Discrete Structures & Theory of

Logic

Subject Code- KCS - 303

Unit-2
 Group Theory
• Group Theory is a branch of mathematics and abstract algebra that
defines an algebraic structure named as group. Generally, a group
comprises of a set of elements and an operation over any two
elements on that set to form a third element also in that set.

• In 1854, Arthur Cayley, the British Mathematician, gave the modern

definition of group for the first time −
“A set of symbols all of them different, and such that the product of
any two of them (no matter in what order), or the product of any
one of them into itself, belongs to the set, is said to be a group.
These symbols are not in general convertible [commutative], but are
associative.”
• In this chapter, we will know about operators and
postulates that form the basics of set theory, group theory
and Boolean algebra.
• Any set of elements in a mathematical system may be
defined with a set of operators and a number of postulates.
• A binary operator defined on a set of elements is a rule
that assigns to each pair of elements a unique element
from that set.
• For example, given the set A={1,2,3,4,5}, we can say is a
binary operator for the operation c=a b, if it specifies a
rule for finding c for the pair of (a,b), such that a,b,c A.
• The postulates of a mathematical system form the basic
assumptions from which rules can be deduced.
 Closure
• set is closed with respect to a binary operator if for
every pair of elements in the set, the operator finds a
unique element from that set.
• Example
• Let A={0,1,2,3,4,5,…}
• This set is closed under binary operator into ( ),
because for the operation c=a b, for any a,b A, the
product c A.
• The set is not closed under binary operator divide (÷),
because, for the operation c=a÷b, for any a,b A, the
product c may not be in the set A.
• If a=7,b=2, then c=3.5. Here a,b A but c A.
 Algebraic systems
N = {1,2,3,4,….. } = Set of all natural numbers.
Z = { 0,  1,  2,  3,  4 , ….. } = Set of all integers.
Q = Set of all rational numbers.
R = Set of all real numbers.
Binary Operation: The binary operator * is said to be a binary
operation (closed operation) on a non empty set A, if a * b
 A for all a, b  A (Closure property).
Ex:The set N is closed with respect to addition and
multiplication but not w.r.t subtraction and division.

Algebraic System: A set ‘A’ with one or more binary(closed)

operations defined on it is called an algebraic system.
Ex: (N, + ), (Z, +, – ), (R, +, . , – ) are algebraic systems.
 Properties

 Commutative: Let * be a binary operation on a set A.

The operation * is said to be commutative in A if
a * b= b * a for all a, b in A
 Associativity: Let * be a binary operation on a set A.
The operation * is said to be associative in A if
(a * b) * c = a *( b * c) for all a, b, c in A
 Identity: For an algebraic system (A, *), an element ‘e’ in A is said to
be an identity element of A if
a * e = e * a = a for all a  A.
 Note: For an algebraic system (A, *), the identity element, if exists, is
unique.
 Inverse: Let (A, *) be an algebraic system with identity ‘e’. Let a be
an element in A. An element b is said to be inverse of A if
a*b=b*a=e
 Algebraic systems

