is depleted
when the anode is positive and the thyristor becomes conductive state, i.e. it is triggered.
This operating state is maintained until the current flowing through the transistor falls
below a certain value - the so-called holding current and the thyristor is turned off. The
depletion (barrier) layers are then replenished again.
From this we can conclude that thyristor turn off can only be performed with special
circuits or by means of current zero-crossover, as it takes place in an AC voltage.
Just how the thyristor operates can be illustrated by means of the following configuration
design and equivalent circuit diagram comprising two complementary transistors:
146
The gate current trigger the base of one sub-transistor which in turn triggers the second
sub-transistor. Once both are conductive , this operating state is maintained in the
energised state. The thyristor cannot be turned-off again by the gate except in
exceptional cases.
147
148
Experiment on characteristics
Circuit diagram
Components
Id no. Designation
SO5126-5M Cables
SO5124-6E Bridge, large
PS5124-6F Bridge, small
PS4121-2U R 330
PS4121-3C R 1k
PS4121-8G Potentiometer 10k
PS4123-3F Thyristor
149
Equipment
The following equipment is needed for the experiment including the approriate settings:
Equipment Settings
Channel
Channel A
B
Coupling DC DC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/Y
Trigger channel -
Trigger edge -
Experiment set-up
Now please set up the experiment on the patch panel plug-in system in the following
sequence.
 Bridging plugs
150

Set the potentiometer to approx. 80% and display the characteristic on the
oscilloscope:
Vary the potentiometer setting. What can you observe?

The




 The oscillograph trace does not change at all. potentiometer
 The phase angle of the switching point changes with the



 varies the
thyristor switching at a different point in time. voltage at the
 The thyristor always switches at the same time.



 thyristor's
trigger gate.
151
What observation can be made regarding the thyristor's characteristic?




 The positive and negative half-wave have identical effects. Bear in mind
 The thyristor's characteristic is shaped like a mirror image.



 that the
 The thyristor conducts through on for the positive half-wave




thyristor is a
and blocks for the negative half-wave and for that reason special kind of
the characteristic is not symmetrical. diode.
152
Experiment: switch
Circuit diagram
Components
The following components are needed for the experiment:

20 PS5124-6F Bridge, small
1 PS4123-7B Pushbutton
1 PS4123-7G Switch
1 PS4123-8P Incandescent lamp,15V E10
1 PS4121-2N R 100
1 PS4121-3L R 4,7k
1 PS4121-4E R 100k
1 PS4122-2C C 0.47 µ
1 PS4123-3F Thyristor
153
Equipment
settings:
Equipment Settings
Black cable Ground

Control knob V DC
Please insert the red and black
probes in the designated
connection locations
Experiment set-up
Now please set up the experiment with the plug-in system in the following sequence.

154
155

If a positive pulse is applied to the thyristor's gate G by a switch, this switches to a low-
ohmic state. It remains there until the current falls below the holding current. Then it
switches back to the high-ohmic state.
In our experiment a positive voltage is applied to the switching gate G of the thyristor so
that it conducts through. In the low-ohmic state the thyristor can have a resistance value
amounting to just a few milliohm. To avoid blowing a fuse a sufficiently large resistor is
connected into the thyristor circuit which thus limits the current.
By activating the pushbutton a short, voltage pulse is applied to the cathod of the
thyristor. This pulse is more positive than the one applied to the gate G so that it blocks
again and becomes high-ohmic. The current flow is interrupted.
Set the voltage of the variable power supply to approx. 20 V. Briefly turn the switch on
and off again. What can you observe?




 The lamp switches on and then off again.
 The lamp does not light up.




 The lamp switches on and remains on.




156
Now actuate the pushbutton. What observation can you make?




 The lamp goes off again.
 The lamp begins to light up.




 The lamp goes on briefly and than back off again.




 The lamp goes off briefly and then comes back on again.




