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Stability Theory II
Stability Theory II
Author : Unknown
TABLE OF CONTENTS :
| angle of loll | Carriage of timber | corrections tabular to assigned freeboar | critical instant dry docking
stability | damage stability | difference between type A and B | free trim wrt offshore supply vessels |
improvement of stability on roro ships | inclining experiment | load line rules | loadicator | Loadline surveys
| natural rolling period | passenger vessel flooding requirement | stability of offshore supply vessel |
stability on ro ro ships | Statical stab curve derived fm KN values | stiff tender vessels | still water rolling
period | Stress and stability data | synchronous rolling | Type A Ships loadline rules | Type B Ships loadline
rules | upthrust | virtual loss of GM | windage |
1) General Particulars
This includes the ship’s name, official number, and port of registry, tonnage, dimensions, displacement,
deadweight and draught to the Summer Load line. Useful as a reference in supplying information to various
official organizations such as Port Authorities, canal authorities etc
2) General arrangement Plan
This usually consists of a profile and plan views of the ship showing the location of all compartments,
tanks, store rooms and accommodation. Used to locate and identify individual compartments.
3) Capacities and Centre of Gravity of cargo, fuel, water, stores etc:
This will show the capacity and the longitudinal and vertical centre of gravity of every compartment
available for the carriage of cargo, fuel, stores, fresh water and water ballast.
This information is required for
a) transverse stability calculations (to calculate ship’s KG) and
b) Longitudinal Stability calculations (to calculate ship’s LCG).
Also used to calculate the space available for items of deadweight such as fuel, water, cargo etc.
4) Estimated weight and disposition of passengers and crew:
Of particular relevance to the passenger ships. For use in transverse and longitudinal stability.
5) Estimated weight and disposition of deck cargo including 15% allowance for timber deck cargo)
For use in transverse stability calculations involving calculation of the ship’s KG and GM. Used
effectively so as to ensure vessel complies with the load line regulations throughout the voyage..
6) Deadweight scale
A diagram showing the load line mark and load line corresponding to the various freeboards, together with a
scale showing displacement, TPC and deadweight for a range of draughts between Light and Load
condition.
Particularly useful when loading cargo (eg., comparing draught to estimate cargo loaded)
7) Hydrostatic particulars (Displacement, TPC, MCTC, LCB, LCF, KM)
A diagram or table showing the hydrostatic particulars of the ship such as Displacement, TPC,
MCTC, LCB, LCF, KM et.
Particularly useful for a variety of stability calculations including transverse stability and longitudinal
stability (eg., worksheets for the calculation of GM, trim and draughts forward and aft)
8) Free Surface Information (including an example)
Usually in the form of Free Surface Moments (FSM) for each tank in which liquids can be carried.
The FSM given will be for a stated relative density of liquid (often 1.00) which will need to be adjusted if
the liquid is of another density.
Used in transverse stability calculations in order to find the ship’s fluid KG and fluid GM.
There should also be a worked example.
9) KN tables / Cross curves (including an example)
This will take the form of a diagram or table showing the righting levers for an assumed KG (the KN is
the GZ of the vessel assuming the KG is zero). There should also be a worked example showing how a GZ
curve can be obtained using the tables / cross curves.
KN tables are used to obtain the value of GZ (as GZ = KN=-KGsinθ)
Cross curves are used to find the GZ of the vessel for any angle of heel.
10) Pre-worked Ship conditions (Light ships, Ballast Arr/Dep, Service loaded Arr/Dep,
homogenous loaded Arr/Dep, Dry docking etc)
To include for each condition:
a) a profile diagram indicating disposition of weights.
b) Statement of light weight plus disposition of weight on board.
c) Metacentric height (GM)
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d) Curve of statical stability (GZ curve)
e) Warning of unsafe condition.
Very useful in cargo planning since it is easier to use a ship condition similar to
the proposed load condition. Also useful where the ship’s tables are presented in a form unfamiliar
to the ship’s officer who can now follow the method of calculation normally used on that vessel.
Dry dock: Enables officer to plan the stability condition for entering dry dock.
Loaded: Provides officer an example to establish stability condition of the vessel
when loaded with relation to draught, trim, displacement, stress (SF & BM) and
also compliance with the loadline criteria.
Ballast: Provides officer an example to establish stability condition of the vessel
when in ballast condition with relation to draught, trim, displacement, stress (SF &
BM) and also compliance with the loadline criteria..
Homogeneous loaded: Provides an example on cargo distribution for a given cargo to
achieve a required stability criteria so as to enable the officer to plan for loading
of various cargoes.
11) Special Procedures (Cautionary Notes)
Sometimes known as Cautionary notes. These may take the form of procedures to
maintain stability such as the partial or complete filling of spaces designated for
cargo, fuel, fresh water etc. Examples of this are:
f) Sequence of ballasting during the voyage to maintain adequate stability, particularly to compensate
for fuel/water consumption
g) Ballasting to compensate for strong winds when carrying containers or other deck cargo.
h) Measures to compensate icing in Arctic waters
i) Any special features regarding the stowage behaviour of a particular cargo.
12) Inclining experiment report:
This will take the form of a report on the details of the inclining test showing the
calculation and other Light Ship information.
Useful in assessing the accuracy of the Lightship KG given in the stability booklet
(which may change over time)
List the surveys required by the current Loadline Regulations for a vessel to
maintain a valid Load line Certificate.
1) Initial Survey – Load line Assignment
2) Periodic Surveys:
Annual Survey –within 3 months either way of the anniversary date of the
load line certificate.
The surveyor will endorse the load line certificate on
satisfactory completion of annual survey.to be carried out every year
Renewal Survey – at interval not exceeding 5 years
The period of validity of the load line certificate may be extended for a period not exceeding 3 months for the
purpose of allowing the ship to complete its voyage to the port in which it is to be surveyed.
The following are checked for condition and / or weather tightness (hose test as necessary):
1) Superstructure / deck house weather tight doors – effective means of closure and of securing weather
tightness (dogs, clamps, hinges, weather tight seal)
2) Hatch covers – effective means of closure and securing weather tight (cleats, clamps, wedges, rubber
sealing)
3) Side scuttles (portholes) – effective means of closure and of securing weather tight (clamps, sealing,
hinges, deadlight operation).