Abelian groups
Groups
Monoids
Semi groups
Algebraic systems
 Associative Laws
• A binary operator on a set A is associative
when it holds the following property −
• (x y) z=x (y z), where x,y,z A
• Example
• Let A={1,2,3,4}
• The operator plus (+) is associative because for
any three elements, x,y,z A, the property
(x+y)+z=x+(y+z) holds.
• The operator minus (−) is not associative since
• (x−y)−z≠x−(y−z)
 Commutative Laws
• A binary operator on a set A is commutative
when it holds the following property −
• x y=y x, where x,y A
• Example
• Let A={1,2,3,4}
• The operator plus (+) is commutative because for
any two elements, x,y A
• the property x+y=y+x holds.
• The operator minus (−) is not associative since
• x−y≠y−x
 Distributive Laws
• Two binary operators and on a set A, are distributive
over operator when the following property holds −
• x (y z)=(x y) (x z), where x,y,z A
• Example
• Let A={1,2,3,4}
• The operators into ( ) and plus (+) are distributive over
operator + because for any three elements, x,y,z A, the
• property x (y+z)=(x y)+(x z) holds.
• However, these operators are not distributive over since
• x+(y z)≠(x+y) (x+z)
 Identity Element
• A set A has an identity element with respect to a binary
operation on A, if there exists an element e A, such
that the following property holds −
• e x=x e, where x A
• Example
• Let Z={0,1,2,3,4,5,…}
• The element 1 is an identity element with respect to
operation since for any element x Z,
• 1 x=x 1
• On the other hand, there is no identity element for the
operation minus (−)
 Inverse
• If a set A has an identity element e with respect
to a binary operator ,
• it is said to have an inverse whenever for every
element x A, there exists another element y A,
such that the following property holds −
• x y=e
• Example
• Let A={ −4,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,4,5,…}
• Given the operation plus (+) and e=0, the inverse
of any element x is (−x) since x+(x)=0
 De Morgan's Law
• De Morgan’s Laws gives a pair of
transformations between union and
intersection of two (or more) sets in terms of
their complements.
• The laws are −
(A B)′=A′∩B′
(A∩B)′=A′ B′
Example
Let A={1,2,3,4}, B={1,3,5,7}, and Universal set
U={1,2,3,…,9,10}
A′={5,6,7,8,9,10}
B′={2,4,6,8,9,10}
A B={1,2,3,4,5,7}
A∩B={1,3}
(A B)′={6,8,9,10}
A′∩B′={6,8,9,10}
Thus, we see that (A B)′=A′∩B′
(A∩B)′={2,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A′ B′={2,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
Thus, we see that (A∩B)′=A′ B′
 Semigroup
• A finite or infinite set ‘S′ with a binary operation ‘ο′ (Composition) is
called semigroup if it holds following two conditions simultaneously
−
• Closure − For every pair (a,b) S,(aοb) has to be present in the set S.
• Associative−For every element a,b,c S,(aοb)οc=aο(bοc) must hold.
Or
• An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a semi group if
1. * is closed operation on A.
2. * is an associative operation, for all a, b, c in A.
Ex. (N, +) is a semi group.
Ex. (N, .) is a semi group.
Ex. (N, – ) is not a semi group.
Example:
• The set of positive integers (excluding zero)
with addition operation is a semigroup.
• For example, S={1,2,3,…}
• Here closure property holds as for every pair
(a,b) S,(a+b) is present in the set S.
• For example, 1+2=3 S
• Associative property also holds for every
element a,b,c S,(a+b)+c=a+(b+c).
• For example, (1+2)+3=1+(2+3)=5
 Monoid
• A monoid is a semigroup with an identity element. The
identity element (denoted by e or E) of a set S is an
element such that (aοe)=a, for every element a S.
• An identity element is also called a unit element. So, a
monoid holds three properties simultaneously −
Closure, Associative, Identity element.
• Or
 An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a monoid if the
following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation in A.
2) * is an associative operation in A.
3) There is an identity in A.
Example
• The set of positive integers (excluding zero) with
multiplication operation is a monoid. S={1,2,3,…}
• Here closure property holds as for every pair
(a,b) S,(a×b) is present in the set S. [For example,
1×2=2 S and so on]
• Associative property also holds for every element
a,b,c S,(a×b)×c=a×(b×c)
[For example, (1×2)×3=1×(2×3)=6 and so on]
• Identity property also holds for every element
a S,(a×e)=a [For example, (2×1)=2,(3×1)=3 and
so on]. Here identity element is 1.
 Monoid
 Ex. Show that the set ‘N’ is a monoid with respect to
multiplication.
 Solution: Here, N = {1,2,3,4,……}
1. Closure property : We know that product of two natural numbers is
again a natural number.
i.e., a.b = b.a for all a,b  N
 Multiplication is a closed operation.
2. Associativity : Multiplication of natural numbers is associative.
i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c  N
3. Identity : We have, 1  N such that
a.1 = 1.a = a for all a  N.
 Identity element exists, and 1 is the identity element.
Hence, N is a monoid with respect to multiplication.
 Subsemigroup & submonoid
Subsemigroup : Let (S, * ) be a semigroup and let T be a
subset of S. If T is closed under operation * , then (T, * ) is
called a subsemigroup of (S, * ).
Ex: (N, .) is semigroup and T is set of multiples of positive
integer m then (T,.) is a sub semigroup.

