Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

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Tectonic evolution and setting of the Sa’al Complex, southern Sinai,

Egypt: A Proterozoic continental back-arc rift model
A. Fowler a,⇑, I. Hassen b, M. Hassan b,c
a
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
b
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
c
Institut für Erdwissenschaften, Universität Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, A-8010 Graz, Austria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Sa’al Complex is a mainly low grade metamorphosed polydeformed volcanosedimentary sequence
Received 16 November 2014 exposed in the northern central Sinai basement, Egypt. Details of the stratigraphy, sedimentology and
Received in revised form 12 January 2015 petrography of the three formations: Agramiya, Ra’ayan and Zaghara Formations are described. The ear-
Accepted 13 January 2015
liest deformation (D1) is related to extensional tectonism and HT-LP regional metamorphism. The main
Available online 28 January 2015
D1 structure is a bedding-parallel S1 foliation with at least 50% vertical shortening in the well-foliated
Ra’ayan phyllites. Earlier models that explained S1 by bedding-parallel shearing are rejected. The Sa’al
Keywords:
volcanism, D1 extension and HT metamorphism were probably associated with back-arc rifting in a con-
Sinai complexes
Extensional tectonism
tinental arc setting, similar to the modern Taupo Zone of New Zealand. Later deformations, D2 and D3,
Back-arc basin rifting involved folding about NE-trending and NW-trending axial planes, respectively. D2 was probably a result
Homogeneous domains analysis of compressional stresses typical of continental back-arc regions, and resulted in development of steep
NW-vergent imbricate thrusts and NE-trending F2 meso- and macrofolds. The Firinga gabbro and the
Wadi Murad foliated diorite intruded along D2 backthrusts, while the main diorite intrusion dominating
the centre of the complex intruded along D2 steepened imbricate thrusts. F3 deformation may be related
to the latest convergence of the east and west Gondwana, and has correlatives in the Kid and Feiran Com-
plexes. A final deformation D4 that generated the main strike-slip faults in the area correlates with NE–
SW trending r1, inconsistent with a Najd origin. Recent geochronological results from U/Pb zircon stud-
ies are difficult to reconcile with stratigraphic and intrusion field evidence, and apparently require very
tight time constraints on the main metamorphism, D1 and D2 deformations of the complex.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction the Sa’al and Kid complexes include kilometre-thick sequences of

The Precambrian basement forming the southern half of the
Sinai Peninsula consists of four metamorphosed sedimentary-vol-
canic complexes: Feiran-Solaf, Sa’al, Elat and Kid that have been
engulfed by giant granitoid intrusions (Fig. 1). The complexes are
remnants of a formerly contiguous terrain of accreted arcs and
deformed basins that constitute the northern part of the Arabi-
an–Nubian Shield (ANS) (Bentor, 1985). The Sinai metamorphic
complexes occupy an important intermediate position in the
northern ANS, lying between the North Eastern Desert of Egypt,
the Midyan terrane of Saudi Arabia and the northernmost expo-
sures of the ANS in Israel and Jordan. The Feiran-Solaf and Elat
complexes are dominantly metasedimentary sequences, while
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: afowler@uaeu.ac.ae (A. Fowler).
metamorphosed lavas, ignimbrites, breccias and tuffs. Each of the
complexes has been investigated by previous workers using geo-
chemical, structural and petrological methods, with the aim of
integrating them into a tectonic model that can be compared with
other parts of the Arabian–Nubian Shield.
The similarities and differences between the four complexes are
illustrated in Table 1, which lists the main geological characteris-
tics of each complex, along with references to published works.
In a recent study of the Sinai complexes, Eyal et al. (2014) proposed
that the four complexes were linked as island arcs that were built
upon or accreted against each other. Directions of subduction were
also hypothesised. Vital information that can test hypotheses like
this is available in the details of the structural geology of the com-
plexes. The feasibility of an arc structure, its dimensions, orienta-
tion, subduction polarity, possible spatial relations and collision
with other arcs may also be investigated by studying the preserved
primary and secondary structures.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2015.01.008
1464-343X/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
104 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131
The structure of the Sa’al Complex was originally reported by
Soliman (1986), followed by structural studies of the northern
and central parts of the complex by El-Shafei (1991) and El-
Shafei et al. (1992). Ibrahim (1991) and Hussein et al. (1993)
reported the structures in the central and southern parts of the
complex. A complete coverage of the structure of the Sa’al Complex
was provided by Shimron et al. (1993a,b), though not in detail.
Mehanna et al. (2001) focused on the structure of the southern part
of the complex. The most recent structural studies by Hegazi
(2006) and Hassen et al. (2007) covered most of the complex but
yielded models with different sequences of folding events.
Hassan et al. (2014) recently described the metamorphic history
of the complex with brief references to structural history.
The present contribution focuses mainly on clarifying the struc-
tural history (structural sequence, style and age of deformation
events, and intrusive relations) and tectonic setting for the Sa’al
Complex. The Sa’al Complex is first introduced in a regional geolo-
gical context, then some details of the geological units of the Sa’al
area are provided. Following this, the paper focuses on the field
structures and the analysis of their orientation data to characterise
the main structural events. The tectonic setting of the complex and
tectonic style and correlation of the deformation events with those
in the other complexes are finally discussed.
2. Regional geological units of the Sinai
The Sinai Precambrian exposures can be classified into several
regional geological units detailed in Table 1. These are: (1) meta-
morphic complexes dating to 650 Ma or older. There are various
tectonic interpretations for these complexes e.g. island arc, conti-
nental arcs and intracratonic basins; (2) mainly unmetamorphosed
volcanic and sedimentary successions dating from 630 to 590 Ma,
unconformably overlying the metamorphic complexes. Some of
these have been correlated with Eastern Desert Dokhan Volcanics
and Hammamat Group; (3) syn- to post-tectonic calc-alkaline
granitoid batholiths. Included in this group are dioritic subduc-
tion-related plutons dating up to 850 Ma; followed by a lull in
magmatic activity (735–650 Ma) that possibly dates arc accretion,
then deformed late syn-collision granitoids (650–625 Ma) and
large post-collision granitoids (635–590 Ma); (4) mafic–ultramafic
magmatically layered plutons have been identified as either sub-
duction related melts or as Younger Gabbros; (5) alkaline granites
(and ring complexes) including small leucogranite and alkali gran-
ite plutons dated in the range 610–580 Ma; and (6) numerous
dykes of basic, intermediate and silicic composition that have
intruded along mainly NE to NNE trends during the period 590–
535 Ma. The Sa’al area incorporates an example of (1) and possibly
(2), intruded by (3)–(6).
2.1. Physiography of the Sa’al Complex
The Sa’al Complex lies at the northern edge of the southern
Sinai basement exposures and is bordered to the north by Creta-
ceous platform sediments (Fig. 1). The complex covers an
approximately triangular area measuring 190 km2. Topography
is hilly with typical relief above wadi level of 100 m. The highest
peak is 1620 m ASL, found in the south of the complex. The main
access wadis are Sa’al, El Ra’ayan and Atshan in the northern part
of the study area, Far’a and Mughafa in the central part, and
Rimithi and Zaghara in the southern part of the study area (Fig. 1).
3. Geological units of the Sa’al Complex
The Sa’al Complex is the least studied of the four Sinai complex-
es. There are numerous intrusions dividing and isolating parts of
the volcanosedimentary exposures from each other, resulting in
some uncertainty about stratigraphic equivalences of the units. A
stratigraphic scheme for the complex was first set up by Shimron
et al. (1993a,b), consisting of three formations: the Agramiya, Ra’a-
yan and Zaghara formations. The field characteristics and primary
structures of each formation are briefly described below. This is
followed by notes on the geochemistry and petrography of the
main lithologies.
3.1. Agramiya Formation
This is the most widespread formation in the complex. Shimron
et al. (1993a,b) identified almost all of the northern parts of the
Sa’al Complex as belonging to this formation. They divided the for-
mation into three members: a rhyolite/ignimbrite member (map
code ‘‘Ar’’, here referred to as the southern felsic member), a basal-
tic-andesite member (map code ‘‘Aa’’), and a second felsic volcanic
member (map code ‘‘Af’’, here referred to as the northern felsic
member. Younging criteria are available for these volcanic and
pyroclastics based on lava units cutting down into bedded tuffs
below, particle size grading in tuffs, and concentrations of lithic
particles at the base of ignimbrites.
The basaltic-andesite member forms a continuous belt trending
NE to ENE across the northern part of the complex (Fig. 1). Shimron
et al. (1993a,b) estimated its thickness to be 1300 m. Our thickness
estimate is in agreement at 1300 m, with a lower half consisting of
massive amygdaloidal andesitic lavas with some conglomerate
horizons, and an upper half composed of porphyritic and amyg-
daloidal andesitic lavas, breccias and mafic tuffs, interbedded with
typically aphyric silicic tuffs nearer the top of the member (Fig. 2:
column 1, Fig. 3c). The southern felsic ignimbritic member is also
continuous across the complex and lies conformably upon the
basaltic-andesites, though there is some interfingering between
the two members at the SW side of the complex. The southern fel-
sic member had an estimated thickness of about 1000 m, according
to Shimron et al. (1993a,b). We find a much greater thickness of
2200 m of pinkish to greyish rhyolitic and minor dacitic ignim-
brites exposed at the eastern side of the complex along Wadi
Mekatla (Fig. 1; Fig. 2: column 1). At the SW side of the complex
the southern felsic member measures 1000 m thick of ignimbrites
and mafic tuffs (Fig. 2: column 2 and Fig. 3b), conformably overlain
by sediments and tuffs of the Zaghara Formation (Fig. 3a). The
northern felsic unit is exposed in the upstream sections of Wadi
Sa’al and Wadi Humaira in the NW of the complex. This member
is composed of about 1500 m of fine-grained pinkish to grayish
dacitic and rhyolitic metatuffs, with locally thin beds defined by
variations in particle size and mafic mineral content. Lapilli meta-
tuffs are also present (Fig. 2: column 3). There are andesitic lavas
and minor ignimbrites interfingering with the northern felsic
member tuffs at the entrance to Wadi Sa’al. To the west of Wadi
Murad is another section of Agramiya Formation. Shimron et al.
(1993a) identified it as partly belonging to the basaltic-andesite
member, overlying an unidentified felsic member. It consists of
about 1000 m of silicic and intermediate tuffs overlain by andesitic
lavas and quartz porphyries (Fig. 2: column 4). It is here tentatively
identified as a facies of the northern felsic member.
3.2. Ra’ayan Formation
This unit was identified by Shimron et al. (1993a,b) from two
areas in the north of the Sa’al Complex. The larger area lies north
of the Agramiya basaltic-andesite member and east of Wadi Sa’al.
A small part of it is exposed in a section of Wadi Sa’al (Fig. 1). Its
northern boundary is a granite intrusion. The second area lies out-
side of our study area in the far NW of the complex and was inves-
tigated by Be’eri-Shlevin et al. (2009b).
 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131 105

Fig. 1. Location of the Sa’al Complex (top left inset). Map of the main members of the Agramiya, Ra’ayan and Zaghara Formations. Intrusive rocks are not individually
distinguished in this map (see Fig. 5) for the intrusive phases. The names of the important wadis are shown.

Shimron et al. (1993a,b) divided this formation into three mem-
bers: phyllite or phyllonite (map code ‘‘Rp’’), chloritoidal phyllite
(map code ‘‘Rc’’), and greywacke or subgreywacke (map code
‘‘Rg’’). Only the first member was examined in our study. This mem-
ber comprises the main exposures of the Ra’ayan Formation. The
phyllites are about 800 m in thickness and overlie an approximately
1000 m of partly phyllitized silicic and intermediate tuffs and local
intermediate lavas, similar to the northern felsic member of the
Agramiya Formation (Fig. 2: column 3). The phyllites are grayish
quartz–mica rich rocks of silicic pyroclastic origin. The original
pyroclastics are preserved in lesser foliated areas and include thinly
bedded pinkish fine-grained tuffs and lapilli tuffs (Fig. 3d). Sills or
flows of meta-andesite and metadacite are preserved as boudins
along the phyllite foliation. Chlorite and biotite bearing phyllites
have a darker colour in outcrop and are derived from intermediate
pyroclastics. Rare spotted phyllites have porphyroblasts of chlorite
or biotite. Be’eri-Shlevin et al. (2009b) described the NW occur-
rence of the Ra’ayan as schists with local andalusite porphyroblasts.
106 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131

Table 1
Regional units of the southern Sinai and their characteristics, age and affinities.

