PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES

 Psychosexual Development Theory (Sigmund Freud)

 Psychosocial Development Theory (Erik Erikson)
 Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)
 Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

GROWTH
- Refers to the progressive increase and continuous advancement of the child from birth to maturity.
DEVELOPMENT
- Refers to the gradual and orderly unfolding of the characteristics of the individuals as they go through the
successive stages of growth.
Physical
- This aspect of development provides children with the abilities they need to explore and interact with the
world around them. It encompasses different task and abilities like running, jumping holding a pencil
and drawing. It included the development of the brain.
Cognitive
- This section talks about how children think, reason, use language and process information.
Socio-emotional
- Is about the development of child’s personality, self-concept, identity and social skills.

PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY (SIGMUND FREUD)

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
- is a popular psychologist whose theory of human development and personality sparked great interest, as
well as controversy, due to its biological orientation that focuses on the psychosexual development of an
individual.
- He believed that early experiences are very important in human development. Significantly, he
considered instincts as the main source of life energy that find its way in different parts of the body
called erogenous zones or pleasure areas which are sensitive to stimulations.
Freud’s theory of psychosexual development has five distinct stages. Each stage is characterized by certain
ways of connecting with the world through particular areas of the body. Satisfaction of each area or zone is
important to develop a healthy personality. If needs are not met or satisfied excessively, FIXATION occurs
which is characterized by attachment to a particular object or activity that may affect development
THE IMPORTANCE OF SEXUALITY
- Freud viewed sexuality differently; emphasized its psychological and intentional character
- The importance of one’s sexual life as a bodily process begins to diminish in favor of one’s response to
it.
- He used the term psychosexuality to indicate the totality of elements included in the sexual drive
Freud’s redefinition of sexuality:
- He divorced sex from its previous close restriction to the genitals and reproductive activity
 - He enlarged concept of sexuality to include activities like
a) thumb sucking and
b) sublimation (defense mechanism that allows us to act out unacceptable impulses by converting
these behaviors into a more acceptable form)
- In Freudian terms, the child who actively seeks pleasure from many areas of the body is
“polymorphous perverse” – children’s activities differ in many respects from reproductive sexual
activity
- The sexual activity of children is essentially autoerotic
FREUD’S STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
- He outlined a path that children travel as they progress from autoerotic (they seek pleasure from their
own bodies rather than from other persons – thumb sucking, exploring genitals) sexual activity to
reproductive activity
- As children grow, they focus on different areas of their bodies
Children move from auto eroticism › reproductive sexuality › development of adult personality
I. Oral stage (birth to approx. 1 yr.)
- Major source of pleasure and potential conflict is the mouth – nourishment through breastfeeding by
moms; exploration of new objects
2 types of oral activity:
- Ingestion and biting
- Oral activity may be a source of conflict:
- mom discourages thumb sucking or biting her breast
Fixation results from too much or too little gratification:
- ORAL
- Oral Passive: Dependence/gullible
v. Oral Aggressive:
Suspicious/sadistic/sarcastic/argumentative
- Results from over indulgent mother v. inadequate breast feeding

II. Anal stage (2 yrs.)

- Major source of pleasure and conflict – anus
- Toilet training occurs here; converts involuntary activity to voluntary activity (elimination of
wastes)
- Represents child’s first attempt to regulate instinctual impulses
2 primary modes of anal expression:
- Retention or expulsion
Fixations:
- Anal retentive—Delay gratification and save for the future→ stingy, orderly, stubborn
- Anal Expulsive—Disregards rules→ Messiness, sloppiness, aggressive destructiveness,
temper tantrums, emotional outbursts, and cruelty
- “Results from too much attention for toileting or harsh toilet training.”

III. Phallic stage (3- 6 yrs.)

- Pleasurable and conflicting feelings associated with genital organs
- Children discover that not all individuals are similarly endowed
- For children, a fantasy can be as powerful as a literal event in shaping personality
 - The pleasure of masturbation and the fantasy life of children set the stage for the Oedipus
complex- each child’s unconscious desire to possess the opposite sex parent and do away with
the same sex parent.
- The child perceives his father as a rival who prevents him from obtaining full love that he
desires from his mother
- The Oedipus complex is resolved by:
- The son gives up attempts to possess his mother and identifies with father in terms of
gender
- He adopts the moral codes and injunctions of his father
- Introjection of good conduct leads to development of social conscience
- Little girls – Electra complex
- The object of love is also the mother
- As they discover genitals of opposite sex they abandon the mother and turn to the father
- Disappointment and shame – superior penis leads to jealousy of the male, penis envy,
- sense of inferiority and feeling of resentment and hatred toward the mother for effected
castration
- The role that girl adopts for herself is outlined by society