Submonoid : Let (S, * ) be a monoid with identity e, and let T

be a non- empty subset of S. If T is closed under the
operation * and e  T, then (T, * ) is called a submonoid of
(S, * ).
 Group
• A group is a monoid with an inverse element. The
inverse element (denoted by I) of a set S is an element
such that (aοI)=(Iοa)=a, for each element a S. So, a
group holds four properties simultaneously –
i) Closure,
ii) Associative,
iii) Identity element,
iv) Inverse element.
• The order of a group G is the number of elements in G
and the order of an element in a group is the least
positive integer n such that n is the identity element of
that group G.
 or
 Group: An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be a group if
the following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation.
2) * is an associative operation.
3) There is an identity in G.
4) Every element in G has inverse in G.
Examples
• The set of N×N non-singular matrices form a group under matrix
multiplication operation.
• The product of two N×N non-singular matrices is also an N×N
non-singular matrix which holds closure property.
• Matrix multiplication itself is associative. Hence, associative
property holds.
• The set of N×N non-singular matrices contains the identity
matrix holding the identity element property.
• As all the matrices are non-singular they all have inverse
elements which are also nonsingular matrices. Hence, inverse
property also holds.
 Abelian Group
• An abelian group G is a group for which the
element pair (a,b) G always holds commutative
law. So, a group holds five properties
simultaneously –
i) Closure,
ii) Associative,
iii) Identity element,
iv) Inverse element,
v) Commutative.
Example
• The set of positive integers (including zero) with addition
operation is an abelian group. G={0,1,2,3,…}
• Here closure property holds as for every pair (a,b) S,(a+b)
is present in the set S. [For example, 1+2=3 S and so on]
• Associative property also holds for every element
a,b,c S,(a+b)+c=a+(b+c) [For example, (1+2)+3=1+(2+3)=6
and so on]
• Identity property also holds for every element a S,(a×e)=a
[For example, (2×1)=2,(3×1)=3 and so on]. Here, identity
element is 1.
• Commutative property also holds for every element
a S,(a×b)=(b×a) [For example, (2×3)=(3×2)=6 and so on]
 Cyclic Group and Subgroup
• A cyclic group is a group that can be generated
by a single element. Every element of a cyclic
group is a power of some specific element
which is called a generator.
• A cyclic group can be generated by a
generator ‘g’, such that every other element of
the group can be written as a power of the
generator ‘g’.
Example
• The set of complex numbers {1,−1,i,−i} under
multiplication operation is a cyclic group.
• There are two generators: i and –i
• i as i^1=i,i^2=−1,i^3=−i,i^4=1 and also (–i)1=−i,
(–i)2=−1,(–i)3=i,(–i)4=1 which covers all the
elements of the group.
• Hence, it is a cyclic group.
• Note − A cyclic group is always an abelian group
but not every abelian group is a cyclic group. The
rational numbers under addition is not cyclic but
is abelian.
• A subgroup H is a subset of a group G
(denoted by H≤G) if it satisfies the four
properties simultaneously − Closure,
Associative, Identity element, and Inverse.
• A subgroup H of a group G that does not
include the whole group G is called a proper
subgroup (Denoted by H<G). A subgroup of a
cyclic group is cyclic and a abelian subgroup is
also abelian.
• Example
• Let a group G={1,i,−1,−i}
• Then some subgroups are H1={1},H2={1,−1},
• (Z, +) is a subgroup of (Q, +) which is a
subgroup of (R, +) which is a subgroup of (C,
+). On the other hand, (Q \ {0}, ·) is not a
subgroup of (Q, +) and Zn is not a subgroup of
Z.
 Partially Ordered Set (POSET)