Regional unit Characteristics, age, affinities, references

(1) Metamorphic Feiran Paragneisses (migmatitic quartzofeldspathic gneiss, biotite–hornblende gneiss, amphibolite, biotite schist and calcsilicate
Complexes Complex gneiss), and dioritic orthogneisses [1,2]. Protolith deposition occurred before 800 Ma [2–4]. HT-LP amphibolite facies
metamorphism predated intrusion by a 780 Ma granodiorite [3,5,6], and produced a gneissosity-parallel to compositional
layering with NW–SE extensional lineation [7–13]. Post-gneissosity folds trend NW–SE [1,2]
Taba-Elat Metapelitic biotite-rich Elat schists, dated at 800–820 Ma [14–16]. The first deformation was accompanied by HT-LP
Complex amphibolite facies metamorphism [11,17,18] coeval with intrusion by quartz diorite and tonalite gneisses (Taba gneiss – 782–
790 Ma, and Fjord gneiss – 760–765 Ma). The HT foliated rocks were folded about E–W to WNW-trending folds [19] and
intruded by the Elat granite gneiss (740–744 Ma). A collision-related metamorphism (620 Ma) affected the complex [20]
Kid Complex Sediments and volcanics are thought to have been deposited at about 650 Ma [21–24]. Metapelites and silicic to intermediate
metavolcanic in the northern half of the complex were metamorphosed to amphibolite facies grade [11,22,23,25–27] during
development of the regional foliation [28–31]. This deformation has been identified as SSE-ward thrusting [28,31,32], or
extension associated with magmatism [30,33]. The southern half of the complex consists of low grade metavolcanics and
metasediments [34,35], but has shared structural history with the northern half of the complex [36]. Main structural trend is
ENE–WSW
Sa’al- Intermediate to silicic volcanics with greenschist facies metamorphic grade. Similarities to Feiran exist in the presence of a
Complex narrow belt of migmatitic gneisses at the centre of the Sa’al Complex, and the presence of an early bedding-parallel foliation
with NW–SE trending extension lineations. The main post-foliation ENE–WSW fold trends are similar to those of Kid. Rb–Sr
dating of the Sa’al volcanics indicates that these rocks are older (740–730 Ma) than the Kid complex (650–620 Ma)
[6,21,37,38]. U–Pb zircon studies show that the gap in age between the rocks of the Sa’al and Kid complexes is larger than
previously thought [39,40,41], with Sa’al metavolcanics having Stenian age [42]
(2) Volcanosedimentary successions Unconformably overlying the deformed metamorphic complexes are calc-alkaline intermediate to silicic volcanic successions
unconformably above the dating from 630 to 590 Ma [43–47]. These include the Feirani Volcanics, near Dahab, Rutig Volcanics near the St. Katherine, and
complexes the Elat Conglomerate. These volcanics and sediments have been correlated with Dokhan Volcanics and Hammamat Group
[45,46]. Some volcanics and conglomerate in the Kid complex have been included in this group [48–50]. [50] included the
volcanics and conglomerates of the Sa’al Complex in this group
(3) Syn- to post-tectonic calc-alkaline A reported age of 844 Ma for a quartz diorite intrusion in central southern Sinai represents the oldest known intrusion outside
batholiths of the metamorphic complexes [51], and a date of 780 Ma has been obtained for the foliated granodiorite intruding the Feiran
complex [3,5,6]. However, the vast majority of granitoid intrusions in the Sinai have Ediacaran age (650–580 Ma) [52].
Enormous calc-alkaline I-type granitoid intrusions in the Sinai span the end of the subduction stage, through the collision stage
to the post-collision stage. These intrusions have been divided into G-I granites (syn-collision monzodiorites, granodiorites and
tonalites, or ‘Older Granites’), followed by G-II granites (post-collision monzogranites and syenogranites, or ‘Younger Granites’).
An A-type within-plate chemistry is claimed for some G-II granitoids [53]. Recent classifications by [4] and [54] group the Sinai
calc-alkaline plutons into deformed syn-collision CA1 (650–625 Ma), and undeformed post-collision CA2 (635–590 Ma)
granitoids. The Sa’al Complex is intruded by a magmatically foliated, locally mylonitized diorite and granodiorite, hosting
enclaves and xenoliths [50]. In the NE part of the Sa’al Complex is a deformed diorite with strong schistosity [55]. Surrounding
and intruding the diorite–granodiorite is a pink coarse-grained Kspar-phyric biotite monzogranite [56]
(4) Mafic–ultramafic plutons Early reports by [28,34,57] described the gabbroic and ultramafic rocks as ophiolitic. Others have identified them as
metagabbro-diorite of the island arc stage (e.g. Nisryin gabbro – [58]) and pre-Older Granite. Layered mafic–ultramafic
complexes, such as the Samra and Imleih intrusions (NE of the Feiran complex) and the Shahira intrusion (near Dahab)
intrusions, have been identified as ‘Younger Gabbros’ [38,59,60] dating to the transition to extension tectonic stage, which
narrowly preceded the ‘Younger Granites’. Others regard these layered intrusions as subduction-related [61]. The NW part of
the Sa’al Complex is intruded by Firinga layered gabbro [59,61,62] which predates the pink granites
(5) Alkaline granites and ring Alkaline granitoids and leucogranites (classified as G-III or AL plutons) are the youngest plutons in the Sinai. These have been
complexes dated at 610–580 Ma and have associations with the Iqna and Katharina ring complexes [63]. Minor alkaline granite intrusions
are present in the Sa’al Complex where they are represented by small leucogranite intrusions [56]
(6) Dykes Steeply dipping dyke swarms with NE, NW and N–S trends are a common feature in the Sinai basement [64]. Oldest (non-
metamorphosed) dykes include basalts, andesites and lamprophyres ranging in age from 590 to 565 Ma. Younger dykes of
dacite and rhyolite typically date from 545 to 535 Ma [65]. In the Sa’al Complex the dominant trend of dykes is NE–SW to NNE–
SSW. The dykes are composed of a broad range of lithologies including basalt, gabbro, dolerite, andesite, microdiorite, dacite,
rhyolite and granite [54,66,67]

1. El-Gaby and Ahmed (1980); 2. El-Shafei and Kusky (2003); 3. Shimron (1988); 4. Be’eri-Shlevin et al. (2009a); 5. Jarrar et al. (1983); 6. Stern and Manton (1987); 7. Akaad
et al. (1967); 8. Ahmed (1981); 9. Abdel-Meguid (1992); 10. El-Tokhi (2003); 11. Eliwa et al. (2008); 12. Fowler and Hassen (2008); 13. Abu-Alam and Stüwe (2009); 14. Eyal
et al. (1992); 15. Kröner et al. (1990); 16. Beyth et al. (2011); 17. Abu El-Enen et al. (1999); 18. Abu El-Enen et al. (2004); 19. Eyal (1980); 20. Cosca et al. (1999); 21. Bielski
(1982); 22. Navon and Reymer (1984); 23. Reymer et al. (1984); 24. Blasband et al. (1997); 25. Brooijmans et al. (2003); 26. Abu El-Enen et al. (2003); 27. Abu El-Enen (2008);
28. Shimron (1984); 29. Shimron (1987); 30. Reymer and Oertel (1985); 31. Fowler et al. (2010a); 32. Shimron (1980); 33. Blasband et al. (2000); 34. Shimron (1981); 35.
Shimron (1983); 36. Fowler et al. (2010b); 37. Shimron et al. (1993b); 38. Abu Anbar et al. (2009); 39. Priem et al. (1984); 40. Be’eri-Shlevin et al. (2009b); 41. Stern et al.
(2010); 42. Be’eri-Shlevin et al. (2012); 43. Bentor (1985); 44. Moussa (2003); 45. Samuel et al. (2011); 46. Be’eri-Shlevin et al. (2011); 47. Morag et al. (2012); 48. El-Gaby
et al. (1991); 49. El-Bialy (2010); 50. El-Gaby et al. (2002); 51. Bea et al. (2009); 52. Ali et al. (2009); 53. Azer (2007); 54. Eyal et al. (2010); 55. Soliman (1986); 56. Khalaf et al.
(1999); 57. Furnes et al. (1985); 58. Abu Anbar (2009); 59. El-Metwally (1992); 60. Azer and El-Gharbawy (2011); 61. Ali Bik (1999a); 62. Ali Bik (1999b); 63. Katzir et al.
(2006); 64. Iacumin et al. (1998); 65. Abdel-Karim and Kubovics (2008); 66. Gomaa (2001); 67. Essawy and El-Metwally (1999).

3.3. Zaghara Formation
This formation is the dominant unit in the central and southern
parts of the Sa’al Complex. Shimron et al. (1993a,b) divided the for-
mation into three members: slate, schist or greywacke (map code
‘‘Zs’’), feldspathic sandstone (map code ‘‘Za’’), and conglomerate
and sandstone (map code ‘‘Zc’’). Scour and fill and graded bedding
are the commonest sedimentary features suitable for younging
determination in the Zaghara. Disturbance of beds due to probable
glacial dropstones was also useful as a younging indicator in some
conglomerates.
Our mapping confirms that the Zaghara Formation (Shimron’s
members Zs and Zc) is exposed at the headwaters of Wadi Far’a
(Fig. 1). Along Wadi Far’a, for most of its length, the slate–schist–
greywacke reported by Shimron is represented by about 1000 m
of silicic and intermediate tuffs, thin bedded tuffaceous metasedi-
ments and biotite schists (Fig. 3a). Slumped beds are present
(Fig. 3f). Conglomerates and feldspathic sandstones dominate in
 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131 107

Fig. 2. Constructed stratigraphic columns for the Agramiya, Ra’ayan and Zaghara Formations in the Sa’al Complex. Locations of sections are shown in the small map on the
right. Columns are numbered from 1 to 7. 1. Agramiya Formation (Wadi Sa’al); 2. Agramiya Formation (west part of complex); 3. Agramiya Formation and Ra’ayan Formation
(NW part of study area); 4. Agramiya Formation (west of Wadi Murad); 5. Zaghara Formation (west part of complex); 6. Zaghara Formation (Wadi Mughafa); 7. Zaghara
Formation (Wadi Zaghara).

the upper sections (Fig. 2: column 5). The feldspathic sandstone
member (Za) reported by Shimron et al. (1993a,b) to extend farther
to the ENE from Wadi Far’a is found to be feldspathic pyroclastics.
The central part of the Sa’al Complex is occupied by an ENE trend-
ing belt of sediments and silicic and intermediate pyroclastics
identified by Shimron et al. (1993a,b) as the Zaghara feldspathic
sandstone member (Za). Our estimate for the thickness of this belt
is 1400 m (Fig. 2: column 6). The lower sections are dominated by
silicic and intermediate tuffs, lapilli tuffs and local sediments. The
upper sections are mainly silicic tuffs and minor lapilli tuffs with
rare interlayers of intermediate tuff.
The southern part of the Sa’al Complex hosts a set of isolated
blocks of Zaghara Formation (Za and Zc members). The largest block
preserves a sequence of about 2700 m thick (Fig. 2, column 7) that
begins with 450 m of thinly interlayered fine sandstones and dark
grayish and pinkish tuff and biotite schist alternating with packages
of thick-bedded rather featureless sandstones (Fig. 3h). Boulders of
silicic and intermediate volcanic, granite and banded diorite are
found throughout this section, however, the greatest concentration
of cobbles and boulders is found in a bed of laminated sediments
and tuffs. In this bed the cobbles and boulders appear to be glacial
dropstones (Fig. 3i). The next 700 m is dominantly thick-bedded
sandstones with only sparse suspended cobbles. The sandstones
commonly show heavy mineral laminations in the top half of the
beds. Following is a 900 m thick section of interbedded locally par-
ticle-size graded sandstones and cobble conglomerates, with beds
measuring one to a few metres in thickness. These conglomerates
are quite distinct from the dropstone conglomerates in having flu-
viatile characteristics. They show size sorting and have scour-and-
fill structure at their base (Fig. 3g). Heavy mineral laminations are
again common in the sandstones. The top 700 m of the Zaghara For-
mation was not completely investigated in our study. The lower-
most and uppermost parts of it include silicic and intermediate
tuffaceous beds and thinly bedded greenish to grayish sediments.
108 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131

Fig. 3. Field photographs of lithologies and primary features of the Agramiya, Ra’ayan and Zaghara Formations. (a) Bedded pyroclastics and sediments of the Zaghara
Formation, with Agramiya Formation lavas and ignimbrites in the foreground, Wadi Far’a; (b) rhyolitic ignimbrite, Agramiya Formation, Wadi Sa’al; (c) contact between
andesitic lapilli tuff and lava, Agramiya Formation; (d) rhyolitic agglomerate, Agramiya Formation, Wadi Far’a; (e) fine banding in tuffaceous metasediments, Ra’ayan
Formation, Wadi Sa’al; (f) slump structure in bedded tuffs, Zaghara Formation, Wadi Far’a; (g) alluvial conglomerate with scoured base against sandstones with HM mineral
bands, Zaghara Formation, near Wadi Zaghara; (h) interbedded metasediments and (lighter coloured) silicic tuffs, Zaghara Formation, Wadi Zaghara; (i) dropstone
conglomerate, Zaghara Formation, Wadi Zaghara.