IV. Latency stage ( 7 to puberty)

- Period of comparative sexual calm
- Psychic forces develop; sexual impulses are channeled and elevated into more culturally
accepted levels of activity (sports, intellectual interests, peer relations)

V. Genital stage (adolescence)

- Rebirth of sexual and aggressive desires and sexual drives redirected to seeking gratification
from genuine interaction with others
- Mature individuals seek to satisfy sexual drives primarily through genital reproductive activity
with members of opposite sex
- Mature people satisfy their needs in socially approved ways
- The mature person is able to love in a sexually approved way and work productively in the
society

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY (ERIK ERIKSON)

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ERIKSON’S THEORY
- EPIGENETIC PRINCIPLE
- In fetal development, certain organs of the body appear at certain specified times and eventually
combine to form a child
- Personality also forms as the ego progresses through a series of interrelated stages

- PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS
- Personality development occurs as one successfully resolves a series of turning points or
psychosocial crises
- Crises occur when they feel compelled to adjust to the normal guidelines and expectations that
society has for them but are not altogether certain that they are prepared to carry out these
demands fully.
 I. Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year)
- Basic psychosocial attitude for infants to learn is that they can trust the world
- The parents CONSISTENCY, CONTINUITY, AND SAMENESS of experience in satisfying
infants basic needs fosters truth; This environment will permit children to think their world is
DEPENDABLE AND SAFE
- Children whose care is INADEQUATE, INCONSISTENT, NEGATIVE will approach the
world with FEAR AND SUSPICION

II. Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt (2-3 years; preschool)

- Children must exert a degree of independence
- toddlers are permitted and encouraged = a sense of autonomy (with supervision by parents and
teachers)
- parents and teachers are impatient and do too many things for the children = feelings of
self-doubt

III. Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 5 years; preschool to kindergarten)

- The ability to participate in many physical activities and to use language sets the stage for
initiative
- If 4 to5 year olds are given freedom to explore and experiment and if parents and teachers take
time to answer the questions, tendencies toward initiative will be encouraged
- If they are restricted and made to feel that their activities and questions have no point they will
feel guilty about acting on their own

IV. Industry vs Inferiority ( 6 to 11 years; elementary to middle school)

- A child who enters the school is at a point in development when behavior is dominated by
intellectual curiosity and performance
- If children are encouraged to make and do things well, helped to persevere, allowed to finish task
and praised for trying, industry results.
- If children’s efforts are unsuccessful or if treated bothersome, feelings of
- Inferiority results
- Children who feel inferior may never learn to enjoy intellectual work and take pride in doing one
thing really well. They may believe they will never excel at anything

V. Identity vs Role Confusion (12 to 18 years; middle through high school)

- The goal at this stage is development of roles and skills that will prepare adolescents to take
meaningful place in adult society
- The danger at this stage is ROLE CONFUSION – having no clear conception of appropriate
types of behavior that others will react to favorably
- If adolescents succeed (as reflected by the reactions of others) in integrating roles in different
situations to the point of experiencing continuity in their perception of the self-identity develops

VI. Intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood)

- The young adult needs to establish close and committed intimate relationships and partnerships
with other people
- The hallmark of intimacy is the ethical strength to abide by such commitments despite sacrifices
and compromises

VII. Generativity vs stagnation (middle age)

- Generativity is primarily the concern of establishing and guiding the next generation. It refers to
having and raising children
 - It also refers to productive and creative efforts in which adults take part that have a positive
effect on younger generation

VIII. Integrity vs Despair (Old age)

- Integrity is the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be and that
by necessity permitted of no substitutions
- Despair expresses the feelings that the time is now short, too short for the attempt to start another
life and try out alternate routes to integrity

Erikson emphasized that people are best able to adapt to their world when they possess both the
positive and negative qualities of a particular stage, provided the positive quality is stronger than the
negative quality

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (JEAN PIAGET)

JEAN PIAGET
- was a Swiss psychologist and genetic epistemologist. He is most famously known for his theory of
cognitive development that looked at how children develop intellectually throughout the course of
childhood.

BASIC PRINCIPLE
- An individual grows into a dynamic process in which the body's internal system interacts with the
environment. 
- Development happens when the individual is actively involved in the process. 
- Education plays an important element. It serves as the key element in developing one's cognitive skills.