Activate the switch again so that the lamp goes on again. Measure the voltage across
the thyristor.
The thyristor acts
Uswitch = ______________________ V
like a switch and
becomes low-
ohmic.
Now activate the pushbutton again so that the lamp goes off again. Measure the
voltage across the thyristor.
The thyristor does
Ublock = ______________________ V
not permit any
more current to
flow.
157
158
Practical example: horn
159
160

Phase control plays an important role in many areas of house and building
installations. Based on a simple dimmer we shall demonstrate how a triac and
a diac operate. The various components involved with be tested.
In the following diagram the entire circuit is depicted. The circuit consists of four different
subassemblies with different exercises. The first component assembly comprises the load
that needs switching. The second component assembly serves as an adjustable phase-
shifter and determines the phase angle of the trigger pulse. The third subassembly
constitutes the triggering unit. The final subgroup is the electronic switch itself.
Circuit diagram
The main dimmer circuit has the following circuit diagram. Within the framework of the
subexperiments carried out you will become familiar in detail with the respective functions
outlined in the individual segments:
161
162
Diac and triac characteristics
163
164

Introduction
The triac is a semiconductor component which is used in many applications instead of a
mechanical switch, relay, switching transistor and voltage or power controller.
Unlike a thyristor the triac has a forward or conducting characteristic in both directions
and is comparable in terms of its behaviour and characteristic with two thyristors
connected antiparallel.
By subdividing the triac into two partial thyristors the component's function can easily be
explained. The four semiconductor layers of the two partial or sub-thyristors including
their three p-n junctions form at least on depletion layer depending on the bias voltage
being applied:
If a corresponding voltage is applied to the gate control terminal, the depletion layer
of one sub-thyristors is depleted at the positive anode with the result that this thyristor
becomes conducting – it is turned on. This operating state remains in place until the
current flowing through the triac falls below a certain value, the holding current and the
sub-thyristor is turned off again. The depletion layers are then replenished again. The
result is that the triac can only be turned off when the current performs a zero cross-over
(when the current drops below the holding current) as in the case of an AC voltage. Just
how this actually works inside the triac can be explained on the basis of the following
design circuit and equivalent circuit diagram of the two sub-thyristors:
165
The gate current controls the gate of one partial thyristor (marked by the dotted line),
which becomes conducting in its conducting state or forward direction. The triac cannot
be turned off again by way of the gate.
166
Diac
Circuit diagram
Components
The following components are needed in this experiment:

1 PS4121-3C R 1k
1 PS4123-3B DIAC DB3
167
Equipment
The following equipment are needed for the experiment including the appropriate
settings:
Equipment Settings
Channel
Channel A
B
10
Sensitivity 10 V/DIV
V/DIV
Coupling DC DC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/Y
Trigger channel -
Trigger edge -
168
Experiment set-up
Now please set up the experiment with the plug-in system in the following sequence.
 Bridging plugs, starting at pad Pad 49

169

Set the oscilloscope to the values specified above. Activate the potentiometer from far
right stop to far right stop and observe how this affects the oscillosgraph trace. Now
set the poteniometer so that you can identify the maximum voltage swing of the
characteristic and record it as an oscillograph trace:
Interpret the results. Which of the following statements are correct?




 The characteristic of the diac is symmetrical due to the fact
that diodes have a symmetrical characteristic.




 The characteristic of the diac is unsymmetrical.




 The characteristic of the diac is symmetrical. It has the
same properties in both forward and reverse directions.




 The current through the diac increases slowly with
increasing voltage until the breakdown voltage is reached One or more
from which point on it jumps abruptly. statements




 The current through the diac does not change at all. may be correct!




 The current through the diac responds like an ohmic load.
170
How high is the breakdown voltage:

UB = V
How high is the breakdown current:

IB = mA
171
172
Triac
Circuit diagram
The following circuit diagram is used for the experiment:
Components

15 PS5124-6F Bridges, small
1 PS4121-2U R 330
1 PS4121-3C R 1k
1 PS4123-3G Triac
173
Equipment
The following equipment are needed for the experiment including the appropriate
settings:
Equipment Settings
Channel
Channel A
B
10
Sensitivity 10 V/DIV
V/DIV
Coupling DC DC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/Y
Trigger channel -
Trigger edge -
Experiment set-up
sequence.