4. Geochemistry and petrography
Major and trace element geochemistries of the Agramiya vol-
canics, Ra’ayan phyllites and Zaghara sandstones have been inves-
tigated by several workers. There is agreement that the Agramiya
silicic volcanics have medium to high K calc-alkaline chemistry,
while the basaltic-andesites show a slight tholeiitic affinity
(Soliman, 1989; Shimron et al., 1993a; Mehanna, 2000; El-Gaby
et al., 2002; Hassen et al., 2004; Ali Bik and Moussa, 2004; Abu
Anbar et al., 2009). Furthermore, HREE depletion, LREE enrichment,
high Y/Nb and Zr/Nb ratios have also been presented as evidence
for an active continental margin (Andean) subduction-related
source for the volcanics. Several workers have compared the Agra-
miya volcanics to the Dokhan Volcanics of the Eastern Desert of
Egypt, though Ali Bik and Moussa (2004) pointed out that these
geochemical similarities may only indicate similar degrees of arc
maturity between the Agramiya and Dokhan series.
The Ra’ayan phyllites and the Zaghara schists and sandstones
have been shown to have silicic volcanic provenance, based on geo-
chemical and petrographic evidence, and are consistent with active
continental margin deposits (Gomaa, 2001; El-Gaby et al., 2002; Ali
Bik et al., 2002; Abu Anbar et al., 2009; Be’eri-Shlevin et al., 2012).
4.1. Petrography of the Agramiya Formation metavolcanics (Fig. 4 and
Table 2A)
Meta-andesitic lavas are porphyritic with plagioclase, horn-
blende and biotite phenocrysts in a felty or flow-textured
plagioclase groundmass with amygdules (Fig. 4a and b). The folia-
tion in the meta-andesites is defined by biotite, chlorite and/or
actinolite (Fig. 4a). Metamorphosed silicic lavas and tuffs include
dacite with plagioclase, quartz and mafic phenocrysts in chlorite
and biotite-rich groundmass, and rhyolites with embayed quartz,
K-feldspar and plagioclase phenocrysts in felty, micrographic,
spherulitic, trachytic and eutaxitic groundmass (Fig. 4c and d).
Fine-grained metapyroclastics are composed of quartz, plagioclase
and rare microcline phenocrysts in a groundmass quartz and pla-
gioclase. Relicts of pumice fragments may be present. Foliation is
defined by white mica, sericite, biotite, or actinolite (Fig. 4c). The
most intensely deformed rocks have become biotite–chlorite
schists (Fig. 4e).
4.2. Petrography of the Ra’ayan Formation phyllites (Fig. 4 and
Table 2A)
The phyllites are intensely foliated rocks composed of quartz
and sericite (Fig. 4f). Coarse grained biotite, chlorite and epidote
form on quartz vein margins and in the groundmass, and biotite
may also contribute to the foliation. Minor fibrous actinolite or
hornblende may be present. Unfoliated parent metapyroclastics
are composed of quartz and plagioclase fractured phenocrysts,
and volcanic lithic fragments in a very fine-grained quartzo-felds-
pathic groundmass. Darker phyllites are derived from intermediate
tuffs. The phyllites foliation is defined by faintly pleochroic phen-
gite and colourless white mica, or by chlorite and biotite in the
darker coloured phyllites.
 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131 109

Fig. 4. Photomicrographs of petrographic and microstructural features rocks of the Sa’al Complex. (a) Meta-andesite with S1 foliation defined by actinolite and chlorite
(Agramiya Fm basaltic andesite member, Wadi Sa’al); (b) amygdaloidal lava (Agramiya Formation basaltic andesite member, Wadi Sa’al); (c) silicic metapyroclastic with S1
foliation defined by biotite (Agramiya Fm northern felsic member, Wadi Sa’al); (d) ignimbrite showing moderate strain as undulose extinction in quartz phenocrysts and
microfaulting of plagioclase twins (Agramiya Fm southern felsic member, Wadi Sa’al); (e) muscovite-biotite schist (Agramiya Formation northern felsic member, Wadi
Murad); (f) S1 foliation parallel to bedding in phyllites. The bedding is defined by slightly coarser quartz and feldspar grains in the lower half of the figure (Ra’ayan Fm, Wadi
Humaira); (g) characteristic rounded quartz grains in metasandstone of Zaghara Fm, SW part of complex, near Wadi Far’a); (h) same texture as (g) found in Zaghara Fm
metasandstones, Wadi Zaghara); (i) S1 foliation defined by biotite in metasandstones of the Zaghara Fm, Wadi Zaghara); (j) silicic meta-tuff (biotite defined S1 foliation) in
the upper half of the figure, with metacarbonate (diopside and andradite) in the lower half of the figure (Zaghara Fm, Wadi Zaghara).

4.3. Petrography of the Zaghara metasediments (Fig. 4 and Table 2A) 5. Structure

Zaghara Formation metasandstones have almost spherical sand-
sized quartz grains that show traces of magmatic embayment tex-
ture (Fig. 4g and h). There are also quartz, plagioclase, very minor
K-feldspar, and volcanic lithic framework grains. The matrix is
quartz and plagioclase rich. Foliation is defined by chlorite, biotite
or actinolite (Fig. 4i). Metasiltstone is composed of very fine grained
plagioclase, quartz, opaques and brown biotite. Silicic metapyro-
clastics transected by Wadi Mughafa consist of groundmass quartz,
plagioclase and microcline, supporting larger angular particles of
quartz and plagioclase. Biotite defines spaced darkish folia giving
a gneissic appearance. Some quartz–K-feldspar lenses along the
foliation are migmatitic leucosomes. Darker metapyroclastics are
composed essentially of plagioclase, much green hornblende and
biotite as well as minor quartz. Biotite usually defines the foliation
in these rocks. Metatuffs in the Zaghara Formation have quartz and
plagioclase phenocrysts, and pale green hornblende and/or biotite
in the groundmass. Some tuffs have laminae with diopside, epidote
and andradite that represent thin impure metacarbonate interlay-
ers (Fig. 4j). Other metatuffs are represented by biotite schist.
In the following text, the primary structures and bedding orien-
tations are presented (Section 5.1), then the characteristics of the
first deformation event (referred to as D1) are described (Sec-
tion 5.2), followed by description of the mesoscopic structures of
the later fold deformation events (referred to as D2 and D3) (Sec-
tion 5.3). Homogeneous domain analysis is then used to introduce
macroscopic structural analysis of the complex (Section 5.4). In
Section 5.5 the metamorphism accompanying D1 is briefly
described. The structure of the intrusions is presented next in Sec-
tion 5.6, then fault orientations and movement senses are analysed
in Section 5.7.
5.1. Primary structures
Primary sedimentary and volcanic structures are common and
well-preserved in the Sa’al Complex. The sedimentary structures
include bedding, lamination, cross-bedding, graded bedding,
scour-and-fill and slumping. Volcanic structures include flow
110 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131

Table 2A
Petrography of the three formations of the Sa’al-Zaghara Complex.

Agramiya Meta-andesitic lavas: euhedral plagioclase, green hornblende, biotite phenocrysts. Groundmass is felty, flow-textured and has amygdules of quartz,
Formation chlorite or clinozoisite. Andesitic pyroclastics have similar mineralogy but fragmental textures. Biotite is replaced by chlorite. Hornblende and
pyroxene are replaced by chlorite, actinolite and clinozoisite. Silicic lavas and tuffs include metadacites: plagioclase, trace quartz and mafic
phenocrysts in chlorite and biotite-rich groundmass; and metarhyolites: embayed quartz, K-feldspar and plagioclase phenocrysts in felty,
micrographic, spherulitic or trachytic groundmass. Metamorphosed vitric tuffs and ignimbrites have volcanic lithic particles and pumice fragments
now composed of polycrystalline quartz. Opaques, clinozoisite and sphene are minor

Deformation microstructures: Meta-andesites show broken and brittly extended plagioclase and mafic phenocrysts; groundmass foliation is
defined by chlorite, actinolite and olive-green biotite; plagioclase is recrystallized. Silicic metavolcanics show breaking and stretching of
plagioclase, quartz and K-feldspar phenocrysts and their recrystallization. Foliation is defined by white mica folia, scant flakes of sericite, minor
chloritized biotite, or minor actinolite in the dacites. The most intensely deformed rocks have become biotite–chlorite schists

Ra’ayan Metapyroclastics along Wadis Sa’al and Humaira are composed of quartz and plagioclase phenocrysts, and rare microcline. Groundmass is a mosaic
Formation of recrystallized quartz and plagioclase, or trachytically aligned plagioclase laths or mossy textured. Irregular bodies of polycrystalline quartz were
pumice fragments. Minor fibrous actinolite or hornblende may be present as clots in some examples. Biotite is a minor phase and there are small
poikiloblasts of white mica. There are some welded metatuffs with lithic particles composed of plagioclase and quartz. Unfoliated rock gradational
into phyllite is mainly fine-grained silicic metapyroclastic, composed of small quartz and plagioclase fractured phenocrysts, and volcanic lithic
fragments in a very fine-grained quartzo-feldspathic groundmass. Darker phyllites are derived from intermediate tuffs. Biotite and chlorite form
small porphyroblasts. Traces of opaques, apatite and tourmaline are present

Deformation microstructures: Deformed metapyroclastics have foliation defined by sericite or chlorite. With increasing strain the metapyro-
clastics become phyllites. The phyllite foliation is defined by faintly pleochroic phengite and colourless white mica, or by chlorite and minor biotite
in the darker coloured examples. There are cracks and quartz veins across the foliation in the phyllites. These are usually folded with foliation as
axial plane. Coarser grained biotite, chlorite and epidote may be concentrated at the walls of the cracks and veins and are deformed by the foliation
The NE-trending belt of metapyroclastics cut by Wadi Mughafa consists mainly of silicic metapyroclastics with granular groundmass of quartz,
plagioclase and microcline, supporting larger angular particles of quartz and plagioclase. White mica is a late phase that crystallizes on biotite,
along grain boundaries and as blasts cutting across foliation. Darker metapyroclastics are composed of plagioclase, minor quartz and much green
hornblende and biotite. Garnet, andalusite and sillimanite are locally found in these rocks. These phases are post-kinematic

Deformation microstructures: Biotite defines spaced darkish folia giving a gneissic appearance. Some banding is metamorphic and is defined by
strings of quartz grains with parallel long axes. Some quartz– K-feldspar lenses along the foliation are migmatitic leucosomes. There are also
mylonitized equivalents composed of fine-grained quartz and plagioclase in a granoblastic groundmass. Bands are defined by concentrations of
chlorite/biotite or amphibole

Zaghara Metasandstones and metaconglomerates interfinger with Agramiya Fm volcanics in the SW of the complex. The interbedded volcanics have similar
Formation petrography to those of the Agramiya. The metasandstones consist of near spherical quartz sand grains with traces of magmatic embayment. There
are also angular quartz, sericitized plagioclase, very minor K-feldspar, and volcanic lithic framework grains. The matrix is quartz and plagioclase
rich. The spherical quartz grains are derived from silicic tuffs (rhyolitic and dacitic) or magmatic equivalents. There are porphyroblasts of white
mica. Fine grained sandstones show laminae defined by bands of minute opaque grains. Siltstone is composed of very fine grained plagioclase and
quartz with specks of opaques and extremely fine grained brown biotite
Along Wadi Zaghara there are silicic metavolcanics and metapyroclastics and minor intermediate metalavas and metatuffs similar in petrography
to those of the Agramiya Fm. The metasandstones in this area are identical to those from the SW part of the complex, in having near spherical
embayed quartz grains as prominent framework particles. Plagioclase and rarer microcline are present. There are volcanic lithic particles. Minor
white mica is also present and forms porphyroblasts. Some minor metacarbonate interlayers with diopside, epidote and andradite are found in the
metatuffs. Metaconglomerates have cobbles of silicic volcanics with rounded quartz phenocrysts and quartzofeldspathic groundmass; granophyres
with large glomerocrysts of embayed quartz phenocrysts. The glomerocrysts are magmatically drawn out into bands to give a gneissic appearance;
biotite granite and gneissic diorite

