11/20/22, 6:40 AM Problematizing Perfectionism: A Closer Look at the Perfectionism Construct

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APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY
OPUS

PROBLEMATIZING
PERFECTIONISM: A CLOSER LOOK
AT THE PERFECTIONISM
CONSTRUCT
Letter from the Editor
BRIT LIZABETH LIPPMAN
Staff Articles
         Growing up, most of us have heard
that practice makes perfect, a common
Epigenetic effects of
idiom that elicits a dual interpretation. On
Maternal Behavior…
the one hand, the phrase may serve as an
Sounds a lot like
incentive for perseverance—if we simply
Attachment Theory
work hard enough, we can eventually
Mean Kids, Mean Moms?
achieve our goals and reach success.
Problematizing
However, it also implies that perfect is an
Perfectionism: A Closer
attainable way of being, and there must be
Look at the Perfectionism
something wrong with us if our
Construct
performance remains flawed after
Food Allergy and
excessive practice. The scholarly literature
Bullying: The
reflects this dichotomous view of
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11/20/22, 6:40 AM Problematizing Perfectionism: A Closer Look at the Perfectionism Construct

Implications for Parents perfectionism by addressing both the

of Children with Food benefits and risks that are associated with
Allergies the desire to be perfect. Most scholars
Child Maltreatment and contend that while being a perfectionist
Resilience in the may contribute to success, it can also serve
Academic Environment as a detriment to psychological wellbeing.
In fact, the discussion continues among
Submissions scholars as to whether perfectionism can
ever be classified in a positive light or
The Role of Consumer whether it is strictly a negative quality.
Satisfaction in Psychiatric Interestingly, studies have found links
Care between perfectionism and certain
The Many Treatment psychopathology that shed light on the
Methodologies for importance of studying the construct.
Phobias: Finding the Best Although research has come a long way in
Fit identifying these links and understanding
The Effect of Post- the thought processes of perfectionists, it
Traumatic Stress has done little to acknowledge the broader
Disorder on the Ability to social context that play into perfectionist
Recognize Facial thinking and behavior. The current article
Expressions reviews the evolution of perfectionism as a
The Female/Athlete psychological construct while
Paradox: Managing acknowledging the gaps in the research that
Traditional Views of warrant further consideration, particularly
Masculinity and with regard to the social context of
Femininity perfectionism.
Socio-emotional
Over the past few decades, researchers
Interventions: The
have adopted an increasingly dimensional
Efficacy of Socio-
perspective on perfectionism that has
Emotional Interventions
resulted in various classifications of the
in Head Start Classrooms
construct. The multidimensional measure
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11/20/22, 6:40 AM Problematizing Perfectionism: A Closer Look at the Perfectionism Construct

Comparing the type of of perfectionism, established by Frost et al.

trauma and the severity (1990), acknowledged five different
of PTSD symptoms in dimensions of the construct, including
children and adolescents Personal Standards, Concern Over
Mistakes, Parental Expectations, Doubting
Abstracts of Actions, and Organization. According to
Frost’s model, perfectionists are individuals
The Role of Community who set high and often unrealistic
Connection for standards for themselves and evaluate
Immigrant Youth’s themselves harshly if they do not meet
School Engagement those standards. They believe that their
Household Economic parents will judge them stringently for
Shock and the Academic mistakes and they tend to equate these
Experiences of College mistakes with failure. Perfectionists may
Women also feel unconditionally dissatisfied with
Sexual Minority Identity tasks they complete, and can be
Development, Onset of preoccupied with order and organization
Same-Sex Sexual (Frost et al., 1990). Frost et al.’s (1990)
Behavior, and HIV Risk breakdown of these different components
Outcomes of perfectionist thinking served as an
Parent-Child Interactions important initial step to understanding the
in Behavioral Treatment cognition underlying perfectionism. In
of Selective Mutism: A addition to its individual components,
Case Study perfectionism is also discussed in terms of
Children’s Fictional its origin and directionality. The literature
Narratives: Gender cites three main types: self-oriented
Differences in perfectionism, other-oriented
Storytelling perfectionism, and socially prescribed
Risk-Taking Behaviors in perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Self-
First Generation oriented perfectionism, as its name
Immigrant Adolescents: suggests, focuses entirely on the self;

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The Role of Acculturative perfectionists who are self-oriented set