174
Set the oscilloscope to the values specified above and display the characteristics on
the oscilloscope. The potentiometer is put on a medium setting:
How high is the control voltage in our experiment?

U = _______ V
175
176
Circuit diagram
Components

1 PS4123-8P Lamp,15V E10
2 PS4121-2N R 100
1 PS4122-1W C 0.1µ
1 PS4122-2C C 0.47 µ
1 PS4123-3B DIAC DB3
1 PS4123-3F Thyristor
1 PS4123-3G Triac
177
Equipment
The following equipment are needed for the experiment including the corresponding
settings:
Equipment Settings
Channel
Channel A
B
Coupling DC DC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/T
Trigger channel A
Experiment set-up
sequence.
 Bridging plugs, beginning with pad Pad 61

178
Set the oscilloscope to the values specified above and insert the measurement
probes of channel B to the upper connection positions across the 100 Ohm load
resistor. Vary the setting on the potentiometer and observe the oscillograph trace.
Set the potentiometer to approx. 80% of maximum end stop and record the
oscillograph trace.
179
Bear in mind: it is not possible for the lamp to light up brightly since the half-waves
cannot be fully exploited.
Which of the following statements most accurately describe the changes in the
oscillograph trace of channel B?




 The triac switches the lamp on so that it lights up briefly at
each half-wave of the AC current.
The voltage
 The potentiometer varies the timing at which the triac




switches. across the
resistor is
 The lamp lights up and for that reason the triac is always



 proportional to
switched on. The brightness varies because the current is the current
changed by the potentiometer. flowing!
 The lamp lights up with the same level of brightness




regardless of potentiometer setting.
180
Plug in the probes of channel B at the lower position across the 0.47µF capacitor.Vary
the potentiometer setting and observe the oscillograph trace. Set the potentiometer to
approx. 80% of maximum end stop and enter the oscilloscope trace above.
Which of the following statement most accurately describes the changes in the
oscilloscope trace of channel B?




 The potentiometer limits the current flowing through the diac
and for that reason it triggers the triac later.
 The potentiometer in conjunction with C1, R2 and C2 forms




a phase shifter and thus varies the phase angle of the
trigger voltage applied to the diac.
 The diac always triggers the triac at the same point in time




but limits the voltage being applied to the lamp.
 The phase for the trigger timing always changes identically




for both the positive as well as for the negative half-wave.
Now replace the triac with a thyristor and repeat the two measurements from above.
181
To what extent does the operation differ between the triac and the thyristors?




 The operation of the triac and thyristor do not differ at all in
this experiment.




 The triac switches with each half-wave, the thyristor only
switches for positive half-waves.




 The lamp lights up for both semiconductor components to
the same maximum brightness thanks to the fact that the Several
maximum current for both is the same. answers are




 The lamp lights up brighter for the triac because it is possible!
supplied with voltage pulses twice as frequently as the
thyristor.




 The lamp does not light up as brightly with the thyristor
because it is only supplied with a voltage pulse every
second half-wave.
182
183
184

In this experiment you will become familar with how a unijunction transistor
operates based on a signal generating circuit (horn). By trying out different
connection configurations, the circuit's function can be explored and
understood
Training content
 Charging and discharging processes of the frequency determining capacitor
 Switching voltage of the UHT
 Frequency variation
Prerequisites for successfully completing this course

 Basic knowledge of AC technology
 Frequency measurement using an osciloscope
 Time measurement with an oscilloscope
185
186
Circuit diagram
Components

0 SO5126-5M Cables
1 PS4124-2M Loudspeaker
1 PS4121-2G R 33
1 PS4121-2W R 470
1 PS4121-3G R 2.2k
1 PS4122-1X C 0.22µ
1 PS4122-2C C 0.47 µ
1 PS4123-3E UJT BT33
1 PS4123-7B Pushbutton
187
Equipment
The following equipment are needed for this experiment including the appropriate
settings:
Equipment Settings
Channel
Channel A
B
Coupling DC DC
Polarity norm norm
y-pos 0 0
Mode X/T
Trigger channel A
Experiment set-up
Please now set up the experiment on the patch panel of the plug-in system in the
following sequence.
 Bridging plugs, beginning at pad 110

188
189
Set the oscilloscope to the values specified above. Set the oscilloscope's trigger
threshold on channel A to approx. 0.5 V in order to obtain a standing image. Display
the characteristic on the oscilloscope by briefly pressing the pushbutton:
All values are measured and recorded using the oscilloscope.
How long is a period at the OB measurement point?

