Introduction to Electrical

Engineering
Course Code: EE 103

Department: Electrical Engineering

Instructor Name: B. G. Fernandes

E-mail id: bgf@ee.iitb.ac.in

EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes 1

 Rf=220 kΩ Rin=22 kΩ
Vin= 0.5 V Vout=-5.04 V
Vin=-0.5 V Vout= 4.98 V

Rf=2.2 MΩ Rin=220 kΩ
Vin= 0.5 V Vout=-5.01 V
Vin=-0.5 V Vout= 5.14 V

Rf=22 MΩ Rin=2.2 MΩ
Vin= 0.5 V Vout=-4.31 V
Vin=-0.5 V Vout= 5.60 V

EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes 2

Review
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 ≠ 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑉 = 4.44𝑓𝑁𝜙
(No. of cycles in one (360 for one rotation)
rotation depends 𝜙 in the coil is determined by the supply voltage alone
on no. of poles)
𝑣
For a given V, as F
N & size, weight
𝑡

EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes 3

Elementary concepts – magnetic circuits
𝑀𝑀𝐹
∴𝐻=
𝑙 𝜇 ⋅ 𝑀𝑀𝐹 ⋅ 𝐴 𝑀𝑀𝐹 𝑁𝐼 ℛ → reluctance of magnetic path
𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 & 𝜙 = 𝐵 ⋅ 𝐴 ∴𝜙= = =
𝑙 𝑙 ℛ 𝒫 = → permeance
𝜇𝐴 ℛ

Observations:
Consider an air gap s.t. 𝑙 ≪𝑙
𝜙= is similar to 𝐼 = • Flux has to cross the air gap  it will encounter two reluctances
ℛ
ℛ → reluctance of air gap =
cross-section area of air gap
ℛ= is similar to 𝑅 =
ℛ → reluctance of core =
As the core permeability is
very high, 𝜇 → ∞ ⇒ 𝑅 → 0

Thus, the entire MMF (𝑁𝐼 )

is applied across the ℛ ,
that is, the air gap

EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes 4

Flux-fringing

To the scale

EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes 5

Flux-linkage and flux-leakage

To the scale

EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes 6

Classification of Machines
I𝐼
Load
stator  DC Electric or
DC machine machine Source
rotor ‘ ’ flowing in the load OR from
an external source is DC

AC machine

synchronous machine asynchronous machine

stator rotor stator rotor
AC/DC DC/AC
AC

EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes 7

 DC Machine
Stator:
• Field coils are mounted on the projected part & connected
to a dc source
• Coil is stationary and ‘𝐼’ is dc (can be replaced by PM)
• Time invariant field  angular speed of 𝐹𝑠 = 0

• In the airgap, either the conductor is rotated or external ‘𝐼’ should

be supplied

Wikipedia

EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes 8

Rotor:

• Rotor has slots at the outer periphery

• In addition, there is a commutator  it has
large number of copper segments & these
segments are insulated by mica
• Coils having desired number of turns are Wikimedia

placed in these slots and two ends of the coil

are connected to the copper strips
• Two carbon brushes are placed as shown on
the copper commutator
• These carbon brushes are mounted on the
commutator but fixed to the stator

Pinterest

EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes Slide 9

Magnetic Equivalent circuit of DC Machine
Ry

VF Rp Ra Rr Ra Rp
NI NI
IF

Ry

&

EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes Slide 10

Equivalent circuit of a DC machine
• dc current (𝐼 ) is flowing in the field coil
𝑅𝐹  field winding resistance
𝐿𝐹  field winding inductance
• At steady state 𝑉 = 𝑅 𝐼𝐹
• To improve the efficiency, field coil can be replaced by Permanent magnets
 PMDC machine
• Armature is rotating in the magnetic field, voltage induced is 𝐸 ∝ 𝜙𝜔,
where 𝜙 flux setup by field, and 𝜔 is angular speed
• 𝐸 can be represented by 𝐸 = 𝐾𝜙𝜔

• In motoring mode, terminal voltage, 𝑉 is given as: 𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼 𝑅

• In this mode, 𝐼 enters the armature from ‘+’ terminal of supply, and ‘𝐸’
opposes it. Hence, ‘𝐸’ is also known as ‘back-emf’

• In generating mode: 𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼 𝑅
• In this mode, 𝐼 leaves the armature from ‘+’ terminal of 𝑉 . Here, ‘𝐸’ is
known as ‘induced emf’
EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes Slide 11
 Self Excitation in DC Generator
 Electromagnet retain same magnetism when the supply is switched off B
Residual Magnetism
Rotate the armature in the field created by
Br
A small voltage is induced in the armature
H
If the circuit is complete small will flow
If produced by aids the residual flux, net flux in the air-gap increases & hence

EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes Slide 12

Torque in DC machines
• Carbon brushes are stationary
• Direction of ‘𝐼’ reverses when the coil crosses the brushes
• Conductors under one pole carry ‘𝐼’ in one direction
• Armature MMF axis is fixed and it is along brush axis
• Angle between 𝐹 and 𝐹 is 90° and is fixed, this angle is independent
of load

𝛿 = 90° ∴ 𝑇 ∝ 𝐹 ⋅ 𝐹

𝐹 ∝ 𝐼  armature current (∵ no. of turns in armature is constant)

𝛿
Therefore, ‘torque per ampere’ is MAXIMUM in DC machines,

or, 𝛿 = 90° is the condition to get maximum ‘torque per ampere’

EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes Slide 13

Separately excited dc motor 𝐼𝐹 𝐼

• Field is connected to a separate dc source

Terminal voltage: 𝑉
𝑅
𝑉
𝐸

 Armature power input

 Loss in armature winding, since the winding is made up
of copper wire, this loss is also known as armature copper loss
Recall,
Now, Input power – loss  Power developed in the armature
Armature is rotating  there will be small friction loss, ignore this loss
here, stator
Power developed in the armature = Power available at the motor shaft = produces ‘ ’
and

EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes Slide 14

Advantages of DC machines: Limitations of DC machines:

• The armature and field MMF can be • Commutator and brushes wear over time
controlled independently  require regular maintenance
• Torque control is simple 𝐹 • Short-circuiting commutator segments give rise
• ‘Torque per ampere’ is maximum to spark  can not be used in explosive
environments
𝛿 𝐹

• In DC machine  Stator field is ‘time-invariant’

 Stator winding is concentrated and
connected to a DC supply

Wikipedia

*Induction Motor Market Size, Share & Industry Analysis, https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/industry-reports/induction-motor-market-101639

$ Induction Motor Market - Growth, Trends, and Forecast (2020 - 2025), https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/induction-motor-market

EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes Slide 15

 Asynchronous machine: Stator  AC, Rotor  AC

• Induction motor is also known as asynchronous machine

• Of all the motors used, more that 80% are Induction motor*
• “Almost 70% of the machinery in industrial applications uses
three-phase induction motors”$

• In induction machine  Stator winding is distributed

EE 103: Introduction to Electrical Engineering Prof. B. G. Fernandes Slide 16