4) Side cargo doors – effective means of closure and of securing water tight (clamps, sealing arrangements)
5) Other deck openings such as sounding pipe covers ullage pipe covers, tank lids, sighting ports, manholes
(deck scuttles) – effective means of closure and of securing water tight (hinges, clamps, sealing
arrangements)
6) Air pipes – permanently attached means of closure. Gauze to fuel tanks.
7) Ventilators – effective means of closure and securing weather tight (unless over a specified height).
8) Freeing ports in bulwark – free movement of flaps.
9) Scuppers, inlets and discharges – effectiveness of non-return / storm valves.
10) Access – walkways, ladders, safety rails, bulwarks in good condition.
11) Deck fittings and appliances for timber loadlines.
12) Loadline and draught marks – measurements, correctly positioned and clearly visibility (clarity)
13) Any changes to hull or super structure which may materially affect stability (eg significant increase in
Lightweight of ship).
14) Any departure from recorded ‘Condition of Assignment’ (as detailed in ‘Record of Particulars’)
15) Presence of stability information Booklet and / or Loading Computer.
A vessel assigned Timer load lines is to fully load with timber on deck and in holds in
a port in a Tropical Zone, for a destination in the Winter North Atlantic zone, during
the winter months.
(a) State the minimum statutory requirements for the ships stability throughout the
voyage.
1)
Initial GM not less than 0.05 mtrs
The maximum righting lever (GZ) atleast 0.20 mtrs
Angles of Maximum GZ not be less than 30 degs
Area under the curve
0 to 30 degs not less than 0.055 mr
0 to 40 degs or θf whichever is lesser not less than 0.09 mr
Between 30 degs and 40 degs or θf not less than 0.03 mr
2) Stability calculations to assess a vessel’s compliance with minimum stability criteria should include a
15% increase in the weight of the timber deck cargo due to water absorption.
3) Alternative KN tables taking into account for the increased freeboard due to timber deck cargo of a
specified height may be used. However such tables must assume a reserve buoyancy is only 75% of the deck
timber because of the permeability of the timber deck cargo (assumed permeability 25%).
(b) Describe the various causes of any deterioration in the ship’s stability during the
voyage.
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1) The vessel is loading timber in tropical zone and in most cases the cargo will be in a dry state
condition.
2) As the vessel progresses towards the destination in the loaded passage, she proceeds to the WNA area.
3) It is possible that the timber cargo may absorb more moisture which may increase the weight more than
15%. This reduces the GM and therefore GZ curve.
4) Free surface effect when fuel and water is consumed from the full tanks which reduced GM and therefore
GZ curve.
5) Consumption of fuel, stores, FW during the passage will cause G to rise thereby reducing the GM and
therefore GZ curve
6) During winter seasons, as the vessel moves towards higher latitude, will encounter series of depression
resulting in bad weather.
7) Seas on deck will cause raise in G due to added weight and also cause FSE which reduces GM and GZ curve
8) Whilst experiencing heavy seas, if any of the lashing gives way and cargo break loose, it can result in
catastrophic result due to deterioration of the stability of the vessel.
9) If the vessel is experiencing severe wind and spray on one side, it can result in unsymmetrical icing on deck
and superstructure
10) As a result of this the vessel may list or loll over to due to increase in weight on one side.
11) This list or loss will reduce the vessel’s stability by way
a) reduction in GMi
b) produces heeling arm
c) reduction in Area under the curve or the Dynamical stability
d) Reduces the range of positive stability of the righting lever curve.
e) Reduces the maximum righting lever.
12) If the vessel is lolled over, then the situation is further worsened.
13) This is because, if the vessel is experiencing severe weather and is lolled over then wind and wave motion
will further heel the vessel.
An unstable vessel lying at an angle of loll to starboard has an empty double bottom
tank subdivided into four watertight compartment of equal width. The tank must be
ballasted to return the vessel to a safe condition.
Describe the sequence of action to be taken and the possible effects throughout each
stage.
An angle of loll is caused due to the vessel being in an unstable condition with negative GM when upright and the
vessel may heel to port or starboard.
SEQ 1:
1. The first sequence is to ballast the inner low side tank marked A.
2. While filling up the tank, due to the introduction of more free surfaces the situation will initially
worsen.
3. Moreover an increase in the initial list will happen due to the off centre weight.
4. However as the tank starts to fill further, the G will start lowering down and the list will start to reduce.
SEQ 2:
1. The second sequence is to fill the inner high side tank B.
2. The condition of the vessel while filling up this tank is some what similar to SEQ 1.
3. In this sequence although there is free surface effect initially, the KG of the vessel will decrease as the
tank is filled up due to concentration of weight at the lower part of the ship.
4. As the tank is finally filled, the free surface effect is eliminated and the KG will reduce even further
thereby improving the vessel’s stability.
SEQ 3:
SEQ 4:
1. This will be the final sequence of ballasting which will be the outer high side tank marked D.
2. By filling up this tank the GM is further improved and the port moment produced by this tank will offset
the starboard moment produced by filling tank C.
3. The G of the vessel will be lowered sufficiently and the ship should be completely upright condition
when this tank if completely filled.
DON’Ts:
1. Do not fill the outer high side tank first because the added weight may cause the vessel to suddenly and
violently roll over to the other side with a possibility of the moment of the roll carrying the ship over
past the angle of vanishing stability and therefore capsizing the vessel.
2. This is because generally at loll the port list moments is equal to the starboard list moments and there is
no list. It is only with the case of list it is prudent to fill the high side tank.
3. Even if the vessel does not capsize, such a sudden roll may result in injury to personnel or shift of cargo
with its implications on ship’s stability.
Describe how a vessel lying at an angle of loll may be returned to a safe condition.
An angle of loll is caused due to the vessel being in an unstable condition with negative GM when upright and the
vessel may heel to port or starboard.
1) Ensure that the heel is due to the negative GM rather than off centre weight.
Explain why the information provided by a curve of statical stability, derived from
KN values should be treated with caution
1) GZ curves are the best way of assessing a ship’s stability but they do have limitations as they are based upon
theoretical values.
2) This is because no account is taken of what may happen in practice at large angle of heel e.g., flooding
through ventilators, shifting of cargo, etc.
3) The KN values are tabulated for various angles of heel for a range of displacements. These values are
derived based on the fact that it would be convenient to consider the GZ that would exist if G were at Keel,
termed KN.
4) The KG of the vessel is assumed to be zero, therefore all KN valued need to be corrected in order to take
into account the actual KG of the vessel.
5) The GZ value is predominantly dependant upon the KG.