• For this topic please check unit 1 notes.
• ({1,2,4,5},<)
 Hasse Diagram
• The Hasse diagram of a poset is the directed graph whose vertices
are the element of that poset and the arcs covers the pairs (x, y) in
the poset. If in the poset x<y then the point x appears lower than
the point y in the Hasse diagram. If x<y<z in the poset, then the
arrow is not shown between x and z as it is implicit.
Or
• A Hasse diagram is a graphical representation of the relation of
elements of a partially ordered set (poset) with an implied upward
orientation. A point is drawn for each element of the partially
ordered set (poset) and joined with the line segment according to
the following rules:
1. If p<q in the poset, then the point corresponding to p appears
lower in the drawing than the point corresponding to q.
2. The two points p and q will be joined by line segment iff p is
related to q.
• To draw a Hasse diagram, provided set must
be a poset. A poset or partially ordered set A
is a pair, ( B,≤ ) of a set B whose elements are
called the vertices of A and obeys following
rules:
• Reflexivity → p ≤ p for all p B
• Anti-symmetric → p ≤ q and q ≤ p iff p=q
• Transitivity → if p ≤ q and q ≤ r then p ≤ r
 Example: Consider the set A = {4, 5, 6, 7}. Let R be
the relation ≤ on A. Draw the directed graph and
the Hasse diagram of R.
Solution: The relation ≤ on the set A is given by
• R = {{4, 5}, {4, 6}, {4, 7}, {5, 6}, {5, 7}, {6, 7}, {4, 4}, {5, 5}, {6,
6}, {7, 7}}
• The directed graph of the relation R is as shown in fig:
• To draw the Hasse diagram of partial order, apply the
following points:
• Delete all edges implied by reflexive property i.e.(4, 4), (5,
5), (6, 6), (7, 7)
• Delete all edges implied by transitive property i.e.(4, 7), (5,
7), (4, 6)
• Replace the circles representing the vertices by dots.
• Omit the arrows.
The Hasse diagram is as shown in fig:
Example-1: Draw Hasse diagram for ({3, 4, 12,
24, 48, 72}, /)
Explanation– According to above given question
first, we have to find the poset for the
divisibility. Let the set is A.
A={(3,12), (3,24), (3,48), (3,72), (4,12), (4,24),
(4,48), (4,72), (12,24), (12,48), (12,72), (24,48),
(24,72)}
So, now the Hasse diagram will be:
• In above diagram, 3 and 4 are at same level because they are not related to each
other and they are smaller than other elements in the set.
• The next succeeding element for 3 and 4 is 12 i.e, 12 is divisible by both 3 and 4.
Then 24 is divisible by 3, 4 and 12.
• Hence, it is placed above 12. 24divides both 48 and 72 but 48 does not divide 72.
Hence 48 and 72 are not joined.
For regular Hasse Diagram:
• Maximal elements are those which are not succeeded by another element.
• Minimal elements are those which are not preceded by another element.
• Greatest element (if it exists) is the element succeeding all other elements.
• Least element is the element that precedes all other elements.
 The poset of subsets of
({1,2,3}, )={ ,{1},{2},{3},{1,2},{1,3},{2,3},{1,2,3}} is
shown by the following Hasse diagram −
Meanings
• Definition : an explanation of the mathematical meaning of a word.
• Theorem : A statement that has been proven to be true.
• Proposition : A less important but nonetheless interesting true statement.
• Lemma: A true statement used in proving other true statements (that is, a less
important theorem that is helpful in the proof of other results).
• Corollary: A true statment that is a simple deduction from a theorem or proposition.
• Proof: The explanation of why a statement is true.
• Conjecture: A statement believed to be true, but for which we have no proof. (a
statement that is being proposed to be a true statement).
• Axiom: A basic assumption about a mathematical situation. (a statement we assume
to be true).
 Cosets