Deformation microstructures: Strain is generally weak in the metasandstones and is represented by elongation of clastic grains, foliation and
development of mica ‘‘beards’’ on clastic grains. Foliation is defined by metamorphic olive green biotite and green chlorite flakes. Strain in the
metaconglomerates is represented by foliations parallel to bedding and defined by biotite, chlorite and amphiboles

banding, amygdaloidal textures, eutaxitic textures, grading of tuffs,
and discordance at the base of lavas. Mapped bedding orientations
are shown in Fig. 5, and plotted stereoscopically in Fig. 6a. The
mapped bedding and S1 trends clearly define macroscopic folds,
mainly in the W, NW and central parts of the complex, and also
show truncations of trends by major faults.
5.2. D1 deformation
5.2.1. S1 foliation and associated strain
The earliest regional deformation event (D1) in the Sa’al area
produced a weak to strong fracture cleavage grading into a slaty
cleavage or fine grained S1 schistosity in the rocks of the Sa’al area
(Fig. 7a and b). The existence of early bedding-parallel cleavage in
the study area was first reported by Soliman (1986) and has been
recognised by most succeeding workers. The popular view is that
the S1 foliation resulted from regional shearing parallel to bedding,
associated with thrusting. Our study prefers an origin for S1 by ver-
tical shortening during extensional tectonism, as will be discussed
later.
The S1 foliation is typically precisely parallel to bedding but
rarely lies at a small angle (less than 10°) to bedding (Figs. 4f &
7a and b). The typical parallelism of S1 to bedding results in similar
bedding pole and S1 pole diagrams (Fig. 6a and b). In Fig. 6b the S1
pole girdle-axis is 37°/S50W, similar to that for bedding (42°/
S57W). Previous workers in the Sa’al Complex have not made dis-
tinction between bedding and S1 orientation data. The combined
bedding + S1 orientation data for our study is shown in Fig. 6c. In
this figure our S1 + bedding data show similarities to results from
previous studies (Fig. 6d–g). There are also differences between
our data and previous studies, probably reflecting earlier sampling
of smaller areas within the complex.
The S1 foliation is defined by the parallelism of chlorite, actino-
lite and biotite grains in the mafic metavolcanics; and by muscovite,
sericite, biotite and chlorite grains in the silicic metavolcanics,
metapyroclastics and metasediments (Fig. 4a, c, e, f, i). S1 is tectonic
in origin based on the following evidences: (a) the degree of devel-
opment of foliation correlates with intensity of deformation of phe-
nocrysts and clastic grains; (b) the same phases defining the
foliation occupy beard structures at either ends of deformed resis-
tant grains; (c) the same phases defining foliation crystallize as
 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131 111

Fig. 5. Map of the Sa’al Complex showing pattern of bedding, S1 and magmatic foliation data. Trend lines simplify these patterns. Formations are not differentiated, in order
to make the structural patterns clearer. Note the folding of the trend lines and truncation of trend lines by major faults (e.g. at A and B). The plutonic rocks of the complex are
distinguished in this figure.

fibres connecting displaced fragments of fractured grains; (d) more
competent sills or stronger beds show boudinage within the folia-
tion (Fig. 7c–e); (e) quartz veins injected across the foliation are
commonly tightly folded with the foliation as axial plane structure
(Fig. 8a and b); and (f) lapilli particles in metapyroclastics have
become extremely flattened in the plane of the foliation (Fig. 8c).
The folded veins permit an estimation of the minimum folia-
tion-normal shortening strain associated with S1 in the Ra’ayan
phyllites, as shown in Fig. 8a and b. Foliation-normal shortening
strain associated with vein folding was estimated from thin sec-
tions (Fig. 8a), and outcrop photographs in the phyllites (Fig. 8b).
The strain estimation method simply compares arc length of the
folded vein with vein length measured across the foliation. This
provides a minimum estimate of S1-related shortening strain.
The calculated shortening from the folded microveins in thin sec-
tions was about 50–55%, while the shortening estimates from the
outcrop photographs were greater at 60–70%. The difference in
the estimations from micro- to mesoscale may be due to the micro-
veins having a more regular planar geometry before deformation
compared to the mesoscopic veins, which show a more complex
curviplanar geometry in low strain outcrops. This being the case,
the microveins are probably giving the more representative result,
i.e. minimum e1 is about 50% shortening or more.
Flattened lapilli fragments in strongly foliated Zaghara Forma-
tion metapyroclastics from the central part of the study area were
approximated to ellipses on photographs taken of horizontal and
vertical sections normal to foliation (Fig. 8c). The vertical sections
gave harmonic mean R values from 8.5 to 10, while a horizontal
section gave a harmonic mean R of 15. The latter is close to the
XZ section of the strain ellipse, indicating substantial flattening
strain across S1. Assuming that the lowest Rf in this section
(=6.5) represented an originally nearly circular shaped clast, and
112 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131

Fig. 6. Comparison of (a) bedding and (b) S1 data for the entire Sa’al-Zaghara area, this study. (c) Compilation of bedding + S1 data for this study, and comparison with
previously published data by (d) Shimron et al. (1993a), (e) El-Shafei et al. (1992), (f) Hegazi (2006), and (g) Hassen et al. (2007). (h) Stretching lineations and stretching
direction data for the Sa’al-Zaghara study area. (i) Density contoured diagram of (h). Database for each diagram is as follows: (a) 286 data, beta axis is 42° to S57W. Contours
are 1%, 2%, 4%. (b) 571 data, beta axis is 37° to S50W. Contours are 1%, 2%, 4%. (c) 857 data, beta axis is 40° towards S53 W. Contours are 1%, 2%, 4%. (d) 250 data, beta axis is 20°
to S77 W. Contours are 3%, 5%, 7%, 9%. (e) 496 data, beta axis is 27° to S66 W. Contours are 1%, 4%, 7%, 10%, 13%. (f) Number of data not specified, beta axis is 24° to S55W.
Contours are not known but are probably 1%, 2%, 4%, 8%. (g) 99 data, no single girdle for the entire data is given in the original article. Contours are 1%, 2%, 4%. (h) 51 data
including 31 stretching lineations (black dots) and 20 stretching directions (white dots). (i) Contours are 2%, 4%, 8%.

assuming no dilatation, the estimated shortening normal to folia-
tion is 60%. The vast majority of thin sections show lower strains
than these values. Strain variations associated with S1, mechanism
of S1 formation and the tectonic interpretation of S1 will be dis-
cussed in Section 6.1.
adjacent beds. The folds in Fig. 9c could result from further short-
ening across S1, boudinage of the veins and tightening of these
flanking folds, as shown in Fig. 9d. The F1 folds in Fig. 9b and c
plunge moderately to the NW.

5.2.2. Mesoscopic F1 folds 5.2.3. L1 stretching lineations and extension directions

Several previous workers report mesoscopic F1 folds with the
S1 foliation as axial plane structure (Soliman, 1986; El-Shafei,
1991; Ibrahim, 1991; Hussein et al., 1993; Mehanna et al., 2001;
Hegazi, 2006; Hassen et al., 2007). The F1 folds have been
described as recumbent, isoclinal, intrafolial and drag-related. By
far the commonest F1 folds are developed in quartz veins that were
emplaced at a large angle across the foliation during S1 develop-
ment and were tightly folded as S1 developed (Fig. 8). Only a few
examples of F1 folded bedding were found in our study. An exam-
ple is shown in Fig. 9c from the Ra’ayan Formation phyllites along
Wadi Sa’al. We doubt that these are drag related folds as there is no
consistent fold asymmetry. Nearby outcrops (Fig. 9b) show F1
folds, that appear to be flanking structures (Passchier, 2001) adja-
cent to quartz veins. In Fig. 9a and d both buttressing due to the
greater rigidity of the vein, and rigid rotation of parts of the vein
during vein buckling have caused deflections and folding of the
Stretching lineations parallel to hinges of NE–SW plunging F1
folds in the Sa’al Complex have been reported several times
(Soliman, 1986; Ibrahim, 1991; Gomaa, 2001). Strain studies using
Zaghara conglomerate pebbles from Wadi Zaghara have generally
reported weak strain in the pebbles, but in all cases found pebble
long axes to have variable plunge and lie along a steep NE–SW
trending girdle (Hussein et al., 1993; Gomaa, 2001; El-Gaby
et al., 2002; Hassen et al., 2007). Due to the weak strain of the peb-
bles, the likely interpretation of the pebble axes having common
NE–SW trends is that the long axes of the primary pebble shapes
were constrained to lie within bedding planes, and the bedding
planes were folded to subvertical orientations along NE–SW
strikes. In a subvertical NE–SW striking bed all long axes lying in
that bed will have NE–SW trends. We therefore think that the com-
mon NE–SW trend of the pebble long axes from the Zaghara For-
mation are not convincing evidence for NE–SW regional extension.
 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131 113

Fig. 7. Field photographs of S1 foliation features. (a) Well developed S1 parallel to bedding in Agramiya Formation andesitic tuffs, north of Wadi Sa’al; (b) crude development
of S1 parallel to andesite flows and silicic tuffs in Agramiya Formation, Wadi Sa’al; (c) boudinage of granitic sill in Zaghara Formation pyroclastics, Wadi Mughafa; (d)
boudinage of mafic lava in the Agramiya Formation, north of Wadi Sa’al; (e) boudinage of sill or competent tuff layer within Zaghara Formation pyroclastics, western part of
the Sa’al Complex; (f) L1 stretching lineation on S1 foliation in Zaghara Formation pyroclastics, Wadi Mughafa.

In our study of the Sa’al Complex we find L1 stretching lin-
eations on S1 planes to be uncommon and difficult to distinguish
from fine crenulations also developed on S1 (Fig. 7f). On the stere-
ogram the stretching lineations (long axes of stretched particles)
plus estimated extension direction data (from tension veins in
boudin necks) form two point clusters (Fig. 6h and i). One cluster
plunges gently NNW or SSE, and the other forms an ENE elongate
cluster with a steep plunge averaging 65° towards the N. The first
cluster is associated with gently dipping S1 foliations in the NW
part of the study area. The second steeply plunging set is associat-
ed with steep to subvertical S1 foliations in the Agramiya metavol-
canics and Ra’ayan metapyroclastics in the central part of the study
area. The two clusters of L1 stretching lineation data appear there-
fore to be due to varying dips of S1 foliations. Restoring these lin-
eations by rotating the gentle and steep beds to horizontal about
their strike results in original NNW–SSE L1 orientations for both
data clusters.
5.2.4. D1 shear zones and mylonites
Ductile shear zones lying at an angle of about 30° or less to S1
are found, especially in zones of well-developed S1. The shear
zones include mylonite zones (Fig. 10a and d) that are locally
intruded by syn-shearing granitoids (Fig. 10c). The shear zones
are regarded as D1 structures on the basis that the shear foliation
is defined by the same metamorphic phases as the S1 foliation. The
shear zones are extensional in nature as they are associated with
boudinage of sills, normal sense displacement of sills, asymmetric
rotated boudins and extensional crenulations (Fig. 10b and e). The
stereographic plot of poles to ductile shear zones (Fig. 10f) shows
similarity to the plot of S1 foliations, while the mylonitic lineations
have trends similar to the L1 stretching lineations (cf. Figs. 10g and
6h). Mylonite zones of D1 age associated with S1 have been previ-
ously described by El-Shafei (1991), Ibrahim (1991), Ali Bik et al.
(2002) and Hassen et al. (2007). The association of the shear zones
and mylonites with S1 foliation is discussed in Section 6.1.1.
5.3. Post-D1 mesoscopic folds
Mesoscopic folds with rounded and kink style have deformed
the S1 foliation and bedding throughout the Sa’al Complex. The
highly variable plunge of these mesoscopic folds is a common fea-
ture of multiple folding (Fig. 11a). In the Ra’ayan phyllites both
rounded and kink folds are very common (Fig. 12a–d), and kinks
with different orientations show interpretable overprinting rela-
tions. Based on the overprinting it is possible to distinguish two
generations of kink folds. In areas beyond the phyllites there are
also mesofolds, dominantly open and rounded in style that appear
to represent more than one generation, however, it is difficult to
distinguish the generations of the open rounded mesofolds based
on overprinting, because there are few examples of clear fold inter-
ference, and in these examples the interference results in subtle
domes and basins that are difficult to interpret. The open rounded
folds also usually lack axial plane foliations that would be helpful
in recognising overprinting.
Comparison of the plot of mesoscopic fold hinges for our study
area with data from previous workers shows some noticeable dif-
ferences. The data from this study scatters in all quadrants and
shows many steep as well as moderate and gentle plunges
(Fig. 11a). Data from Shimron et al. (1993a) and Hegazi (2006)
show very few steep plunges and scatter or form concentrations
114 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131

Fig. 8. Materials used for measurement of shortening strain associated with S1 foliation formation. (a) Photomicrograph showing folded quartz veinlet from the Ra’ayan
Formation phyllites, Wadi Sa’al. Median plane of the folded vein was used to estimate shortening due to buckling. White lines represent S1 foliation trace; (b) folded vein in
outcrop of Ra’ayan Formation phyllite, Wadi Sa’al. Median plane of vein was used for buckling strain determination. White lines show S1 foliation trace; (c) flattened lapilli
particles in Zaghara Formation metapyroclastics, Wadi Mughafa.