6) Hence in order to obtain the actual GZ for a given value of KG, a correction need to be made for the actual
height of G above the keel.
7) GZ = KN-KGsinθ. KN value must be interpolated between two sets of displacement to arrive at a desired
displacement. KG values dependant upon displacement and the displacement is dependant upon accuracy of
weights onboard including the lightship displacement and KG.
8) The lightship KG and displacement is no longer the same that was calculated when the ship was built.
9) GZ values are based upon an assumed trim condition which may not be the vessel’s actual trim, although
some vessels have different KN tables for different trim conditions.
10) A further complication is that of Free trim where the vessel changes its trim as it heels.
11) This condition is very much obvious in case of smaller vessel’s like offshore supply vessels. Trimming by
stern on such vessels will reduce the water plane area especially when vessel’s low stern goes into the water
and the aft deck floods.
12) Reduction in water plane area reduces the vessel’s stability and therefore the KN values for that angle of
heel.
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13) Thus the GZ curve obtained using KN values of fixed trim, then the curve
obtained will be incorrect one and will tend to show that the vessel has better stability.
14) Water shipped on deck will not be accounted for. Such water will change the vessel’s KG creating free
surface moment as the vessel rolls in seaway.
15) Also dynamic factors such as synchronous rolling, parametric rolling and loss of stability cannot be
appreciated by inspection of a curve of statical stability such as righting lever or righting moment curve.
(If this question forms part of a question where they have asked to show the GZ curve with list condition, only the
above answer will suffice. If asked as a stand alone question then curve need to be drawn)
Discuss the use, limitation and relative accuracy of EACH of the following means of
stability assessment.
Simplified Stability tables (eg., Max KG)
Use:
(a) These are incorporated in the ship’s stability booklet either as a diagram or a table.
(b) A quick assessment of the ship’s stability as to whether or not all statutory criteria are complied with is
achieved by means of a single diagram or table
(c) Eliminates the need to use cross curves or GZ curves for different loading conditions.
(d) Three methods of presentation are:
- Maximum deadweight moment or table
- Maximum permissible KG diagram or table.
- minimum permissible GM diagram or table.
1. Free trim effect is observed in Off shore supply vessels with high forecastle (normally forward
superstructure) and a low working after deck.
2. When ship is heeled over to immerse the after deck line, the forecastle remains well over the water line.
3. The water plane area aft on the low side has been lost causing the F to move forward. The ship starts to trim
by the stern.
4. As the ship progressively heels further the reserve buoyancy of the forward superstructure takes effect,
volume of buoyancy being transferred from the high side aft where it is not being used to the low side on the
heeled side.
5. This causes the LCB to move forward.
6. This accompanied by the continuing forward movement of the LCF causes the ship to trim significantly
further by the stern as it continues to heel.
7. This situation leads to danger of after deck being flooded.
8. The stability of the vessel is greatly reduced due to the reduction in the water plane area and hence reduction
in the KN value.
9. If the ship’s KN value has been calculated for fixed trim they will result in an incorrect GZ curve and will
tend to show that the vessel has better stability than it actually has at large angles of heel.
10. Fixed trim KN data will give greater GZ values than what the ship will actually have when heeled beyond
the angle of deck edge immersion - stability will be overestimated.
11. Therefore it is preferable that the KN values of the ship be derived on a “free to trim basis and the KN tables
should have the statement “Corrected for Free trim”.
A vessel with a high deck cargo will experience adverse affects due to strong beam
winds on the lateral windage areas.
Explain how the effects of steady and gusting winds can be determined and state the
minimum stability requirements with respect to wind heeling under the current
regulations
1. A vessel with high deck cargo may have their stability considerably reduced when subjected to strong beam
winds.
2. A heel angle will be produced by the strong beam winds acting upon large lateral areas of the ship.
3. This lateral area may be a combination of high freeboard and tiers of containers on deck.
4. The wind heeling moments are the moments produced by this force, multiplied by a heeling lever, tending to
incline the vessel. (moments produced by wind X heeling lever)
5. The components of wind heeling moments are:
a) Wind Force (F) – Force per unit area (kgs/m 2).
b) Windage area (A) – Area (m2).
c) Lever (d) – Distance of centriod of windage area from
the centriod of buoyancy (B)
With regard to the modern shipboard stability and stress finding instrument:
(a) State the hydrostatic and stability data already pre-programmed into the
instrument.
1) hip’s dimensions and general particulars.
2) Capacity of all internal spaces.
3) VCG / LCG / FSM of all internal spaces (cargo spaces, ballast tanks fuel , FW etc)
4) Hydrostatic particulars – Displacement, draught, TPC, MCTC, LCB, LCF, KM
5) Light ship data – Light ship displacement and KG.
6) KN data
7) Stability limits (Loadline, Grain, Timber etc)
8) Simplified Stability Data (e.g., MAX KG)
9) Structural Stress Limits
10) Grain Loading data (as in grain loading booklet)
11) Wind Heeling Data
12) Ice Allowance Data
(b)Describe the information to be entered into the instrument by the ship’s officer.
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1) Location and weight of individual items of deadweight – cargo, fuel, ballast, stores, fresh
water, passengers etc.
2) Loadline zone
3) R.D. of seawater / dock water
4) R.D. of liquids – fuel, ballast, liquid cargo etc.
5) S.F. of bulk cargoes (e.g. grain)
The stress data is usually given as a percentage of the maximum allowable at that particular point along the
length of the vessel. Hence two variables are the actual stress encountered and the corresponding strength of the
vessel at that point which resists that particular stress.
Also during the experiment, the LCG for light condition will also be determined.
Describe the precautions to be taken by the SHIP’s OFFICER before and during the
inclining experiment.
1) The ship must be moored in quiet sheltered waters free from the effects of passing vessels.
2) There must be adequate depth of water under the keel so that the bottom of the ship does not touch the sea
bed on inclination.
3) There should little or no wind. If there is any wind the ship should be head on or stern to it.
4) The ship should be floating free. There should be no barges alongside.
5) Moorings should be slackened right down.
6) Shore side gangway if any must be landed to allow unrestricted heeling.
7) All loose weights must be removed or secured.
8) All fittings and equipments such as accommodation ladder , derricks/cranes should be stowed in their
normal sea going positions.
9) Free surface should be minimized. All tanks should be verified as being completely empty or full. Bilges
should be dry.
10) Deck should be free of water. Any water trapped on deck will move during the test and reduce the accuracy
of the result.