• If H is a sub group of( G, * ) and a  G then the set

Ha = { h * a h  H}is called a right coset of H in G.
Similarly aH = {a * h  h  H}is called a left coset of H is G.
Or
• In group theory, if G is a finite group, and H is a subgroup of G, and if g
is an element of G, then;
• gH = { gh: h an element of H } is the left coset of H in G with respect to
the element of G
And
• Hg = { hg: h an element of H } is the right coset of H in G with respect
to the element of G.
• Note:- 1) Any two left (right) cosets of H in G are
either identical or disjoint.
• 2) Let H be a sub group of G. Then the right cosets of
H form a partition of G. i.e., the union of all right
cosets of a sub group H is equal to G.
• 3) Lagrange’s theorem: The order of each sub group
of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the
group.
• 4) The order of every element of a finite group is a
divisor of the order of the group.
• 5) The converse of the lagrange’s theorem need not
be true.
 Lagrange's Theorem
If G is finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then |H| divides
|G|.
• The number of distinct left (right) cosets of H in G is
• |G|/|H|
Or
• IT is one of the central theorems of abstract algebra.
It states that in group theory, for any finite group say G,
the order of subgroup H of group G divides the order of
G. The order of the group represents the number of
elements. This theorem was given by Joseph-Louis
Lagrange.
• Example:- If |G| = 14 then the only possible orders for a
subgroup are 1, 2, 7, and 14.
• The number of different right cosets of H in G
is called the index of H in G and is denoted by
[G : H].
• It follows from the above definition and the
proof of Lagrange’s theorem that
|G| = [G : H]|H|.
Example: Since | S3 | = 3! = 6
and |(12)| = | < (12) > | = 2
then [S3, < (12) >] = 6 /2 = 3.
• The Converse of Lagrange’s Theorem The converse of
Lagrange’s theorem is not true in general. That is, if n is
a divisor of G then it does not necessarily follow that G
has a subgroup of order n.
• Example:
The set of all even permutations
A4 = {(1),(12)(34),(13)(24),(14)(23),(123),(132),(124),
(142),(134),(143),(234),(243)}
is a subgroup of S4 (and therefore a group itself) of
order 12.
Note that A4 has three elements of order 2, namely,
{(12)(34),(13)(24),(14)(23)}
and 8 elements of order 3,
(123),(132),(124),(142),(134),(143),(234),(243)}
• We will show that A4 has no subgroup of order 6.
• Let H be a subgroup of A4 of order 6. Then (1) H. Since A4 contains
only 3 elements of order 2 then H must contain at least one
element of order 3 of the form (abc).
• Then by closure, (acb) = (abc)(abc) H.
• If H also contains an element, say of the form
• (ab)(cd)(or of the form (abd)),
• then by closure (abc)(ab)(cd) = (acd) H
• and (acb)(ab)(cd) = (bcd).
• Thus, (bcd) −1 = (bdc) H.
• In either case, H has more than six elements. Thus, A4 has no
subgroup of order 6.
• The converse of Lagrange’s theorem is valid for cyclic groups. To
prove this result we need the following two theorems.
• Now, let us have a discussion about the lemmas
that helps to prove the Lagrange theorem.