along a NW dipping girdle (Fig. 11b and c). Their data is more com-
patible with our separately plotted kink hinge data (Fig. 11e and f).
It is probable that the more easily identifiable and measureable
kink hinges in the phyllites form a large part of the dataset of pre-
vious workers. The data from Hassen et al. (2007) (Fig. 11d) was
collected mainly from the Zaghara Formation along Wadi Zaghara
and is therefore a distinct subset of the post-S1 fold hinges in the
complex.
5.3.1. Mesoscopic F2 and F3 folds
As noted above two generations of kink folds in the phyllites are
recognisable based on overprinting (Fig. 12f). In the Ra’ayan For-
mation phyllites it is clear that there is an earlier, mainly W, SW
or NE plunging set of (F2) kink folds and a later N- to NW-plunging
set of (F3) kink folds. These two generations of kink folds have been
plotted on a map of the area of Ra’ayan phyllites, along with undif-
ferentiated rounded fold hinges in Fig. 13a. The F2 and F3 kink
hinge data are plotted stereographically in Fig. 11e. The density
contoured poles to axial planes of rounded folds and kink planes
are shown on stereograms in Fig. 11h and i. The polar concentra-
tions of axial planes are consistent with NE-trending folds, and
N–S to NW-trending folds. We interpret this data to indicate that
there was a set of approximately NE trending rounded mesoscopic
F2 folds and kinks, followed by a set of N to NW trending rounded
mesoscopic F3 folds and kinks.
In the Ra’ayan phyllites there are common crenulations devel-
oped on the S1 foliations (Fig. 12e). Some outcrops show two sets
of differently oriented crenulations. Two popular trends for the
crenulations are NW and SW (Fig. 13b) and these roughly parallel
the trends for F2 and F3 kink folds, respectively. Along with the
kinks and rounded folds, the crenulations are likely to be D2 and
D3 generation structures, with SW-plunging L2 crenulations and
NW-plunging L3 crenulations. The crenulation orientation data
are plotted in Fig. 11g for comparison with the kink hinge data.
Apart from kink and open rounded styles, there are other styles
of post-D1 mesoscopic folding encountered in the study area in
specific locations. There are three important localities for these
mesofolds. The first is found in the northern parts of the study area,
in Agramiya Formation metapyroclastics, along Wadi Atshan. They
consists of small W-plunging close folds showing systematic
asymmetry (Fig. 14a and b), which might be interpreted to indicate
drag folding with top-to the-S sense of drag. S1 foliation in these
rocks is weak and the folds have no axial plane foliation. In the
same area there are local S-directed ramp-and-flat thrusts. The sec-
 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131 115

Fig. 9. Origin of F1 folds in bedding via vein flanking fold mechanism. In figures (a)–(c), vein is outlined but dotted white line and bedding trace is represented by dashed
white line. (a) sharp deflection of bedding on either side of folded vein due to buttressing effect of the competent vein; (b) buckling of beds to form an F1 fold on one side of an
F1 folded quartz vein; (c) boudins of vein quartz separate differently oriented bedding. F1 folding of beds occurs close to the vein; (d) cartoon showing the stages of
development of the flanking F1 fold in (b). (i) before folding of vein beds have regular planar geometry, (ii) buckling of vein involves sideways displacement of adjacent
phyllite leading to development of flanking fold, (iii) continued buckling and flattening produces F1 fold seen in (b).

ond distinct style of mesoscopic folds was found in the SW end of
the ENE-trending belt of steeply dipping Ra’ayan Formation
metapyroclastics in the central western part of the study area.
Some examples of these folds are shown in Fig. 14c and d. The folds
are tight and complex in style. This complexity results from the
folds initiating in a zone of mafic igneous boudins that lie along
the S1 foliations in this area. A third fold style was found in asso-
ciation with a diorite-intruded shear zone at Wadi Murad in the
east of the study area. Here there are large rounded isolated hinges
of gently inclined folds within a tabular zone parallel to the shear
zone (Fig. 14e). The axial plane of these folds is parallel to the folia-
tions in the shear zone, while the hinges lie parallel to the stretch-
ing lineations on the foliation. Further discussion of these folds is
deferred to Section 6.2.
5.4. Homogeneous domain analysis
The macroscopic structure of a terrain, such as the Sa’al Com-
plex, that has experienced multiple deformation events, is appro-
priately investigated by the homogeneous domain analysis
method. This method is used to find roughly cylindrical segments
of macroscopic folds, and assist in the identification of the gen-
erations of the folds. In this section also the nature of the domain
boundaries is investigated. In some cases the boundaries are
macroscopic faults. Further details of the role of macroscopic faults
in the history of the area will be given later in Section 6.2.
5.4.1. Previous homogeneous domains studies
Homogeneous domains studies of bedding + S1 orientations in
the Sa’al Complex have been previously attempted by Soliman
(1986), El-Shafei (1991), El-Shafei et al. (1992) and to a limited
extent by Hegazi (2006). Soliman (1986) divided up the entire
complex into 10 domains by trial and error grouping of S1 data.
El-Shafei (1991) and El-Shafei et al. (1992) used mapped macro-
folds based on S1 trend lines to arrive at 12 domains for the central
and northwestern parts of the complex. Hegazi (2006) simply
divided all of the complex (apart from the southernmost parts) into
two domains (termed ‘‘subareas’’) – a NE and SW domains.
5.4.2. Homogeneous domains – present study
The seven domains (I–VII) in this study are shown in Fig. 15. The
boundaries were guided by mapped macroscopic folds based on S1
and bedding trend lines, and are also partly defined by major
faults. The following is a brief description of the domains and their
orientation fabrics. The structural data for each domain are plotted
stereographically in Fig. 16. The results of the analysis are sum-
marised in Table 3 and compared with those of earlier workers
in Fig. 17 and Table 4.
Domain I lies in the NW part of the study area and includes
Agramiya Formation north felsic member metapyroclastics and
Ra’ayan Formation phyllites. It is separated from Domain III by a
major NE-striking subvertical fault. The S1 and bedding data define
the SE limb and hinge of a macroscopic moderately SW plunging
synform, steeply inclined to the SE.
Domain II occupies the northern part of the study area and con-
tains both Ra’ayan Formation and Agramiya Formation northern
felsic member deposits. It is separated from Domain III by an E–
W trending continuation of the subvertical fault that separated
Domains I and III. The S1 and bedding data define the hinge of a
nearly E–W trending, WNW plunging synform, moderately to stee-
ply inclined to the N.
Domain III is the largest domain and occupies the northern cen-
tral part of the study area. The units in this domain are Agramiya
Formation metavolcanics. S1 foliations and beds have typically
steep orientations and are macroscopically folded about NW strik-
ing upright axial planes. The plunge of the macrofold hinge is near-
ly vertical.
Domain IV occupies the central part of the study area and con-
sists of steeply dipping NE-trending Zaghara metapyroclastics and
metasediments. The beds and S1 foliations showing gentle macro-
116 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131

Fig. 10. Field photographs, orientation data and micrograph for D1 shear zones and mylonites. (a) Mylonitic foliation showing mylonitic lineation pitching approximately
parallel to pencil, Zaghara Formation metapyroclastics, western side of Sa’al Complex; (b) strongly rotated asymmetric boudins, Zaghara Formation metasediments, west side
of Sa’al Complex; (c) mylonitic foliation in Zaghara Formation metapyroclastics, with syn-shearing intrusion of granitoid (near pencil), west side of Sa’al Complex; (d) thin D1
mylonite zone within sheared silicic metavolcanics of the Agramiya Formation southern felsic member, near Wadi Sa’al; (e) D1 extension microshears and crenulations
(dipping gently to the right) with biotite along the microshear plane in a fine-grained phyllitic metatuff of the Ra’ayan Formation, Wadi Sa’al; (f) contoured stereographic
projection of poles to D1 shear zones and mylonites (55 data, contour intervals 2%, 4%, 8%; beta-axis 22°/S50W); (g) stereographic plot of mylonitic lineations (12 data). Note
similarity of mylonitic lineations to L1 stretching lineations in Fig. 6h.

scopic folding about steeply SW plunging hinges and axial planes
steeply inclined to the SW.
Domain V is represented by the Zaghara Formation metasedi-
ments in the southern part of the complex. The S1 foliations and
beds are overall NE trending but have variable dips. No clear
macroscopic hinges are evident in this domain, though the data
define a girdle with beta-axis plunging gently NE.
Domain VI lies along the SW margin of the complex and includes
Agramiya Formation lavas and northern felsic member metatuffs.
This domain is separated from Domain VII by a folded steeply
dipping major fault. The S1 foliations and beds are folded about a
NW-trending macrofold axial plane inclined steeply to the SW.
The macrofold is approximately reclined and plunges steeply W.
Domain VII also lies along the SW margin of the complex, south
of Domain VI. It includes Agramiya Formation metavolcanics and
Zaghara Formation metasediments and metapyroclastics. S1
foliations and beds define a macroscopic antiform with NNW-
striking, upright axial plane. The macrofold plunges steeply to
the SSE.
5.4.3. Interpretation of our homogeneous domains
A relatively simple interpretation of the macrofold generations
is based on the following observations: (i) Domains I and II syn-
forms look to have been continuous and have trend and plunge dif-
ferences accountable to folding about the NW trending synform in
Domain III (Fig. 15); (ii) Domain VI NW trending fold deforms the
limb of the synform in Domain I; (iii) the fault forming the bound-
ary between Domains VI, I and II to its north, and Domains VII and
III to its south, is also folded about NW trending axial planes; and
(iv) as noted before in Section 5.3.1, the mesoscopic kink folds in
the phyllites are consistent with F2 folding about NE–SW trending
axial planes and F3 domains folding about NW–SE trending axial
planes. On these observations we interpret Domains I and II to rep-
resent a deformed D2 synform, and Domains III, IV, VI and VII to
enclose D3 macrofolds. No macrofold hinge is evident in Domain
V, however the NE general trend of foliations and beds is sugges-
tive of the limb of a D2 macrofold.
5.4.4. Comparison of our interpretation with earlier schemes
Our scheme of macrofolding deformation events in the Sa’al
Complex is compared with the schemes of earlier studies in Table 4.
This table shows that many previous workers regarded the S1
foliation as having been produced during a bedding-parallel shear-
ing or thrust-stacking event, though the hypothesised thrust ver-
gence direction and F1 ‘‘drag’’ fold orientations differed widely
from scheme to scheme. We do not recognise any D1 macrofolds
in the Sa’al area and regard the D1 event as extensional, as will
be discussed in Sections 6.1 and 6.1.2. Most previous workers have
recognised a NE–SW trending set of post-S1 foliation macrofolds,
succeeded by another set of NW–SE trending macrofolds. Most
refer the former to the D2 event and the latter to the D3 event.
Our scheme is in agreement with this point.
 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131 117

Fig. 11. Post-S1 (F2 and F3 undifferentiated – see text) mesoscopic fold hinges and fold axial planes from the Sa’al-Zaghara study area. (a) 217 fold hinges (black dots) + 36-
fold axes (bedding-cleavage intersection lineations – white dots), this study. (b) 36-fold hinges (Shimron et al., 1993a). (c) 33-fold hinges (Hegazi, 2006). (d) 24-fold hinges
(Hassen et al., 2007). (e) 59 kink hinges, this study. (f) point density contoured data from (e), with contours 2%, 4%, 8%. (g) Point density contoured plot of 66 crenulation
lineations, this study. Contours 2%, 4%, 8%. (h) Point density contoured plot of poles to 78-fold axial planes (F2 and F3). Contours 2%, 4%, 8%. (i) Point density contoured plot of
poles to 52 kink fold axial planes (F2 and F3). Contours 2%, 4%, 8%.