11) The ship should be upright at the commencement of the experiment.
12) All personnel not directly concerned with the experiment should be sent ashore.
13) In tidal conditions, conduct experiment at slack water.
14) Efficient two way communication must be established between a person in charge of the operation and the
central control station, the weight handlers and each pendulum station.
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Explain why a vessel’s Lightship KG may change over a period of time.
1) Accumulation of debris in enclosed spaces
2) Accumulation of sediments and mud in ballast tanks
3) Accumulation of coagulated residues in bunker tanks and bilges
4) Accumulation of paint coatings on internal and external surfaces
5) Accumulation of redundant spares
6) Accumulation of lost property on passenger ships
7) Changes to ship’s structure
8) Changes to internal furnishing particularly on passenger ships
9) Changes in vessel’s equipment e.g., cargo handling gear
10) Removal of corrosion from ship’s structure
List the circumstances when the inclining experiment is required to take place on
passenger vessel.
1) When the vessel is built.
2) When any major modifications are made to the ship so as to materially affect the stability.
3) Every 5 years.
4) If any significant change is found – Light displacement changed by 2% or Lightship LCG changed by 1% of
ship’s length.
State the formula to determine the virtual loss of GM due to a free surface liquid
within a rectangular tank, explaining each of the terms used
The formula to determine the virtual loss of GM due to free surface liquid is given by
L= Length of the rectangular tank. Loss of GM is directly proportional to the length of the tank so will
be the value of free surface moments (loss of GM).
B= Breadth of the rectangular tank. From the formula it can be seen that breadth of the tank is the
most critical factor which determines the amount of loss in GM i.e., loss of GM is directly proportional to the
cube of the breadth of the tank.
Density = Relative density of liquid filled in the tank. Loss of GM is directly
proportional to the RD of the liquid, greater the density of the liquid, greater the loss in
GM.
Δ = Displacement of the vessel. Greater the displacement of the vessel lesser the
loss of GM and vice versa.
12 = It is part of the formula. The free surface correction can also be given by
Free Surface Moments (FSM)
Displacement
FSM = Moments of Inertia of the free surface liquid x RD of the liquid
= L x B3 x RD of liquid
12
n = number of longitudinal subdivision of the tank. The longitudinal subdivision of
the tank greatly reduces the FSC as it is indirectly proportional to the square of number of subdivision. Further it can
be seen that if the tank is divided into two equal subdivisions then the FSC will reduce by a quarter and 3 equal
divisions will reduce the loss by one ninth and so on.
(a) Transversely:
Free surface correction (FSC) = Loss in GM = L x B3 x RD of liquid in tank
12 x Δ x n 2
1. Although the tank is transversely sub divided yet the effective length and breadth of the tank still remains
the same.
2. One should not mistake ‘n’ in the formula for transverse sub-division as it refers to the longitudinal sub-
division.
3. The area available for the free movement of the liquid still remains the same.
4. The free surface effect remains the same as it was before.
5. The following diagram shows an example of tank transversely subdivided into two equal parts.
(b) Longitudinally L
1. Longitudinal subdivision of the tank greatly reduces the free surface effect and hence the loss of GM.
2. AS it can be seen from the formula, that the Loss in GM is inverse proportional to the square of the number
of subdivision (n2).
3. For example, if the tank is divided into two equal subdivisions then the FSC will reduce by a quarter and 3
equal divisions will reduce the loss by one ninth and so on.
4. The following figure illustrates an example of tank longitudinally divided into two equal parts.
n n
Explain why a vessel laden to the same draught on different voyages may have
different natural rolling period.
Rolling period (T) in seconds is the time taken for the ship to complete one complete oscillation i.e., the time it takes
for the ship to roll from one side back through the upright to the extent of its roll on the other side and back again.
(port – starboard – port).
(1) The natural rolling period in still water is given by the formula:
T=2πK
√GM x g
Where
T = period of roll in seconds
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 mtrs / sec 2)
K = Radius of Gyration.
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GM = Metacentric height of the ship.
2) Radius of Gyration is the distance from the centre of gravity or the rolling axis at
which the total weight (W) would have to be concentrated in order to give the ship
same moment of inertia as it actually has.
3) For any particular ship the Radius of Gyration can be changed by altering the distribution of deadweight
about the rolling axis. (affects the moments of inertia)
4) If the weights are moved away from the rolling axis, the radius of gyration is increased resulting in the
longer period of roll and the ship will roll slower (moving weight outwards towards the side of the ship is
known as winging out weights)
5) Conversely, moving weights inwards towards the rolling axis will cause the ship to roll faster.
6) The roll period varies inversely as the GM. Hence larger the GM, shorter the rolling period (stiff ship) and
smaller the GM, longer the rolling period (tender ships).
7) Also the roll period will change when weights are loaded, discharged or shifted, since both the GM and the
moment of inertia (measure of distribution of weight about the rolling axis) will be affected.
From the above statement it can be seen that although the laden vessel has the same draught for different voyages,
yet its rolling period will change because of the following reasons:
However it should be borne in mind that the period of roll is not affected by the amplitude or magnitude of the roll.
Describe the different rolling characteristics of a vessel in a stiff condition and a vessel
in tender condition.
The natural rolling period for the vessel is given by
T=2πK
√GM x g
Where
T = period of roll in seconds
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 mtrs / sec 2)
K = Radius of Gyration.
GM = Metacentric height of the ship.
Stiff Ship:
1) A stiff ship is one with a very large GM caused by the KG being too small.
2) This occurs if too much weight is placed low down within the ship.
3) The ship will be excessively stable, righting moments will be so large as to cause the ship to return to the
upright very quickly when heeled.
Rolling characteristics:
Tender Ships:
1) A tender ship is one with a very small GM caused by KG being too large.
2) This occurs if too much weight is placed high up within the ship.
3) The ship will have less stability, righting moments as compared to the stiff ship.
4) This causes the ship to be sluggish and slow return to the upright.
Rolling characteristics:
a) Because of small righting moments the ship will only offer limited resistance to being rolled, causing the
ship to be rolled to larger angles of heel.
b) Also from the Rolling period formula, Rolling period varies inversely as GM.
c) Since the tender ships have small GM, their rolling period will be long.
d) The ship will be slow to return to the upright and will tend to remain at the extent of the roll for a
comparatively long time.