• Lemma 1: If G is a group with subgroup H, then
there is a one to one correspondence between H
and any coset of H.
• Lemma 2: If G is a group with subgroup H, then
the left coset relation, g1 g2 if and only if g1
H = g2 H is an equivalence relation.
• Lemma 3: Let S be a set and be an equivalence
relation on S. If A and B are two equivalence
classes with A ∩ B = , then A = B.
 What does
Lagrange's Theorem say?
• Let H ≤ G where |G| = 12.
Then |H| could only be…
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12: The divisors of 12.
• G =Z12 is cyclic, so there is exactly one subgroup of
each of these orders.
• G = A4 is not cyclic, and there is no subgroup of order
6.
• The converse of Lagrange's theorem is False!
 Proof of Lagrange Statement:
• Let H be any subgroup of the order n of a finite group G of order m. Let us
consider the cost breakdown of G related to H.
• Now let us consider each coset of aH comprises n different elements.
• Let H = {h1,h2,…,hn}, then ah1,ah2,…,ahn are the n distinct members of aH.
• Suppose, ahi=ahj hi=hj be the cancellation law of G.
• Since G is a finite group, the number of discrete left cosets will also be
finite, say p. So, the total number of elements of all cosets is np which is
equal to the total number of elements of G.
• Hence, m=np
p = m/n
• This shows that n, the order of H, is a divisor of m, the order of the finite
group G. We also see that the index p is also a divisor of the order of the
group.
• Hence, proved, |G| = |H|
• Corollary 1: If the order of finite group G is a
prime order, then it has no proper subgroups.
• Proof: Let us consider, the prime order of the
group G is m. Now, m has only two divisors 1
and m (prime numbers property). Therefore,
the subgroups of G will be {e} and G itself. So,
there are no proper subgroups. Hence,
proved.
 |a| divides |G|
• Corollary 2. In a finite group G, the order of
each element of the group divides the order
of the group.
• Proof: Let a be any element of G. Then |a| =
|<a>|. By Lagrange's Theorem, |<a>| divides
|G|.
 Groups of prime order
• Corollary 3. A group of prime order (the order has only
two divisors) is a cyclic group.
• Proof: Suppose, G is the group of prime order of m
and a ≠ e G.
• Since the order of a is a divisor of m, it is either 1 or m.
• But the order of a, o(a) ≠ 1, since a ≠ e.
• Therefore, the order of o(a) = p, and the cyclic
subgroup of G generated by a are also of order m.
• It proves that G is the same as the cyclic subgroup
formed by a, i.e. G is cyclic.
 a m =e
• Corollary 4. If G is a group of finite order m, then the order of any a G
divides the order of G and in particular am = e.
• Proof: Let p be the order of a, which is the least positive integer, so,
• ap = e
• Then we can say,
• a, a2, a3, …., ap-1,ap = e, the elements of group G are all distinct and forms a
subgroup.
• Since the subgroup is of order p, thus p the order of a divides the group G.
• So, we can write,
• m = np, where n is a positive integer.
• So,
• am = anp = (ap)n = e
• Hence, proved.
 State and prove Lagrange’s Theorem