Stress and Social Support specific personal standards and evaluate
Promoting the themselves based on these high standards.
Mathematics If and when their expectations are not met,
Achievement of self-blame ensues. In contrast, other-
Economically oriented perfectionism is a display of
Disadvantaged Latino perfectionist standards directed towards
and African American another individual. The other-oriented
Students: Understanding perfectionist holds others to unrealistically
the Roles of Parental high standards, and harshly evaluates the
Involvement and person to whom the perfectionist behavior
Expectations is directed. Unlike the other types of
Caregiver and Teacher perfectionism, socially prescribed
Use of Evaluation and the perfectionism is externally derived; these
Development of Latino perfectionists believe that the important
Preschooler’s Socio- people in their lives will judge them
Emotional Skills strictly, and consequently bear the burden
of measuring up to the expectations of
Staff and Writer others (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Thus, the
Biographies pressure that perfectionists feel to succeed
differs for each individual and can
Staff Bios manifest in many different ways. However,
Contributor Bios it is important to consider that labeling the
dimensions and types of perfectionists
serves to further pathologize perfectionism rather than addressing the
larger societal pressures that might be linked to the prevalence of such
behavior. In other words, it merely describes the problem without
addressing its source.

Interestingly, perfectionism is not always considered problematic, and it

has been conceptualized in both a positive and a negative light in the

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literature. One of the first scholars to acknowledge a difference between

healthy and unhealthy forms of perfectionism was Hamachek (1978),
who differentiated between “normal” and “neurotic” perfectionists. In
his seminal work, Hamachek (1978) asserted that all perfectionists are
individuals who hold high standards for themselves, but that neurotic
perfectionists are unique in that they never feel satisfied despite their
successes. According to Hamachek (1978), these normal perfectionists
were considered to be adaptive, while neurotic perfectionists displayed a
maladaptive form of perfectionism.

Later, Slade and Owens (1998) proposed a dual process model that
followed a similar ideology to that of Hamachek and other previous
theorists, coining the terms positive and negative perfectionism. They
asserted that the former was driven by a desire for success and
achievement of goals, while the latter was driven by negative
reinforcement and the avoidance of failure. In Slade and Owens’ (1998)
theory, the concept of possible selves (Markus & Nurius, 1986) seemed to
play an integral role in gauging the detrimental nature of perfectionism:
positive perfectionists are motivated by the future possible selves that
they hope to become, while negative perfectionists strive to avoid the
possible selves they fear becoming. Along the same vein, Turner and
Turner (2011) contended that higher levels of shame and guilt, and lower
levels of pride mark an important difference between healthy and
unhealthy perfectionists. Their findings align with those of many fellow
researchers who believe that the desire to be perfect should not
necessarily be pathologized in all cases. Nonetheless, the
dichotomization of perfectionism begs the question: what are the larger
external factors that serve to differentiate between healthy and
unhealthy perfectionists?

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The notion that perfectionism carries any potential to be positive has

not remained entirely free from criticism. Some theorists express
skepticism toward Slade and Owen’s dual model— or any model that
suggests a positive side to perfectionism—with concern that it reinforces
the image of perfection as a socially acceptable and desirable ideal (Flett
& Hewitt, 2006). In fact, researchers raise the controversial question as
to whether perfectionism is ever truly a positive quality, emphasizing
the danger of “equating perfectionism with high levels of
conscientiousness” (Flett & Hewitt, 2006, p. 476). Flett and Hewitt (2002;
2006) argue that it is both possible and preferable to be
achievementoriented and conscientious without necessarily being a
perfectionist. Interestingly, this controversy demonstrates the ways in
which Western cultural values of high standards and excellence
convolute the dialogue surrounding perfectionism and serve as a
mechanism to promote perfectionist behavior by encouraging people to
strive for the best (Bieling et al., 2004). Thus, it is possible that the idea
of a beneficial perfectionism is actually linked to Western values that
foster not only independence, but also a desire to surpass others in
achievement.

The concern that perfectionism may be harmful stems from links that
were found between perfectionism and psychopathology. For instance,
Bieling et al. (2004) found that both adaptive and maladaptive forms of
perfectionisms are correlated with higher levels of depression, anxiety,
stress, and test-taking anxiety, although maladaptive perfectionism
alone was found to be a predictor of psychopathology. In particular, the
literature has linked perfectionism to both depression and eating
disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia (Blatt, 1995; Shafran &
Mansell, 2001). In fact, Blatt (1995) referred to the “destructiveness of
perfectionism” and addressed the troubling link between perfectionism
and suicidal depression. Some scholars suggest that the relationship

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between these constructs is closely related to locus of control (Blatt,

1995; Periasamy & Ashby, 2002). For instance, one study showed that
adaptive perfectionists were found to have a greater external locus of
control when compared to adaptive perfectionists, meaning that their
motivation for achievement is externally derived and their sense of self-
worth is thus dependent on the evaluation of others (Periasamy & Ashby,
2002). Since perfectionists are likely to avoid failure and criticism at all
costs, they are also more likely to be depressed when they do not have
the control to escape criticism from others (Blatt, 1995). Additionally,
with the upcoming DSM-V currently underway, there is a recent push
for perfectionism to be emphasized in terms of its relation to several
Axis II personality disorders, beyond its current link to Obsessive
Compulsive Personality Disorder (Ayearst, Flett, & Hewitt, 2012). Links
between mental health problems and perfectionism raise the question:
what marks the difference between those who develop this pathology
and those who do not? Further, considering the prevalence of
perfectionist thinking in cases of depression and eating disorders, why
do some scholars continue to assert that perfectionism can be healthy?