The Radius of Gyration also has effect on the ship’s rolling characteristics. However in both Stiff and Tender
ship it varies with the circumstances as the distribution of weight with respect to rolling axis is not the same at
all times.
Discuss how a vessel’s still water rolling period is affected by changes in the
distribution of weight aboard the vessel.
The distribution of weight aboard the vessel can be discussed with respect to following factors:
(1) Distribution of weight with respect to the Keel of the vessel (KG of the weight)
(2) The relative density of the weight distributed.
(3) Distribution of weight with respect to the rolling axis.
Distribution of weight with respect to the Keel of the vessel (KG of the weight)
If the weight is distributed high up within the vessel, then the resultant GM if the vessel will be reduced due to
increase in the resultant KG of the vessel. (because the KG of the weight distributed will be more).
Thus it can be seen that both the above factors are affecting the GM of the vessel.
The distribution of weight with respect the to rolling axis affects the Radius of Gyration. If weights are distributed
inwards towards the rolling axis then the Radius of Gyration is reduced . Conversely if the weights are distributed
away from the rolling axis the radius of gyration is increased.
Using the above formula in conjunction with the explanation of above section it can be seen that:
1) The distribution of weight aboard the vessel can change the GM of the vessel.
2) The Rolling period varies inversely as the GM and hence change in GM changes the rolling period.
3) Also distribution of weight with respect with the rolling axis affects the Radius of Gyration.
Therefore the distribution of weight is such that if the Radius of Gyration is increased then the
rolling period is increased as it is directly proportional and vice versa.
Explain the term Synchronous rolling and describe the dangers, if any associated with
it.
Synchronism is the name given to the condition when the ship’s natural period of roll is the same as the apparent
period of wave.
1) When this occurs the waves give the ship a push each time she rolls (like a swing) causing her to roll more
and more heavily.
2) Theoretically this could cause the vessel to eventually capsize.
3) However Synchronism is less likely to happen as the rolling period of the ship increases with the angle of
roll at large angles of heel.
4) Moreover the period of sea waves tends to vary over time.
5) The ship’s natural rolling period will be greater than the wave period.
6) Ship’s which has a long natural rolling period are less vulnerable in a beam swell than the stiff ships with
their short periods of roll.
7) If the sea is forward of the beam the apparent period of waves will be reduced whilst the sea abaft the beam
will increase the apparent period of waves.
8) Therefore the sea on the quarter will increase the likelihood of synchronism.
State the action to the taken by the ship’s officer when it becomes apparent that the
vessel is experiencing Synchronous rolling.
1) Alter course, ideally towards the wave since this shortens the apparent period of the waves.
2) Alter speed except when the wave is not on the beam.
3) Alter vertical distribution of the weight so as to change the GM.
4) Alter the vertical and transverse distribution of the weight aboard the vessel so as to change the ship’s radius
of gyration. E.g., winging out weights.
5) The later two measures can be achieved by ballasting, deballasting or shifting other items of deadweight
such as fuel or fresh water.
The major considerations that should be borne in mind during dry docking are
1) that the P force is kept to an acceptable level and
2) that the Ship maintains an acceptable positive GM during the critical period.
Loss of GM = P X KG (OR) P X KM
Δ–P Δ
If it is found that the GM at critical instant is found to be inadequate the following measures to be taken to improve
the initial stability.
1) The loss in GM is directly proportional to the KG of the vessel. Hence lower the effective KG of the vessel
by lowering the weights within the vessel, discharging weights from the high up or taking on an acceptable
amount of ballast in the double bottom tanks.
2) Empty the high wing tanks if possible.
3) Stow derricks, cranes and riggings in stowed position.
4) Eliminate or minimize free surface effects by topping up or emptying slack tanks where possible.
5) Keep minimum stern trim as recommended by the dry docking plan. Smaller the trim, smaller the P force
and hence smaller the loss of GM.
Explain why the values of trim and metacentric height in the freely afloat conditions
are important when considering the suitability of a vessel for drydocking.
Trim:
1) The trim of the vessel plays a very vital roll in vessel’s dry docking.
2) The vessel should enter the dry dock with a small stern trim as recommended by the dry docking plan
available on the ship.
3) ‘P’ force or the upthrust generated at the block when the vessel’s stern first touches the block continues to
increase as the buoyancy force is reduced.
4) The formula for calculation of the ‘P’ force is given by
P= Change of Trim X MCTC
LCF
5) From the formula it can be seen that greater the stern trim more the ‘P’ force.
6) Although the stern frame is designed to take force exerted on it during dry-docking, there is a maximum
limit that must not be exceeded.
7) If the ‘P’ force is exceeded then it will lead to structural damage.
1) Loss of stability (Loss of GM) commences as soon as the ship touches the block aft and continue to worsen
as the value of the P force increases.
2) The maximum loss of GM occurs at the instant immediately prior to the ship settling on the blocks forward
and aft – known as Critical Instant.
3) The vessel must have positive stability (positive GM) at this critical instant.
4) It is essential that the righting moment afforded by the upward acting buoyancy force (remaining – due to
pumping out of dock water) remains greater than the capsizing moment afforded by the upthrust of P force
acting at the keel at all times prior to the ship touching the blocks forward and aft.
Hence the values of trim and metacentric height of the vessel in the freely afloat conditions are important for the
purpose of dry docking the vessel.
Describe the two methods of determining the upthrust (P force) during the critical
period.
The two methods of calculating the P force are
a) Calculation of P force at any stage during dry-docking process.
b) Calculation of P force during the critical period when dry-docking.
a) In the period between the ship touching the block aft (start of critical period) and touching the blocks
forward and aft (critical instant) the ship undergoes a change of trim.
b) The change of trim at any stage during the critical period may be considered to be the same as the change of
trim that would have occurred when a weight ‘w’ has been discharged from a position at the aft
perpendicular equivalent to the upthrust ‘P’ in tones.
c) The formula to find change of trim is given by
COT (cms) = Trimming Moment = w x LCF
MCTC MCTC
d) If the P force is considered to have the same effect as a weight discharged at the aft perpendicular, then
COT (cms) = P x LCF
MCTC
e) Transposing the above formula we can find P as given under
‘P’ force at any instant during critical period = COT(cms) x MCTC
LCF foap
Explain why it is beneficial to have small stern trim when entering dry dock.
Loss of GM = P X KG (OR) P X KM
Δ–P Δ
2) It can be clearly seen from above two formulas that small trim will apparently reduce the P
force exerted during docking and subsequently the loss of GM
Stern:
Stern frame is stronger than the bow and therefore better able to bear the P force when the vessel is touching the
blocks.