SCHEMA
- describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships
among them. 
- Provide context for new knowledge
- Helps children fill in conceptual gaps and anticipate on how new knowledge can be applied
- STOCK KNOWLEDGE
HUMAN BEING INHERIT TWO BASIC TENDENCIES
ORGANIZATION
- tendency to systematize and combine processes into coherent general systems
- Tendency of all individuals to systematize or combine processes into coherent logically interrelated
systems
- Intellectual processes transform experiences into a form that the child can use in dealing with new
situations

ADAPTATION
 - tendency to adjust to the environment
- The process of creating a good fit or match between one’s conception of reality and the real-life
experiences one encounters 
- SUB PROCESS OF ADAPTATION
1. Assimilation – Interpreting an experience so that it fits an existing scheme
2. Accommodation – Changing an existing scheme to incorporate the experience

EQUILIBRIATION, DISEQUILIBRIUM, LEARNING

Equilibration
- People are driven to organize their schemes to achieve the best possible adaptation to their environment
tendency to organize schemes to allow better understanding of experiences 
▪Disequilibrium
- perceived discrepancy between an existing scheme and something new
Learning
- Meaningful learning occurs when people create new ideas or knowledge from existing information

STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

I. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE(BIRTH TO 2 YEARS)
- Age 2 – toddler’s schemes are more mental in nature; this is seen in the way they imitate behavior of
others.
- Knowledge is based on the senses, and the child responds to people and things through
reflex movements. 

- REFLEXES- innate response, natural or inborn responses that show our reaction to whatever we see or
hear on our surrounding.

ROOTING REFLEX
-  A reflex that is seen in normal newborn babies, who automatically turn the face toward the
stimulus and make sucking (rooting) motions with the mouth when the cheek or lip is touched.

TONIC REFLEX
- tonic neck reflex helps your baby make their way down the birth canal. And following
birth, tonic neck reflex may help your newborn to discover their hands and develop hand-eye
coordination.

CURLING REFLEX
- When the inner sole of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant will respond by curling his or her toes.
When the outer sole of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant will respond by spreading out their toes.

MORO/STARTLE REFLEX
- If your new baby is startled by a loud noise, a sudden movement, or feels like they're falling, they
might respond in a particular way. They might suddenly extend their arms and legs, arch their
back, and then curl everything in again. Your baby may or may not cry when they do this.
 - OBJECT PERMANENCE- the belief that object exists only when you see it.
- The child should begin to form mental images toward the latter part of this stage. 

II. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE(2-7 YEARS)

- The child's way of thinking is toward himself/herself.
1. EGOTISM- is an inflated sense of one's importance; the feeling of superiority
2. EGOCENTRISM- refers to someone's inability to understand that another person's view or
opinion may be different than their own. (Self-centered)
- The child continues to develop using mental images and begins to use symbols to represent what he/she
knows (symbolic thoughts).
- Center of mastery is through words or symbols. However, understanding and perception is limited and is
usually based on concrete objects.
- The child may find difficulty understanding that actions and thinking can be reversed. 

- CENTRATION- can only see one aspect of things. 

ex. Same volume of water pour into two different containers. Coins vs. Paper Money

- IRREVERSABILITY- they do not know that things can be reversed. 

ex. 2+1=3 or 1+2=3
- The child tends to attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects.

- ANIMISM- child talk to their toys. Giving life to non-living things.  

ex. Talking to their barbie doll
- The child tends to attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects.

- SYMBOLIC FUNCTION- when children are able to understand, represent, remember, and picture
objects in their mind without having the object in front of them.
Ex. Bahay-bahayan, using broom as a microphone or associate it with flying or riding

III. CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE(8-11 YEARS)

- The child begins to become logical with the presence of concrete things. 
- Irreversability turns to reversability.
- Illimination of egocentrism and started to enter the phase of DECENTERING. 

- SERIATION- ability to arrange things in order. Ascending and Descending. 

- CLASSIFICATION- ability to group things. 

example: living things vs non-living things.

- DECENTRATION-involves the ability to pay attention to multiple attributes of an object or situation

rather than being locked into attending to only a single attribute.

IV. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE(11-15 YEARS)

- ABSTRACT THINKING- he/she is no longer dependent on concrete perpetual experiences or object. 

- INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING- he/she is able to analyze problems and

consider different ways of solving it in a systematic way. 
 - HYPOTHETICAL REASONING- he /she can deal with abstract ideas and situations through logical
reasoning. 