5.4.5. Mesoscopic fold orientation patterns in the homogeneous
domains
A final matter to consider on the homogeneous domains analy-
sis in this study is the pattern of mesofold hinges in each of the
homogeneous Domains I–VII. The patterns are shown in Fig. 16
and summarised in Table 3. D3 domains in which mesofolds con-
centrate clearly around the beta-axis are Domains IV, VII and faint-
ly VI. The dominant mesofolds in these domains are therefore
believed to be F3. Concentrations of mesofold hinges around the
beta-axis are also perceptible in Domains I (with an additional
scatter of data along a SW dipping girdle) and III (with an addition
scatter of data along a NE–SW trending girdle). The scattered extra
data are taken to represent F3 mesofolds in Domain I and F2 meso-
folds in Domain III. Domain II fold hinge data scatter along a SW
dipping girdle and probably represent F3 mesofolds. No clear
pattern is seen in Domain V, and perhaps with more data this
domain could be subdivided. Altogether the evidence indicates
that F3 mesofolds are more common than F2 mesofolds in the Sa’al
Complex.
5.5. Metamorphism
The regional metamorphism of the Sa’al Complex has long been
known to be associated with the earliest deformation D1 (Soliman,
1986), and to have been typically greenschist facies, reaching the
Biotite Zone. Metamorphism has affected all units including the
Agramiya, Ra’ayan and Zaghara formations. Porphyroblast phases
are chloritoid and andalusite in the phyllites (Shimron et al.,
1993a,b; Be’eri-Shlevin et al., 2009b). Reference has also been
made to the presence of cordierite and garnet as local porphyrob-
lasts (El-Shafei, 1991; Ali Bik et al., 2002; Hassan et al., 2014) that
have been regarded as thermal metamorphic in origin. Presence of
metamorphic hornblende in Agramiya Formation metavolcanics
has been described by Hassen et al. (2004) as also being due to con-
tact metamorphism. Conditions of peak metamorphism have been
earlier estimated by geothermobarometry by Hassen et al. (2007),
who gave T < 340–370 °C and P 3.4–4 kbar for the phyllites; and by
Abu Anbar et al. (2009) who gave average PT conditions of 450–
560 °C and 3–5 kbars. More recently, Hassan et al. (2014) estimat-
ed peak T 370–420 °C and P  3 kbars for greenschist facies meta-
morphism but noted that at Wadi Mughafa the migmatized
Zaghara Formation metapyroclastics were exposed to T 630–
650 °C (P  3 kbar) as a result of intrusion of sheets of red granite
into this foliated zone late in D1.
5.6. Structure of the intrusions
Based on intrusive relations the plutonic rocks of the Sa’al Com-
plex have been divided into four units. From oldest to youngest
these are: (a) hornblende gabbro (the Firinga intrusion); (b) diorite
varying to granodiorite (occupying the central part of the complex)
and the foliated Wadi Murad intrusion; (c) monzogranite (sur-
118 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131

Fig. 12. Kink folds and crenulations in the Ra’ayan Formation phyllites. Kink generation determined by overprinting relations. (a) F2 kinks, Wadi Sa’al; (b) F3 kinks, north of
Wadi Sa’al; (c) F2 kinks, north of Wadi Sa’al; (d) rounded fold, Wadi Sa’al; (e) L2 crenulations, Wadi Sa’al; (f) F3 kinks overprinting F2 kinks, north of Wadi Sa’al.

rounding the complex); and (d) alkali granite (minor late intru-
sions). According to Bentor’s (1985) classification, (a) and (b) are
Phase II granitoids, (c) is a Phase III granitoid, and (d) is a Phase
IV granitoid. Bentor noted that the Sa’al area was the most com-
plete representation of the range of Phase II plutons. The petrogra-
phy of (a)–(d) is given in Table 2B. Below (and in Table 5) is a brief
description of the field character and structural relations of these
intrusives.
5.6.1. Firinga hornblende gabbro
This large intrusion of typically massive, isotropic but locally
layered and magmatically foliated hornblende gabbro is exposed
over an area of about 20 km2 in the NW part of the study area
and beyond. Most workers have concluded that the hornblende
in this gabbro is magmatic not metamorphic. The intrusion is
somewhat tabular and mainly discordant except at its eastern
end (Fig. 18a). It has intruded along S-vergent thrusts and is weak-
ly D2 folded.
5.6.2. Diorite/granodiorite and foliated metadiorite
This large composite intrusion occupies the central part of the
Sa’al Complex and extends in a southward direction from it
(Fig. 5). It has a dominantly quartz diorite to granodiorite and rarely
monzogranite modal composition, with biotite more abundant than
hornblende. It shows steeply dipping but variably striking magmat-
ic foliations near its margins (Fig. 18c and d). It shows features of
magma mingling and mafic enclaves (Fig. 18b and c). It has intruded
along a major fault that separates Domain IV to the southeast from
Domains III and VII to the northwest. It is affected by steep NE–SW
trending mylonites with thrusting sense of shear. The hornblende–
biotite diorite intrusion at Wadi Murad is identical in most respects
to the central diorite, except that its western parts show a distinct
shear foliation with NNW–SSE trending mineral lineations (Fig. 18e
and f) associated with its intrusion along an active S-vergent thrust
(Fig. 18f), which has also affected Agramiya Formation metavol-
canics adjacent to the intrusion (Fig. 18g). The shear foliations are
folded about SSE-plunging F3 axes (Fig. 18e).
 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131 119

Fig. 13. Maps of kinks and crenulations in the northern part of the Sa’al Complex. (a) Map showing trend and plunge of kinks, distinguished as F2 and F3 where overprinting
allows, and undifferentiated otherwise; (b) map showing the trend and plunge of crenulations, not distinguished by generation. Symbols I, II and III, and dashed lines refer to
domain boundaries. Faint dotted lines are bedding and S1 trend lines. White areas are the volcanosedimentary formations. Grey areas are the intrusive rocks.

5.6.3. Monzogranite
Large intrusions of monzogranite limit the Sa’al Complex to the
W, E and S (Fig. 5). There are dykes of monzogranite extending into
the older diorites. The monzogranites are massive, non-foliated,
whitish to pinkish coarse-grained rocks with high K-feldspar and
quartz contents. The K-feldspar locally occurs as phenocrysts.
The mafic content is low and consists mainly of biotite.
5.6.4. Alkali granite
Red to pink alkali feldspar-rich granites with very low mafic
mineral content form smaller discrete intrusions within the Sa’al
Complex. The largest occupies the northern margin of the study
area. Three other small examples are found near the margins of
the complex.
5.7. Faults
The following brief notes deal with two groups of faults: (1)
pre-D3 folded faults; (2) Post-D3 (D4?) faults.
Group (1) faults are post-D1 and pre-D3, since they cross cut
the S1 foliations and were folded during the D3 event. The best
example forms the domain boundary between the northern
Domains I, II and VI, and the central Domains III and VII (Fig. 15).
This fault also roughly parallels the folded trace of the D2 synform
developed in Domains I and II. For these reasons we believe this
fault is a D2 structure. The fault is subvertical, and striations on
the fault have steep pitches (typically 65NE on the NE trending
segment of the fault). The fault is exposed along Wadi Sa’al
(Fig. 19d) where fault drag effects, give southern block up relative
to northern block sense of slip. There are lower dipping S- to SE-
vergent reverse faults in the vicinity of the major fault mentioned
above. These lower dipping reverse faults cut across the major fault
and across D2 folded beds (Fig. 19b). Similarly vergent reverse
probable D2 faults are found in the Ra’ayan phyllites (Fig. 19a)
and the Agramiya Formation (Fig. 19c).
Group (2) post-intrusion faults are post-D3, and have been
referred to a separate D4 event by Shimron et al. (1993a). We agree
with this assessment. The faults are typically steeply dipping,
120 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131

Fig. 14. Features of F2 folds. (a) Probable F2 folds from Ra’ayan Formation metapyroclastics, Wadi Atshan; (b) probable F2 folds in Ra’ayan Formation metapyroclastics, Wadi
Atshan; (c) and (d) tight steeply plunging F2 folds from the Zaghara metapyroclastics, west side of Sa’al Complex; (e) probable F2 folds in Agramiya Formation
metapyroclastics, Wadi Murad.

though moderate dips to the NW and SW are also common
(Fig. 20a). The faults have been reported in several earlier investi-
gations and the rose diagrams provided by earlier workers
(Soliman, 1986; Ibrahim, 1991; and Gomaa, 2001) are compared
with the results of our study in Fig. 20b. The rose diagrams show
that N–S, NNE, NE, ENE and NW trending faults are present in
the Sa’al Complex. Differences in the rose diagrams mainly relate
to relative importance of these trends. In our study we find strong
representation of N–S faults then NNE and NE faults, and lesser
ENE and NW trending faults. Similar major trends have been
reported by El-Shafei (1991) and Hegazi (2006). However, there
is little agreement amongst authors on the senses of slip on these
main faults. This may be due to reuse of earlier faults, e.g. of D2
faults during D3 and D4. We find that the N–S and NNE faults
are vertical dextral strike slip faults. Good examples are seen in
the centre of the complex, affecting the Zaghara Formation
metapyroclastics (Fig. 5). The NE and ENE faults are also vertical,
but have sinistral slip sense. The N–S and ENE–WSW trending
faults are suspected to form a conjugate set with principal com-
pressive stress r1 oriented N30W–N35W. The NW trending faults
in our dataset were found to dip moderately NE and SW dipping,
and include reverse faults. This is consistent with NE–SW r1.
Other authors have deduced NNW trending r1 (Ibrahim, 1991;
Hegazi, 2006) or E–W trending r1 (Shimron et al., 1993a). The
NE trending faults studied by Hegazi (2006) were reverse faults.
These may belong to D2 rather than D4.
6. Discussion
6.1. D1 deformation – extensional tectonic origin
The D1 deformation in the Sa’al Complex has been described by
several previous workers as a bedding-parallel regional shearing
event (Table 4). This idea is based on identification of F1 ‘drag’ folds
showing tight to isoclinal intrafolial style. Few workers have indi-
cated the sense of shear, though Ibrahim (1991) suggested thrust
transport to the SW and Hegazi (2006) preferred top-to-the-SE
D1 shear sense. Our conclusion on D1 is that it is not related to
thrusting. All thrusts we have been able to identify are post-D1,
affecting the S1 foliation and even cutting across folded S1. D1 is
probably an extensional tectonic event, based on (1) evidence that
the maximum shortening direction was vertical, (2) presence of
symmetrical boudins in sections normal to S1, (3) dominance of
symmetrically folded quartz veins with S1 as axial plane structure,
(4) symmetrical pull-apart structures in extended phenocrysts, and
 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131
Fig. 15. Map of the Sa’al Complex showing the location and numbering (I–VII) of the homogeneous domains (for bedding and S1 data) for this study. Intrusive rocks are grey
areas.
(5) symmetrical pressure shadows developed in resistant particles
enclosed by S1. The principal extension direction was probably
NW–SE or NNW–SSE based on the restoration to horizontal of S1
foliations showing L1 lineations.
6.1.1. Relations of extensional shear zones to S1
The degree of development of S1 (and associated vertical short-
ening strain) varied at different levels in the Sa’al Complex. Short-
ening strains are generally greater in the Ra’ayan phyllites than in
the Agramiya Formation metavolcanics above and below it, per-
haps due to the finer grained textures of the phyllite pyroclastic
protoliths. This difference in vertical shortening leads to a problem
of strain compatibility, with the possible solutions illustrated in
Fig. 21. This figure shows that strain compatibility across the for-
mational boundary requires negative dilatation of the layer experi-
encing the greater vertical shortening (compare Fig. 21a and b). In
the Ra’ayan phyllites there is some evidence for pressure solution
effects in the form of dissolution of parts of folded veins cut by
S1. S1 cleavages with a stylolitic appearance are also present in
some lithologies. There is therefore some scope for dilatation to
accommodate or partially accommodate the different degrees of
vertical shortening. In the more realistic case where dilatation
did not completely accommodate the differences in vertical
shortening (Fig. 21c) there will be significant strain discontinuities
parallel to the layer contacts. Fig. 21d shows how extensional shear
zones at a low angle to S1 could develop as a result of the strain
incompatibility at the contact between the two tabular zones of
different vertical shortening. Such extension shears are present in
the Sa’al Complex (Fig. 21e). This model for D1 extensional shear
zones emphasises that the S1 foliation was not the product of
shearing but formed in the same event as the extensional shear
zones.
121
6.1.2. No recognisable macroscopic D1 structures
Several previous workers have argued for the existence of
macroscopic structures associated with the D1 (S1 foliation pro-
ducing) event. NW-plunging F1 macrofolds were claimed by El-
Shafei (1991), Ibrahim (1991), El-Shafei et al. (1992), Hussein
et al. (1993), Mamoun et al. (2004) and Hassen et al. (2007). These
were described as gently inclined and isoclinal. Younging criteria
are common throughout the Sa’al Complex, and indicate that gent-
ly to moderately dipping beds are upright and steep to subvertical
beds young consistently to the S or SE. These facts, and the absence
of any recognisable F1 macrofold hinges argue against the exis-
tence of the previously proposed macroscopic tight gently inclined
F1 folds, though gentle or open upright F1 fold structures could
have existed, e.g. rollover anticlines associated with extension,
and may account for the few examples of S1 discordant to bedding.
Macroscopic normal faults may also have existed during D1,
though we have not recognised any and suspect that such
faults may have been inverted during the later compressional D2
event.
6.2. Model of folding, thrusting and intrusion for the D2 event
Several structural and intrusive events appear to be associated
with D2. The originally NE trending macroscopic syncline in
Domains I and II, NE trending kink folds in the Ra’ayan phyllite,
NE to ENE trending major reverse faults along southern boundary
of Domains I and II, and ENE-trending steep ductile shears with
reverse (top to NW) slip sense in the diorite intrusion in the centre
of the study area, are all consistent with a NW–SE regional short-
ening, and all suspected to be D2 features. In addition, there is
the top-to-SE diorite intruded zone at Wadi Murad, and top-to-S
shear sense on drag folds in Wadi Atshan and in the Firinga gabbro.
122 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131

Fig. 16. Stereographic plot of data for each of the homogeneous domains shown in Fig. 15. For each domain, the density contoured diagram is for bedding + S1 data, while the
uncontoured diagram represents mesoscopic F2 and F3 (undifferentiated) fold hinges. See text for discussion of these fold hinge patterns. The small star represents the beta-
axis of the girdle of best fit (dashed great circle) for the bedding + S1 data. Data is as follows: Domain I (204 beds + S1, contours 1%, 2%, 4%, 8%, 16%, beta-axis 29/S48W; 70-
fold hinges). Domain II (45 beds + S1, contours 3%, 6%, 12%, beta-axis 23/N74W; 21-fold hinges). Domain III (233 beds + S1, contours 1%, 2%, 4%, 8%, beta-axis 84/S59W; 55-
fold hinges). Domain IV (92 beds + S1, contours 2%, 4%, 8%, 16%, beta-axis 61/S38W; 33-fold hinges). Domain V (138 beds + S1, contours 1%, 2%, 4%, 8%, beta-axis 26/N44E;
30-fold hinges). Domain VI (38 beds + S1, contours 3%, 6%, 12%, 24%, beta-axis 69/N83W; 11-fold hinges). Domain VII (71 beds + S1, contours 2%, 4%, 8%, 16%, beta-axis 69/
S13E; 26-fold hinges).