Trim:
It is much easier to align the vessel’s keel over the keel blocks in the DD than if the vessel had gone on E.K and also
because of the declivity of the DD.
A ship is loading in a port in a tropical zone for one in the Winter North Atlantic zone
during winter months.
Describe the various precautions and considerations which must be borne in mind at
the loading port in order that the voyage is accomplished safely and in accord with the
statutory requirements, for example the Load Line rules.
1) The primary consideration is to have the vessel complying with the load line regulations throughout the
voyage for ensuring intact reserve buoyancy - Cargo hatches, ventilators, sounding pipes, air pipes, freeing
port)
2) Since the vessel is going to another Load line zone, the vessel should be loaded in such a way she does not
breach the load line requirements.
3) Although she is loading in Tropical zone, yet she cannot immerse the marks more than a lever i.e., Winter
load line + due allowance for consumables + bunkers.
4) To calculate the bunker consumption and FW consumption up to a point on the vessel’s intended route
where it enters the winter load line zone.
5) Also the loading should be in such a way that the vessel will have adequate stability.
Initial GM not less than 0.15 mtrs
for timber ships not less than 0.05 m.
The maximum righting lever (GZ) at least 0.20 mtrs
Angles of Maximum GZ not be less than 30 degs
Area under the curve
0 to 30 degs not less than 0.055 mr
0 to 40 degs or θf whichever is lesser not less than 0.09 mr
Between 30 degs and 40 degs or θf not less than 0.03 mr
6) If the ship is less than 100 mtrs in length she cannot immerse more than winter north atlantic mark when in
winter zone.
7) Vessel need to have sufficient bunker reserve to meet bad weather and contingencies.
8) All derricks and cranes must be stowed in position.
9) Eliminate free surface effects by emptying or pressing the tanks if possible.
10) Adequate lashing arrangements for deck cargoes particularly for heavy lifts.
11) Stow heavy cargo as low as possible to bring down G.
12) Vessel’s loading and stability condition throughout the voyage must take into account ice accretion.
13) Fire lines and steam lines must be drained.
14) Shearing force, bending moments and Torsional stresses must be well within limits.
Flooding requirements:
1) If the vessel is over 150 mtrs in length and has an empty compartment when fully loaded at the Summer
loadline, the ship should be capable of remaining afloat after flooding of such a compartment with an
assumed permeability of 0.95 and shall remain afloat in a satisfactory condition of equilibrium.
2) If the vessel is over 150 mtrs in length then the machinery space shall be treated as a floodable compartment,
with an assumed permeability of 0.85.
Damage assumptions:
1) The vertical extent of damage in all cases is assumed to be from the base line upwards without limits. - Keel
to deck
2) The transverse extent of damage is equal to 20% of beam or 11.5 mtrs which ever is lesser.
3) Longitudinally – Between transverse bulkhead (B-100 to include one bulkhead other than machinery space
bulkhead)
There are two classification of Type B vessels viz., Type B-60 and Type B-100
Type B-60:
1) Any type B ship which is over 100 mtrs long.
2) Has hatchways closed by weather tight steel covers
3) Since provided with steel hatch covers, qualifies for a reduction in the tabular freeboard of 60% the
difference between type A and type B freeboards, hence the term B-60.
4) Flooding requirement
a) When loaded in accordance with the initial condition of loading, shall be able to withstand the
flooding of any single compartment with an assumed permeability of 0.95 and shall remain afloat in
a satisfactory condition of equilibrium..
b) If the vessel is over 150 mtrs in length then the machinery space is regarded as a floodable
compartment with assumed permeability of 85%
Type B 100
(a) Any type of B 60 ship over 100 mtrs long.
(b) Provided with steel hatch covers which are water tight.
(c) Access to the engine room from deck protected by house.
(d) Provided with open rails for 50% of the length of the vessel and not bulwark.
(e) Crew access by gangway or under deck passage.
(f) Qualifies for a reduction in the tabular freeboard of 100% the difference between type A and type B
freeboards, hence the term B-100.
(g) Flooding requirement:
When converting tabular freeboard into assigned Freeboard as specified in the Load
Line rules a number of corrections have to be applied. With the aid of simple sketches
describe each of the corrections and indicate how each may be applied.
A tabular freeboard is the freeboard that would be assigned to a standard ship built to the highest recognized
standards having specific characteristics as laid down in the Load Line regulations.
The following corrections required to be applied in order to convert Tabular freeboard to assigned freeboard.
Depth correction:
1) The standard freeboard depth of a ship under the Rules = L ÷ 15
2) If the freeboard depth is more than L ÷ 15, then the freeboard is increased
3) If the freeboard depth is less than L ÷ 15, the freeboard may be decreased provided that the superstructure is
alteast 0.6 L amidship or trunk over entire length of the vessel.
Superstructure correction:
Please consider the environment before printing out these copies 24
1) Freeboard will be reduced if:
(a) The ship is with sufficient standard height superstructure (OR)
(b) Has sufficient water tight trunking to a minimum height and width.
2) This reduction will vary according to the length of the superstructure / trunk as a percentage of the vessel’s
length.
3) If the superstructure or trunk is of less than the standard height / breadth then the correction will be reduced
proportionally.
4) If it is not of sufficient height (or) % length (or) width then no reduction in freeboard.
Sheer correction:
1) Load line regulations assume a standard sheer for the vessel.
2) If the vessel has a greater sheer than standard, the basic freeboard is decreased.
3) If the vessel has a lesser sheer than the standard, the basic freeboard is increased.
4) No reduction in freeboard if the vessel does not have superstructure covering 10% length forward and aft of
midship.
Bowheight correction:
1) The load line rules contains a formula for calculating the minimum bow height based on the vessel’s length
and block co-efficient.
2) If the bow height is les than the calculated height, freeboard is increased accordingly.
Summer Freeboard: - Assigned only upon Owners request – only increase in freeboard.
Freeboards may also be increased at the owners request (or) where there are openings or cargo port holes below the
freeboard deck
Corrections are then applied to the Assigned Summer Freeboard in order to determine the Tropical, Winter, Fresh
Water and Tropical Fresh water freeboards.
(a) List the geometric features of the ship which give rise to these corrections.
The ship which are required for these corrections are Type B vessels.