Overall, the literature surrounding perfectionism provides us with

mixed ideas as to whether perfectionism is psychologically healthy or
solely harmful. Researchers continue to divide the construct into
multiple categories of good and bad, of healthy and unhealthy. In
making these classifications, researchers tend to focus on the specific
character traits associated with perfectionists. However, they fail to
consider the cultural and societal context from which perfectionist traits
are born. In doing so, they perpetuate the cycle of pathologizing
individuals rather than seeking out the societal ills that sparked the
problem in the first place. Furthermore, the literature demonstrates the
contradictory nature of Western cultural views of perfectionism. On the
one hand, striving for perfection is encouraged, but when it results in a

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psychiatric disorder, the individual receives diagnosis and is classified as

an “unhealthy perfectionist.” Future researchers must consider looking
beyond individual pathology in order to identify the larger social factors
that breed perfectionism.

REFERENCES

Ayearst, L. E., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2012). Where is

multidimensional perfectionism in DSM-5? A question posed to the
DSM-5 personality and personality disorders work group. Personality
Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment. Advance online publication.

Bieling, P. J., Israeli, A. L, & Antony, M. M. (2004). Is perfectionism good,

bad, or both? Examining models of the perfectionism construct.
Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1373-1385.

Blatt, S. J. (1995). The destructiveness of perfectionism: Implications for

the treatment of depression. American Psychologist, 50(12), 1003-1020.

Flett, G. L. & Hewitt, P. L. (2002). Perfectionism and maladjustment: An

overview of theoretical, definitional, and treatment issues. In G. Flett &
P. Hewitt (Eds.),Perfectionism: Theory, Research, & Treatment (pp. 5-31).
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Flett, G. L. & Hewitt, P. L. (2006). Positive versus negative perfectionism

in psychopathology: A comment on Slade and Owens’s dual process
model. Behavior Modification, 30, 472-495. Frost, R. O., Marten, P.,
Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism.
Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14(5), 449-468.

Hamachek, D.E. (1978). Psychodynamics of normal and neurotic

perfectionism.Psychology, 15, 27-33.
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11/20/22, 6:40 AM Problematizing Perfectionism: A Closer Look at the Perfectionism Construct

Hewitt, P. L. & Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social

contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with
psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(3), 456-
470.

Hewitt, P. L. & Flett, G. L. (1993). Dimensions of perfectionism, daily

stress and depression: A test of the specific vulnerability hypothesis.
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102(1), 58-65.

Hewitt, P. L., Mittelstaedt, W. M., & Flett, G. L. (1990). Self-oriented

perfectionism and generalized performance importance in depression.
Individual Psychology, 46(1), 67-73.

Markus, H. & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist,

41(9), 954-969.

Periasamy, S. & Ashby, J. S. Multidimensional perfectionism and locus of

control: Adaptive vs. maladaptive perfectionism. Journal of College
Student Psychotherapy, 17(2), 75-86.

Shafran, R. & Mansell, W. (2001). Perfectionism and psychopathology: A

review of research and treatment. Clinical Psychology Review, 21(6), 879-
906.

Slade, P. D. & Owens, R. G. (1998). A dual process model of

perfectionism based on reinforcement theory. Behavior Modification, 22,
372-390.

Turner, L. A. & Turner, P. E. (2011). The reaction of behavioral inhibition

and perceived parenting to maladaptive perfectionism in college
students. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 840-844.

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AUTHOR’S BIOGRAPHY

Brit Lizabeth Lippman is a senior in the Applied Psychology

Undergraduate Program. Currently, she works with Dr. Niobe Way
studying the experience of adolescents in Delhi, India. She is also a
research assistant to Drs. Alisha Ali and Randy Mowry, exploring means
of empowerment for victims of domestic violence. Brit’s research
interests include mental health of people with disabilities, therapeutic
interventions for people with psychotic disorders, and the phenomenon
of gender socialization among adolescents. She looks forward to
beginning a doctoral program in Clinical Psychology at Hofstra
University this fall.

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