These latter structures also compatible with the regional shorten-
ing associated with D2.
On the basis of overprinting and intrusive relations we propose
the series of events for D2 as shown in Fig. 22. At the end of the D1
event there were broadly horizontal beds and sub-parallel S1 folia-
tions. Some larger scale structures such as normal faults may also
have existed (Fig. 22a). We suspect that the D2 deformation
involved tectonic displacement from the SE as the main thrust
structures are NW-vergent. Open F2 folds probably formed at
about the time of early D2 thrusting. Any earlier normal faults
may have been reused as thrusts (Fig. 22b). Imbricate thrusting
rotated slices of F2 folded beds to steeper orientations (Fig. 22c).
The macroscopic syncline of Domains I and II formed ahead of
the most northerly recognised NW-vergent thrust (the boundary
fault between Domains I, II and Domains III, VI) (Fig. 22d). Back-
thrusting to the SE is recognised in the northern parts of the area,
and the Firinga gabbro apparently intruded along these faults as
well as along beds (Fig. 22d). The Wadi Murad foliated diorite also
intruded along an active SE vergent thrust. The Murad thrusting
and intrusion may also belong to the D2 event on the basis of
similar kinematics, though the foliated diorite is dated as sig-
nificantly younger than the Firinga (see Section 6.3 below). Minor
thrusting towards the SE has also occurred in the latest stages of
NW–SE compression.
6.3. Geochronology – progress and problems
The earlier methods of Rb/Sr and K/Ar dating of rocks from the
Agramiya Formation volcanics (aka Sa’al Volcanics) accorded them
an age of >650 Ma and <950 Ma and popularly within the range
740–715 Ma (Bielski, 1982; Bentor, 1985; Shimron, 1987; Stern
and Manton, 1987; Shimron et al., 1993b; Hassen et al., 2004;
Abu Anbar et al., 2009). Similar or younger results were obtained
for the sediments of the complex, e.g. 740 Ma (Shimron et al.,
1993b; Be’eri-Shlevin et al., 2009b), and 641 Ma for pebbles of
the Zaghara Formation conglomerates (aka Sa’al or Zaghara Con-
glomerate) (Bielski, 1982). Early U/Pb dating of zircons in the clasts
of the latter conglomerate gave somewhat greater but still compa-
rable ages for the source rocks of these sediments, e.g. 757 ± 28 Ma
(Priem et al., 1984). In making their case for the equivalence of the
 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131 123

Table 2B
Petrography of the main intrusive rocks of the Sa’al-Zaghara Complex.

Foliation-concordant tabular granite and Red and pink granite and quartz porphyry sheets have intruded along foliations and mylonite zones in the Ra’ayan Fm
diorite/gabbro intrusions metapyroclastics cut by Wadi Mughafa. They show deformed quartz phenocrysts and recrystallized K-feldspar
phenocrysts. There is minor sodic plagioclase. The groundmass is composed of recrystallized quartz and feldspars.
There are clumps of opaques and traces of chlorite and zircon
There are metadiorite tabular bodies that have also intruded along foliations in the Wadi Mughafa metapyroclastics.
Plagioclase is recrystallized and altered to sericite. Quartz is an interstitial minor phase. Large original amphiboles have
been bent and dismembered and replaced by pale green felty actinolite and brown biotite. The stretching,
recrystallization and growth of new actinolites defines a clear foliation. There are peculiar very thin folia of biotite
Wadi Murad metadiorite These rocks vary from quartz diorite to monzodiorite. They consist of subhedral strongly zoned equant crystals of
weakly sericitized plagioclase, and interstitial or large poikilitic microcline grains. Myrmekite may be found at the
contact between plagioclase and microcline. Quartz is interstitial or forms small polycrystalline patches. Brown biotite
is partly replaced by chlorite. Less abundant green hornblende has rare clinopyroxene cores. Sphene, opaques, zircon
and epidote are accessories. Deformation effects are usually present and are commonly strong. These effects include
bending and cracking of plagioclase, undulose extinction in quartz, gashlike microperthitic exsolution in microcline,
kinking of biotite and slight flexing of hornblende, all at low strain. At high strain plagioclase grains are pulled apart,
quartz patches are stretched out and quartz and microcline are thoroughly recrystallized, biotite with chlorite form
folia of decussate flakes associated with dismembered and recrystallized hornblende. Some specimens appear to be
protomylonitic with a finer grained recrystallized foliated quartz, feldspar, hornblende groundmass outlining
porphyroclasts of partly recrystallized plagioclase and hornblende
Firinga Metagabbro The gabbros are typically coarse-grained and consist mainly of randomly oriented interlocking weakly zoned
plagioclase grains, slightly sericitized or with rare clinozoisite inclusions. Quartz, if present, is interstitial. The
dominant mafic minerals are magmatic brownish or olive green hornblende surrounding cores of actinolite-replaced
augite. Large chloritized brown biotite flakes are present. Opaques with sphene rims, and minor apatite are common
accessories. Deformation is limited to cracking and veining. There is incomplete metamorphism of this hornblende
gabbro
Diorite–Granodiorite The granitoids are remarkably similar in petrography to those of the Murad quartz diorite, though composition extends
to granodiorite and rarely monzogranite. Intermediate composition plagioclase shows zoning with sericitized cores.
Plagioclase may be equant or elongate and flow aligned, and may form phenocrysts. Microcline is microperthitic,
anhedral, interstitial or forms large poikilitic crystals, and may be bordered by myrmekites. Quartz is interstitial or
forms polycrystalline patches or networks. Brown biotite is generally the dominant mafic phase, and is accompanied
by green hornblende with relict cores of original clinopyroxene. Biotite sometimes mantles hornblende. Sphene,
opaques, apatite and trace zircon are present. Most examples show no deformation, especially the pluton along Wadi
Ra’ayan. Deformation is best represented near the margins of the larger plutons. The deformation involves flexing,
cracking of plagioclase with cracks filled with microcline, plagioclase and biotite. Microcline shows mortar texture.
Quartz is recrystallized and shows grain size reduction. Recrystallization may affect the entire rock except for
porphyroclasts of plagioclase. In the latter rocks a foliation is defined by strings of dismembered hornblende associated
with much biotite. Biotite also defines folia consisting of lenses of decussate flakes
Monzogranite The granite consists of zoned euhedral plagioclase grains with sericitized cores. There are much larger anhedral
microperthitic K-feldspar and large anhedral quartz grains. Brown biotite is scarce and there is a trace of green
hornblende. Sphene is an abundant accessory, followed by zircon
Alkali Granite These pinkish to reddish coloured granites consist large areas of polycrystalline quartz, minor unzoned finely twinned
plagioclase grains, surrounded by anhedral polycrystalline microcline microperthite. Antiperthite may present in some
samples. There are traces of white mica, chloritized biotite, opaques and chlorite, and rare anhedral colourless garnet

Table 3
Results of the homogeneous domains analysis.

Domain I II III IV V VI VII

Strike of macrofold axial plane N60E N88E N29W N40W – N38W N28W
Domain b-axis 29°/S48W 23°/N74W 84°/S59W 61°/S38W 26°/N44E 69°/N83W 69°/S13E
Calc. dip of macrofold axial plane 69° SE 54° NW 84° SW 62° SW – 75° SW 84° SW
Macrofold deformation event D2 D2 D3 D3 D2? D3 D3
Concentration of mesofold axes near b-axis? No No Yes, weak Yes No Yes, weak Yes
Relative dominance of F2 and F3 mesofolds in this domain F3 > F2 F2  F3 F3 > F2 F3  F2 F3 > F2 F3 > F2 F3  F2

Sa’al Volcanics and the Dokhan Volcanics of the eastern Desert,
El-Gaby et al. (2002) suggested that the apparently greater age of
the Sa’al Volcanics may have been due to disturbance of the
original Rb/Sr ratios. Shimron et al. (1993a) also suggested
resetting of dates in the Sa’al Complex during the Najd event
(615–610 Ma).
Recent studies of zircon populations and precise measurements
via high resolution ion probes have provided a much wider range
of dates for the Sinai complexes, especially the Agramiya Forma-
tion (Johnson, 2014). Zircons dated at 1.03–1.02 Ga were recovered
from the Agramiya Formation volcanics by Be’eri-Shlevin et al.
(2012), revising the age of these volcanics back to the latest
Mesoproterozoic. A younger age of 962 ± 10 Ma was obtained for
Agramiya rhyolites by Eyal et al. (2014). Metasediments of the
Ra’ayan Formation were also found to be no older than 1.03 Ga
(Be’eri-Shlevin et al., 2009b), while Be’eri-Shlevin et al. (2012)
found the youngest concordant cluster of zircon dates in the phyl-
lites to be 0.95 Ga with a single 0.86 Ga zircon analysed. On the
other hand, diorite clasts of the Zaghara Formation conglomerates
yielded zircon ages as young as 606 ± 10 Ma (Stern et al., 2010)
providing the possibility that the Zaghara Formation was substan-
tially younger (350 My younger) than the remainder of the com-
plex. Similar results were recently obtained by Andresen et al.
(2014) for the clasts of the Zaghara conglomerate (650–640 Ma)
and its matrix (zircons as young as 630 Ma), giving a depositional
age of about 625 Ma.
Geochronologic results for the intrusive rocks of the Sa’al Com-
plex are also different to earlier estimates. The age of the Firinga
124 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131

Fig. 17. Compilation of homogeneous domain girdle beta-axes from the present and previous studies. The 2nd macrofold generation is equivalent to our NW–SE trending D3
macrofolds.

Table 4
Summary of previous schemes for macroscopic folding events in the Sa’al Complex.

Early thrusting or bedding-parallel shearing Folding about NE striking, NW or Folding about NW striking, NE or
SE dipping axial planes SW dipping axial planes
Soliman (1986) ‘‘D1’’ NE–SW plunging folds ‘‘D2’’ NW striking APs
El-Shafei (1991) ‘‘D1’’ NNW plunging macrofolds ‘‘D2’’ thrust related, SW
dipping APs
Ibrahim (1991) ‘‘D1’’ NNW–SSE plunging macrofolds ‘‘D2’’ NNW dipping APs
El-Shafei et al. (1992) ‘‘D1’’ NNW plunging macrofolds ‘‘D2’’ thrust related SW
dipping APs
Shimron et al. (1993a,b) ‘‘D1’’ Thrust repetition of units ‘‘D2’’ E–W striking APs ‘‘D3’’ NNW striking axial
planes
Hussein et al. (1993) ‘‘D1’’ NNW plunging macrofolds ‘‘D2’’ NW dipping APs
Mehanna et al. (2001) ‘‘D1’’ ESE plunging, SW verging folds (macro?) ‘‘D2’’ thrust related, NW verging ‘‘D3’’ NNW striking APs
folds
Mamoun et al. (2004) ‘‘D1’’ NNW plunging macrofolds ‘‘D2’’ SW plunging folds
Ali Bik and Moussa (2004) ‘‘D1’’ E–W striking APs ‘‘D2’’ NNW striking APs
Hegazi (2006) ‘‘D1’’ NE–SW plunging mesofolds, thrusting top-to-the-SE ‘‘D2’’ NE striking APs ‘‘D3’’ NW striking APs
Hassen et al. (2007) ‘‘D1’’ NW plunging macrofolds ‘‘D2’’ NE plunging folds
Hassan et al. (2014) and this D1 Extensional deformation, not thrusting. No D1 D2 Thrust related, ENE D3 NW striking APs
study macrofolds found striking APs

‘‘D1’’, ‘‘D2’’, ‘‘D3’’ denote the previous authors’ designated deformation events. D1, D2, D3 represents the events described in this study. Bold text emphasise schemes with D2
and D3 macrofold trends similar to ours.