1) A type B ship is one which is not a Type A ship –not designed to carry liquid cargoes in Bulk.
2) Has a greater freeboard than type A vessel.
3) Has lesser degree of sub-division.
4) Has large deck openings which are only weather tight.
5) Access to under deck compartments in Type B vessels is through large hatches.
There are two classification of Type B vessels viz., Type B-60 and Type B-100
Type B-60:
1) Any type B ship which is over 100 mtrs long.
2) Provided with steel hatch covers which are weather tight.
3) Since provided with steel hatch covers, qualifies for a reduction in the tabular freeboard of 60% the
difference between type A and type B freeboards, hence the term B-60.
Type B 100
1) Any type of B 60 ship over 100 mtrs long.
2) Provided with steel hatch covers which are weather tight.
3) Access to the engine room from deck protected by house.
4) Provided with open rails for 50% of the length of the vessel and not bulwark.
5) Crew access by gangway or under deck passage.
6) Qualifies for a reduction in the tabular freeboard of 100% the difference between type A and type B
freeboards, hence the term B-100.
(b) Explain the reason for each of these corrections and indicate how each correction should be applied to
Tabular Freeboard (actual values not required)
The current Load line rules permit a reduction of the permissible minimum initial
GM for some vessels with timber deck cargo and the inclusion of the volume of this
cargo in the derivation of the cross curves.
Outline the circumstances under which this reduction is allowed and explain why this
reduction is permitted.
1) The vessel must have timber certificate.
2) Must have Assigned Timber Freeboard.
3) Must have solid stow of deck cargo full length of deck.
4) The vessel must have positive stability at all times and should be calculated with regard to:
a) the increase of timber weight due to
absorption of water.
Ice accretion if applicable.
b) variations in consumables.
c) Free surface effects of the liquids in tanks.
d) Weight of water trapped in the broken spaces within the timber deck cargo especially logs.
5) The stability calculations should include 15% increase in weight due to water absorption during the voyage.
6) KN values may be increased for additional freeboard BUT only 75% of the deck cargo volume may be used for
additional reserve buoyancy.
G Z
G Z
B
B
With regard to Load Line rules distinguish a Type A vessel from a Type B vessel and
explain why they have different TABULAR freeboards.
TYPE A TYPE B
1) Designed to carry liquid cargo in bulk Other than Type A vessels – which are not
designed to carry liquid cargo in bulk
2) Allows a small freeboard i.e., less reserve Has a greater freeboard than Type A
buoyancy.
3) The longitudinal hull framing in Type A Has less degree of sub-division.
vessels results in a high degree of sub-
divisions
4) Exposed weather deck has high degree of Exposed weather deck has low degree of
integrity. integrity as compared to Type A vessel
Access to under deck compartment is Access to under deck compartment is through
through small deck openings which are large hatch openings which are only weather
watertight steel covers tight.
5) High degree of safety against flooding Vulnerable in heavy weather to flooding
because of low permeability of loaded
cargo spaces.
6) Has high degree of sub-division Less degree of sub-division
Type A vessel and Type B vessel have different tabular freeboard because:
1) The structural layout of both vessels are different
2) Types of cargo carried are different.
3) Moreover the permeability of the cargo tanks in Type A ships are low as compared to the Type B
ship.
Please consider the environment before printing out these copies 28
4) Therefore in an event of flooding of a compartment, oil from cargo
tank of Type A vessel will run out causing decrease in displacement and increase in
freeboard, whereas in case of type B ship, the sea water will enter the cargo space resulting in
increase in draught and reduction in freeboard.
State the general requirement for a TYPE B vessel to be given the same TABULAR
freeboard as TYPE A vessel of the same length.
A type B vessel can be given the same TABULAR freeboard as Type A vessel of same length if the following
criteria are satisfied:
Any Type B-60 ships of over 100 mtrs long (Type B-100) satisfying the following conditions at summer draught:
5) Provided with steel hatch covers which are weather tight.
6) Access to the engine room from deck protected by house.
7) Provided with open rails for 50% of the length of the vessel and not bulwark.
8) The weather deck must be fitted with a protected raised catwalk or under deck ways to allow safe
access for the crew.
9) Shall remain afloat after flooding of any two fore and aft adjacent compartment with an assumed
permeability of 95% at summer draught
Superstructure correction:
5) Freeboard will be reduced if:
(a) The ship is with sufficient standard height superstructure (OR)
(b) Has sufficient water tight trunking to a minimum height and width.
6) This reduction will vary according to the length of the superstructure / trunk as a percentage of the vessel’s
length.
7) If the superstructure or trunk is of less than the standard height / breadth then the correction will be reduced
proportionally.
8) If it is not of sufficient height or % length or width then no reduction in freeboard.
Sheer correction:
5) Load line regulations assume a standard sheer for the vessel.
6) If the vessel has a greater sheer than standard, the basic freeboard is decreased.
7) If the vessel has a lesser sheer than the standard, the basic freeboard is increased.
8) If the vessel’s amidships superstructure is less than 10% length, then there is reduction in freeboard.
Bowheight correction:
3) The load line rules contains a formula for calculating the minimum bow height based on the vessel’s length
and block co-efficient.
4) If the bow height is les than the calculated height, freeboard is increased.
Please consider the environment before printing out these copies 29
Summer Freeboard: - Assigned only upon Owners request – only increase in freeboard.
Freeboards may also be increased at the owners request or where there are no openings or cargo port holes below
the freeboard deck
Corrections are then applied to the Assigned Summer Freeboard in order to determine the Tropical, Winter, Fresh
Water and Tropical Fresh water freeboards.
Describe the general provisions of the current Passenger Ship Construction Rules
governing the ability of a Class I Passenger vessel to withstand flooding due to
damage, and the stability in the final condition.
General Requirements:
1) Margin line is the water line and must be atleast 76mm below the upper surface of the bulkhead deck.
2) Floodable length depends upon the permeability of the compartment.
(a) Permeability for cargo and store spaces = 60%
(b) Machinery spaces = 85%
(c) Passenger spaces = 95%
3) The vessel should remain afloat in the event of damage to any compartment.
4) Factor of sub-division (to determine max spacing between transverse bulkhead) varies inversely with the
ship’s length, the number of passenger and the proportion of under water space used for passenger / crew
and machinery space.
5) Greater degree of subdivision (or small factor of subdivision) must be provided when
(a) The vessel is long
(b) The number of passengers is large
(c) Much space below the waterline is used for passenger / crew accommodation and/or machinery
space.