- ANTICIPATION- he/she can formulate and expectation/prediction.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT (LAWRENCE KOHLBERG)
Kohlberg believed that
- moral reasoning proceeds through fixed stages
- moral development can be accelerated through instruction

MORALITY
- Ability to distinguish right from wrong and to behave accordingly (Weiten).

I. LEVEL 1 – PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY

- During the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept
and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers, and they judge an action based
on its consequences.
- Typical of children up to the age of nine
- Preconventional because children do not really understand the conventions of the society

i. STAGE 1 – PUNISHMENT-OBEDIENCE ORIENTATION

- physical consequence of an action determine badness or goodness; those in authority have superior
power and should be obeyed; punishment should be avoided by staying out of trouble

ii. STAGE 2 – INSTRUMENTAL–RELATIVIST (MUTUAL BENEFIT) ORIENTATION

- An action is judged to be right if it is instrumental in satisfying one’s own needs or involves an even
exchange; obeying rules should bring some sort of benefit in return

II. LEVEL 2 – CONVENTIONAL MORALITY

- During the conventional level, an individual’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal
relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now because they
believe that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.
- Typical of 9 to 20 yr. olds
- Called conventional since most 9 to 20 yr. olds conform to the conventions of the society because they
are the rules of the society

iii. STAGE 3 –GOOD BOY NICE GIRL ORIENTATION

- the right action is one that will be carried out by someone whose behavior is likely to please or impress
others

iv. STAGE 4 –LAW AND ORDER (AUTHORITY) ORIENTATION

- to maintain the social order fixed rules must be established ; it is essential to respect authority

III. LEVEL 3 – POSTCONVENTIONAL MORALITY

- During the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract
principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or
eliminated.
 - Usually reached only after the age of 20 and only by a small proportion of adults
- Called postconventional because the moral principles that underlie the conventions of the society are
understood

v. STAGE 5 – SOCIAL CONTRACT ORIENTATION

- rules needed to maintain the social order should be based not on blind obedience to authority but on
mutual agreement; rights of individual should be protected

vi. STAGE 6 – UNIVERSAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLE ORIENTATION

- moral decisions should be made in terms of self-chosen ethical principles; once principles are chosen,
they should be applied consistently

STRESS BUSTING IN MIDDLE AND LATE ADOLESCENCE

What is stress?
- It refers to pressure, tension, hardship, and importance, etc.
- It refers to body’s reaction to perceived threats or tension that affects our BALANCE (normal, healthy,
and steady state) – Selye, 1982
- Our body reacts in an attempt to adjust to it
Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome
1. The Alarm Phase
– recognize the stressor if it is a problem, difficulty, or threat that stirs the reaction of the body

2. The Resistance Phase

– being able to handle stress or adapt to the situation and able to restore a sense of balance once again

3. The Exhaustion Phase

– it can seriously affect the body if the stressful situation persists and no longer adjust to it (burnout,
fatigue, dysfunctions, and health problems can occur)

STRESS AND YOUR WAY OF THINKING

- Understanding stress is a two-way process that involve the environment (stressor) and the person’s way
of looking at the situation (appraisal)
- Stress is considered as a threat, harm, or challenges
- Stress depends on how the person sees the situation and the ability to deal with it

1. Primary Appraisal
- Consider the personal meaning of an stressful event “What does it mean to you?”

2. Secondary Appraisal
 - This involve how to cope with the stressful situation. “Can you handle it?” “How do you feel about
the situation?”

COMMON STRESSORS OF INDIVIDUALS

1. Studies
- academic requirements, tests, home works, projects, oral recitations, grades, deadlines
- To graduate or not to graduate

2. Money
- Tuition fees, “baon”, everyday expenses, bills

3. Relationship
- Conflicts, arguments, frustrations with family, friends, and significant others
- “intimate relationship – a status symbol that says one is good looking, interesting and attractive”

4. Time
- lack of time

5. Environment
- Pollution, problem with transportation, and traffic

6. Adapting to change
- adjustment to new things and changes

7. Unexpected Events
- Accidents, natural disasters like earthquakes and tsunami

SOME SPECIFIC STRATEGIES TO HANDLE STRESS

1. Take care of your health
- Engage in healthy eating
- Do not skip breakfast
- Take vitamins and supplements
- Take “comfort food” in moderation
- Avoid stressful eating habits
- Do some physical activities like simple exercises

2. Identifying support groups

- Make connection
- Find a group you can trust and make you feel safe
- Know the people you can talk to members in the family, counselor, and mentor
- Be open to receive help