 Lagrange’s theorem: The order of each sub group H of a finite

group G is a divisor of the order of the group.
 Proof: Since G is finite group, H is finite.
 Therefore, the number of cosets of H in G is finite.
 Let Ha1,Ha2, …,Har be the distinct right cosets of H in G.
 Then, G = Ha1Ha2 …, Har
 So that O(G) = O(Ha1)+O(Ha2) …+ O(Har).
 But, O(Ha1) = O(Ha2) = ….. = O(Har) = O(H)
  O(G) = O(H)+O(H) …+ O(H). (r terms)
 = r . O(H)
 This shows that O(H) divides O(G).
 Normal Subgroup
• A subgroup H of a group G is normal if its left and right
cosets coincide, that is if gH = Hg for all gG.
• Note that all subgroups of abelian groups are normal.

Example . G = S3, H = <h(1, 2, 3)> = {e,(1, 2, 3),(1, 3, 2)}.

Let g = (1, 2).
• Then gH = {(1, 2),(1, 2)(1, 2, 3),(1, 2)(1, 3, 2)}
= {(1, 2),(2, 3),(1, 3)}
• Hg = {(1, 2),(1, 2, 3)(1, 2),(1, 3, 2)(1, 2)}
= {(1, 2),(1, 3),(2, 3)}.
• A subgroup N of a group G is said to be a normal
subgroup of G if,
gng-1 N for all g G, n N
• Equivalently, if gNg-1 ={gng-1 l n N }, then N is a
normal subgroup of G if and only if gNg-1 N for
all g G.
• Normal subgroups are useful in constructing
quotient groups, and in analyzing
homomorphisms.
• A quotient group is defined as G/N for some
normal subgroup N of G, which is the set of
cosets of N w.r.t. G, equipped with the operation
\circ satisfying
• (gN) (hN)=(gh)N for all g,h \in G g,h G.
• This definition is the reason that N must be
normal to define a quotient group; it holds
because the chain of equalities
• (gN)(hN) = g(Nh)N = g(hN)N = (gh)(NN) = (gh)N
holds, where g(Nh)N = g(hN)N utilizes the fact
that Nh = hN for any h (true iff N is normal, by
definition).
• For example, consider the subgroup H={0,2,4,6}
of G=Z8 (which is an additive group).
• The left cosets are
• {0+h h H}={2+h h H}={4+h h H}={6+h h H}={0,
2,4,6}
• {1+h h H}={3+h h H}={5+h h H}={7+h h H}={1,
3,5,7},
• so G/H={{0,2,4,6},{1,3,5,7}}.
• This can be more cleanly written as
• G/H={0+H,1+H},which is isomorphic to {0,1}, or
the cyclic group C2.
 Homomorphisms and Normal
Subgroups
• A map  of a group G into a group G’ is a
homomorphism if the homomophism
property,
• Recall that a homomorphism from G to H is a
function phi/ϕ
such that ϕ(g1g2)=ϕ(g1)ϕ(g2) for all
g1,g2 G.
• Note: The above equation gives a relation
between the two group structures G and G’.
• The kernel of a homomorphism is the set of elements of G
that are sent to the identity in H, and the kernel of any
homomorphism is necessarily a normal subgroup of G.
• In fact, more is true: the image of G under this
homomorphism (the set of elements G is sent to under ϕ)
is isomorphic to the quotient group G/ker(ϕ), by the first
isomorphism theorem.
• This provides a bijection between normal subgroups of G
and the set of images of G under homomorphisms.
• Thus normal subgroups can be classified in another
manner:
• A subgroup N of G is normal if and only if there exists a
homomorphism on G whose kernel is N.
Example:
For any groups G and G’, there is always at least one homomorphism:
: G  G’ defined by (g)=e’ for all g  G, where e’ is the identity in
G’. We call it the trivial homomorphism.
Example
Let r  Z and let r: Z  Z be defined by r (n)=rn for all n  Z. Is r a
homomorphism?

Solution: For all m, n  Z, we have r(m + n) = r(m + n) = rm + rn = r

(m)+ r (n). So r is a homomorphism.

Example:
Let : Z2  Z4  Z2 be defined by (x, y)=x for all x  Z2, y  Z4. Is  a
homomorphism?
Solution: we can check that for all (x1, y1), (x2, y2)  Z2  Z4,
((x1, y1)+(x2, y2) )= x1+ x2= (x1, y1)+ (x2, y2).
So  is a homomorphism.
Example: Let G={1,–1,i,–i}, which forms a group
under multiplication and I= the group of all
integers under addition, prove that the
mapping f from I onto G such that f(x)= in n
I is a homomorphism.
Solution:
Since f(x)= in, f(m)= im, for all m,n I f(m+n)=im+n
= im in =f(m) f(n)
Hence f is a homomorphism.
 Permutation Groups
• Groups admit many different representations. In
particular, all finite groups can be represented as
permutation groups, that is, they are always
isomorphic to a subgroup of the symmetric group
Sn of automorphisms of a set of n elements
(Cayley's theorem).
• Highly efficient techniques for manipulation of
permutation groups have been developed during
the last 40 years, which allow the manipulation of
very large groups in a computer.
• The Wolfram Language provides a collection
of commands and algorithms that can handle
permutation groups of moderate degree, in
the range of a few thousand, hence working
with groups of permutations with more than
101000 elements.
• This tutorial introduces some basic algorithms
for computing with finite permutation groups,
specified by a list of generating permutations
given in disjoint cyclic form.