6) Permitted length between bulkhead = Floodable length x Factor of sub-division.
Assumed damage:
1) Vertical extent is from keel to deck
2) Transverse extent must be 20% of the Beam of the vessel.
3) Longitudinal extent of damage must be:
a) 11 mtrs between bulkhead (OR)
b) 3m + 3% of the length of the vessel, WHICHEVER IS THE LEAST
Assumed Flooding:
The vessel must be able to withstand the flooding of the following number of compartments (final waterline at, or
below margin line)
1) Factor of sub-division more than 0.5 THEN Any one compartment
2) Factor of sub-division between 0.5 and 0.33 THEN Any 2 adjacent compartments
3) Factor of sub-division 0.33 or less THEN Any 3 adjacent compartments
In the final stage, after any equalization (CROSS FLOODING) measures, the vessel must comply with the following
condition:
With reference to the current Passenger Ship Construction and Survey Regulations
(a) Explain the extent of hull flooding assumed when calculating the ship’s ability to
survive hull damage.
In order to arrive at the minimum required stability for the Passenger vessel after suffering flooding of compartment,
the following two factors are taken into consideration:
1) Assumed Flooding
2) Assumed damage.
Assumed Flooding
The number of compartments involved in the assumed flooding conditions are based upon the Factor of sub-
division. Lesser the factor of sub-division , lesser the Permissible length of the compartment and hence more the
number of compartments taken into consideration for assumed flooding. However at any instant not more than 3
compartments are assumed to be in flooded condition.
The vessel must be able to withstand the flooding of the following number of compartments:
1) Factor of sub-division more than 0.5 THEN Any one compartment
2) Factor of sub-division between 0.5 and 0.33 THEN Any 2 adjacent compartments
Please consider the environment before printing out these copies 31
3) Factor of sub-division 0.33 or less THEN Any 3 adjacent
compartments
Assumed damage:
1) Vertical extent is from keel to deck
2) Transverse extent must be 20% of the Beam of the vessel.
3) Longitudinal extent of damage must be:
a) 11 mtrs between bulkhead (OR)
b) 3m + 3% of the length of the vessel, WHICHEVER IS LEAST
4) If the damage of lesser extent than indicated above would result in a more severe condition
regarding heel and GM loss, such damage shall be assumed for the purpose of the calculation.
(c) Outline the additional factors taken into account to determine the
permissible length of compartments in ships built after 1990.
Permissible length of the compartment having its centre at a point in the length of the ship means the product of the
floodable length at that point and the factor of sub division of the ship.
The features of the ship that are considered in determining the length for the purpose of subdivision calculation
includes:
1) Block co-efficient of the vessel
2) Freeboard ratio
3) Sheer Ratio
4) Compartment permeability
5) Length of the vessel
6) Number of passengers.
7) The proportion of the underwater space used for passengers / crew and machinery space
The permissible length between the compartments is reduced (due to decrease in the Factor of sub-division) when
1) The length of the ship is more
2) More number of passengers are carried
3) Much of the space below the waterline is used for passenger/crew accommodation and or machinery space.
Describe Stockholm agreement with reference to the stability requirement of Passenger Ro-Ro vessels.
Other factors:
1) High KG of cargo units on vehicle deck
2) Vulnerability of Ro-Ro units to shifting in bad weather.
3) High windage area of Ro-Ro vessels.
Discuss the stability problem associated with the design and operation of a
conventional Oil Rig supply vessel.
The stability of the Offshore supply vessel poses particular problem due to the following:
Water entrapment
The working deck is often used to carry drill supplies, machinery, pipes etc., some of which have been found to
retail large amount of water due to seas on the after deck. An allowance for such volume of water entrapped must be
made in the stability calculation.
Free Trim
1) Free trim affects the GZ curve of the vesse.
2) There is a reduction in the stability after the angle of deck edge immersion due to vessel trimming by stern
due to rolling.
3) This is caused by the after deck becoming awash and reducing the waterplane area when the vessel is heeled
in a seaway.
Stabiliser Tank
1) Many vessels are fitted with flume stabilizer tanks
2) These can be counter productive in some sea conditions for example when working cargo or working cables
overside.
3) This is because a heeling arm is produced which results in water in the stabilizer tank moving to the low side
in passive flume tanks thereby increasing the list.
4) Further more they will generate a significant FSE which will reduce the vessel’s stability and should be
allowed for.
What are the recommended measures to improve stability of the Offshore supply
vessels.
1) Discharge from top of stow first.
2) Consider the use of ballast to counteract any negative effects on stability or loading or discharging.
3) When ballasting at sea to counteract removal of cargo, due account should be taken of the adverse initial
effect of free surface on the vessel’s stability.
4) If necessary remove a sufficient quantity of highest deck cargo first.
5) Minimise free surfaces by keeping the number of slack tanks to a minimum.
6) When liquid cargo is being discharged, due account should be taken of the FSE on the vessel’s stability.
7) Load/discharge in such an order so as to maintain adequate trim and / or freeboard at all times.
8) When stowing deck cargo, adequate arrangements for drainage should be made between stowage racks to
the freeing ports.
9) Consideration should be given to the use of pipe plugs.
10) Allowance should be made in stability calculations for the entrapment of water.
11) In the calculation of the vessel’s statical stability curve, use KN tables that have been “Corrected for Free
Trim”
12) When stabilizer tanks are in use, the free surface effects should be taken into account in stability
calculations.
13) The means of dumping the contents of such tanks in an emergency should be tested.
14) Where port and starboard cargo or service tanks are cross connected such connections should be closed at
sea.
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES:
1) Various aspects in the tug’s design are usually incorporated so as to reduce the effect of heeling moment on
the overall stability of the vessel
2) These include giving the vessel a large beam / length ratio, increasing the freeboard, reducing the height of
the towing point etc.,
3) The use of long tow line with good shock absorbing capabilities (high stretch) will help to reduce sudden
heeling moments caused by high peak forces in the towline.
4) The danger of girting can be minimised by the use of GOG rope (also known as GOB or BRIDLE).
5) This rope is used to hold the towline down at or near the stern of the tug which ensures that the tug is
brought into line with the direction of the pull and a capsizing moment is avoided.
6) Slowing down the large vessel will also reduce the danger of girting.
7) Such an action will also reduce the vessel’s bow wave and therefore the heeling moment on any tug as it
takes a line under the bow.
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