T = ______________________ µs
How long is a period at the OB measurement point when the capacitor C1 = 0.47µF is
replaced by one with 0.22µF?
T = ______________________ µs
190
How high is Vmax across C1?

Vmax = ______________________ V
How long does the capacitor's discharge process last?

T = ______________________ µs
191
Congratulations!
This is the last page. You have completed the "EloTrain - Semiconductor
Components".
Copyright © 2009-2010 LUCAS-NÜLLE GmbH.
The course "EloTrain - Semiconductor Components" is protected by copyright. All

rights pertaining thereto are reserved. Any reproduction of the document as a file or in
written form be it photocopy, microfilm or any other method or conversion into a machine-
compatible language, in particular for data processing systems, without the expressed
written approval of the LUCAS-NÜLLE GmbH is strictly forbidden.
The software as described above is made available on the basis of a general licensing
agreement or in the form of a single license. The use or reproduction of the software is
only permitted in strict compliance with the contractual terms stated therein.
If changes have been performed in a manner which was not strictly authorised by the
LUCAS-NÜLLE GmbH, any product liability or warranty claims pertaining thereto are null
and void.
192
16
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Siemensstraße 2 · D-50170 Kerpen-Sindorf
Telefon +49 2273 567-0 · Fax +49 2273 567-30
www.lucas-nuelle.de

Elotrain Course "Semiconductor Components"

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EloTrain course

Course number: SH5002-7E Version 1.0

Author: Lucas-Nülle team

LUCAS-NÜLLE Lehr- und Messgeräte GmbH

Practical example of a thyristor operating as a switch 143

 Dimmer with diac and thyristor or triac

 Triac as a switch in a half-wave control

Translator's note: There may be some German abbreviations in the equations or

Training objectives and introduction

Testing station diagram

Diodes in the DC and AC circuit

Training objectives and introduction

Diodes are usually equipped with two

 Forward or conducting direction:

Parts Id no. Designation

Designation Symbol Equipment Socket

Black cable Ground

Experiment procedure and exercises

Parts Id no. Designation

Designation Symbol Equipment Sockets

Curve shape sinusoidal

Experiment procedure and exercises

 recognise the oscilloscope trace of a diode.

How high is the breakdown voltage of the diode?

Half-wave and bridge rectifiers

Training objectives and introduction

Half-wave or one-way rectifier

Parts Id no. Designation

Designation Symbol Equipment Socket

Curve shape sinusoidal

Experiment procedure and exercises

How high is the maximum voltage at the resistor?

How high is the minimum voltage at the resistor?

How high is the minimum voltage at the resistor?

Compute the ripple from the above measurements!

Which of the following statements are correct? The ripple...

Parts Id no. Designation

Designation Symbol Equipment Sockets

Curve shape sinusoidal

 Bridging plugs, starting at pad 109

Experiment procedure and exercises

 recognise the output voltage of a bridge rectifier

Measure the ripple. Enter this value below!

What do you observe on the oscillograph?

Light emitting diode

Training objectives and introduction

Standard light-emitting sources include:

 LEDs in diverse visible colours

Standard light sensitive receivers include:

Fork light barriers

Parts Id no. Designation

Designation Symbol Equipment Sockets

Black cable Ground

Experiment procedure and exercises

Training objectives and introduction

Parts Id no. Designation

Designation Symbol Equipment Sockets

Curve shape sinusoidal

Experiment procedure and exercises

Input, output and control characteristic of a transistor

Training objectives and introduction

Current control characteristic

Parts Id no. Designation