gabbro was estimated by El-Metwally (1992) to be <655 Ma
according to his identification of these gabbros as late- to post-oro-
genic. Ali Bik (1999b) identified them as belonging to the earlier
island arc stage (880–800 Ma). Zircon dating by Be’eri-Shlevin
et al. (2012) shifted their age back to 1017 ± 5 Ma, i.e. slightly
younger than the estimated ages of the Agramiya and Ra’ayan for-
mations. The diorite dominating the centre of the Sa’al Complex
has been dated as <615 Ma (Andresen et al., 2014), though
768 ± 8 Ma zircons were also found in it but were identified as
xenocrysts. The 615 Ma age groups this diorite with CA2 suite
intrusions (635–590 Ma) such as the nearby Ahdar Complex
(610 ± 5 Ma: Be’eri-Shlevin et al., 2009c), and distinguishes it from
older nearby quartz diorites such as the Moneiga intrusion
(844 Ma: Bea et al., 2009) and the Feiran diorite (796 ± 6 Ma:
Kröner et al., 1994). The foliated Wadi Murad diorite has been zir-
con dated by Be’eri-Shlevin et al. (2012) at 819 ± 4 Ma, and also via
U/Pb in titanite at 720 ± 8 Ma by Eyal et al. (2014).
The above recent geochronological data present tight con-
straints for the structural evolutionary model proposed in this
paper, and is also in contradiction with some field evidence. We
recognise all deformation events, D1–D4, and D1-associated
regional metamorphism in the Zaghara Formation, as in the rest
of the complex. However, if the Zaghara Formation is <625 Ma,
then the metamorphism, deformation D1 and some D2 thrusting
must also have occurred between 625 and 615 Ma, as the diorite
intruding the Zaghara is >615 Ma, has intruded along a D2 thrust
and shows deformations D3 and D4. This requires D1, regional
metamorphism and D2 thrusting to have occurred in a less than
10 My interval. Furthermore, the robustly dated Firinga gabbro
intrusion (1017 ± 5 Ma) appears to be syn-D2, indicating D1 and
D2 deformation at least by this time. Stratigraphic data also are
in disagreement with current geochronology. The Zaghara Forma-
tion is partly interbedded with Agramiya Formation rhyolitic
ignimbrites (dated at 1.03–1.02 Ga) in the SW parts of the Sa’al
Complex. The Wadi Murad intrusion is surely syn-kinematic (prob-
ably syn-D2) but is dated to at least 720 Ma.
6.4. Tectonic setting of the Sa’al Complex
6.4.1. Geothermal gradients in the Sa’al and other Sinai complexes
The early extensional tectonic event D1 in the Sa’al Complex was
accompanied by HT-LP metamorphism associated with a thermal
 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131 125

Table 5
Structural of the intrusive phases of the Sa’al Complex – previous and present observations.

Previous work Structural observations, this study

Firinga hornblende El-Metwally (1992, 1997) and Takla et al. (2001) concluded that it
gabbro intruded the granodiorites and belonged to the Younger Gabbros. Ali
Bik (1999a,b) found the opposite relations, i.e. that the granodiorite
intrudes the gabbro. Ali Bik (1999a,b) and Qaoud and Abdelnasser
(2012) considered the Firinga gabbro to be an older subduction related
calc-alkaline continental arc intrusive. Ibrahim (1991) remarked that
the Firinga was probably ‘sill-like’ in geometry as it was folded along
with the host sediments and volcanic. Be’eri-Shlevin et al. (2012) and
Eyal et al. (2014) also referred to the Firinga as a ‘sill’
Diorite/granodiorite It has previously been described as calc-alkaline, I-type, subduction-
and foliated related island arc to continental arc intrusion and as an example of the
metadiorite ‘‘Older Granites’’ (Katta, 1990; Ibrahim, 1991; Khalaf et al., 1999;
Shahien, 2000; Mehanna et al., 2001). The existence of tectonic
deformation features suggest a syn- to late-kinematic timing of
intrusion, making this unit an example of CA1 suite granitoids of
Be’eri-Shlevin et al. (2009a). The schistosity in the Wadi Murad diorite
was first described by Soliman (1986)
Monzo-granite Khalaf et al. (1999) described them as calc-alkaline, I-type, subduc-
tion-related biotite granites. Mehanna et al. (2001) noted that they
were late-tectonic and plotted in the VAG field geochemically. They
form part of the vast batholithic system of CA2 suite granitoids of
Be’eri-Shlevin et al. (2009a) that dominate the Sinai basement
Alkali granite These intrusions have also been described as syenogranite or
leucogranite. Mehanna et al. (2001) concluded that they were I-type to
A-type granites that plot in the WPG field geochemically. They
correspond to the AL granite suite of Be’eri-Shlevin et al. (2009a)
The Firinga gabbro is intruded by dykes of the granodiorite and is
therefore older than the granodiorite. The gabbro intrudes the
Agramiya and Ra’ayan formations with irregular xenolith rich
contacts, and is overall discordant to the folded beds but shows local
concordances (Fig. 18a), and is appears to be grossly tabular. Finer
grained chilled contacts are found. The finer grained rock is identical to
associated NE trending dykes of gabbro. Within the gabbro are ductile
shears that are affected by NE trending folds. It appears that the shears
may have had a low dip to the NW before folding. Brittle NW dipping
reverse faults also affect the gabbro. The generation of the shears in
the gabbro and its timing of intrusion are probably late D2. The small
areas of gabbro in the central part of the Sa’al Complex, previously
grouped with the Firinga identified, belong to the diorite–granodiorite
on the basis of magma mingling features (Fig. 18b)
Flow structures are common, e.g. schlieren, flow lineations defined by
phenocrysts and flow elongated enclaves (Fig. 18c). Flow foliations are
typically steeply dipping and trend NE–SW (Fig. 18d) and are most
common near the intrusive contacts. Intrusive contacts are sharp and
may be xenolithic, and clearly post-date S1 foliations in the wallrocks.
Intrusion along a fault separating Domains III and IV has nearly
separated Domain IV from the rest of the complex, while the diorite
has completely isolated Domain V. There are numerous aplite dykes
within the diorite, with some NE-striking examples showing steeply
dipping mylonitized margins. Kinematic indicators show large
component of reverse slip (top-towards NW) on these slip planes
The schistosity in the Wadi Murad diorite is younger than and
distinctly gentler in dip than the steep magmatic foliations also found
in this intrusion (Fig. 18d and e). The schistosity is also developed in
the adjacent Agramiya Formation wallrocks (Fig. 18g), and is found to
be shear related on the basis of asymmetric microstructures and shear
truncation features in outcrop (Fig. 18g). The shear foliation has been
gently folded about NE-trending (D2) axial planes, and NW-trending
(D3) axial planes (Fig. 18e). Mineral lineations on the foliation trend
NW–SE (Fig. 18e). The original sense of shearing was top-to-the-SE or
SSE. The high temperature phases defining the foliation suggest that
shearing may have accompanied or occurred soon after intrusion
These granites generally lack magmatic flow structures and enclaves,
but have xenoliths of granodiorite and form dykes intruding into the
granodiorites
The intrusions occur on the Wester side of the complex. One intrusion
along Wadi Zaghara is elongate in a NE–SW direction and has intruded
along the contact between the diorites and monzogranites

gradient of 38° to 41 °C/km (Hassan et al., 2014). This is to be com-
pared with values for the Feiran Complex of 35° to 45 °C/km (El-
Tokhi, 1992; Eliwa et al., 2004; Fowler and Hassen, 2008); and for
the Kid Complex, values of < 40° to 55 °C/km (Brooijmans et al.,
2003; Abu El-Enen and Makroum, 2003; Eliwa et al., 2008; Fowler
et al., 2010b); and for the Tweiba-Taba-Elat complex, with values
of < 35° to > 50 °C/km (Cosca et al., 1999; Abu El-Enen et al.,
2004; Eliwa et al., 2008). The Sa’al gradient is closer to that of the
Feiran Complex, which also had an extensional history during the
main metamorphism (Eliwa et al., 2004; Fowler and Hassen,
2008); and is somewhat lower than the gradients for the Kid and
Taba-Elat Complexes, which have been interpreted as active conti-
nental arc environments. However, these calculated gradients are
sensitive to pressure estimates, which vary substantially amongst
workers in these areas.
6.4.2. Model of the Sa’al Complex as an original back-arc basin
volcanic rift
While the Sa’al Complex has previously been compared to a
continental arc environment on the basis of geochemistry of the
volcanics, it is also possible that the rhyolitic ignimbrites and
andesitic lavas of the Agramiya Formation were erupted into a
continental back-arc basin or volcanic rift. Typical geothermal
gradients for back-arc rifts in continental setting are 35° to
45 °C/km (Rothstein and Manning, 2003). Back-arc rifts are elon-
gate parallel to the arc and are typically a few hundreds of kms
long and a few tens of kms wide (Shinjo et al., 1999; Deering
et al., 2011). They form in continental crust commonly by asym-
metric extension on listric normal faults. A good example is the
modern Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) of the north island of New
Zealand. In the TVZ the early rifting stage was marked by andesi-
tic lavas that were succeeded by rhyolite ignimbrites in the parts
of the rift that experienced more rapid rates of extension (Deering
et al., 2011). Andesitic volcanism in the TVZ dominates at the
extreme ends of the rift (Wilson et al., 1995). In other back-arc
basins the back-arc basin axis is dominated by andesites, and
rhyolites occupy the rift margins (Sato et al., 2011). The geochem-
istry of continental back-arc rift volcanics includes high or medi-
um K calc-alkaline to minor tholeiitic basaltic andesites, andesites,
dacites and rhyolites (Graham et al., 1995; Shinjo et al., 1999). The
amount of extension to produce the back-arc rift typically reaches
100%, resulting in vertical thinning of the continental basement
beneath the rift by 40–50% (Davey et al., 1995; Platt, 2007). These
features are comparable to those of the Sa’al Complex, and
126 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131

Fig. 18. Features of the intrusions. (a) Approximately concordant part of contact between Firinga gabbro (left) and Ra’ayan Formation phyllites (right), just north of Wadi
Atshan; (b) granodiorite with enclaves of dark diorite, Wadi Far’a; (c) flow foliated biotite diorite with dark elongated enclaves, near Wadi Zaghara; (d) poles to magmatic
foliations in the central diorite intrusion (white circles), and magmatic foliations in the Wadi Murad diorite (black circles); (e) poles to schistosity in foliated diorite of Wadi
Murad (black circles). beta-axis of girdle of best fit (white square) plunges 3/S19E. Mineral lineations on foliation plotted as crosses; (f) well-foliated sheared hornblende
diorite, with mineral lineation trending from top-left to bottom-right, in Wadi Murad; (g) shear truncations in foliations in Agramiya Formation metavolcanics, adjacent to
the Murad intrusion, Wadi Murad.

support the possibility of the Sa’al Complex originally being an
ENE trending volcanic rift with NNW–SSE direction of crustal
extension, developed in the back-arc environment of a continental
volcanic arc. In this interpretation the D1 extension event would
be syn-volcanic, giving D1 a similar age to the Agramiya Forma-
tion volcanics. The nature of the continental crust bordering the
Sa’al volcanics to their north may have been of Kibaran age, on
the basis of large numbers of detrital zircons of this age in the
Sa’al schists (Johnson, 2014).
6.4.3. Age, correlation and tectonic interpretation of the Sa’al D2 event
The current geochronological data pose a problem for dating the
D2 event, and may even indicate more than one phase of this
event, with similar kinematics. If the Firinga gabbro is >1 Ga, then
at least one phase of D2 was of this age. If the Wadi Murad foliated
diorite is 740 Ma, then there was another phase of D2 at this
stage. Even the main diorite intrusion in the centre of the Sa’al
Complex (615 Ma) has shears with movement sense consistent
with D2. Unfortunately, other deformation events in the Sinai
complexes are poorly dated, making regional correlation of the
D2 phases speculative. In the Kid Complex, SE Sinai, the D1 event
affecting the Tarr Complex has similar style and kinematics to
the D2 event at Sa’al, involving NW–SE compression that produced
NW-vergent steeply dipping imbricate thrusts and relatively minor
folds (Fowler et al., 2010b). The D1 event at Kid was interpreted to
be an arc collision event that predated the HT-LP metamorphic
event. D1 at Kid occurred before intrusion of the Quneia diorite
(581 ± 11 Ma) and after deposition of the Heib Volcanics (614–
604 Ma) (Moghazi et al., 1998,2012) and may therefore correlate
with the youngest D2 phase listed above. In the Taba-Elat Complex
the HT-LP metamorphism at about 770–760 Ma was followed by
E–W to WNW trending folds that must have formed before intru-
sions were emplaced at 745 Ma. This E–W/WNW folding event
could correlate with 740 Ma D2 events at Sa’al.
Okada and Ikeda (2012) noted that back-arc basins behind con-
tinental arcs are more commonly regions of compression, and that
extensional back-arc basins readily close by reversal of the dis-
placements on the earlier extensional faults associated with rifting.
 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131 127

Fig. 19. Pre-D3 faults in the Sa’al Complex. (a) Ramp in probable D2 south-vergent reverse fault in Ra’ayan Formation phyllites; (b) south-vergent probable D2 reverse fault in
the Agramiya Formation metavolcanics, N of Wadi Sa’al; (c) top-to-the-south fault zone in Agramiya Formation metavolcanics in Wadi Sa’al; (d) Steep fault separating
Ra’ayan Formation phyllites (left) from Agramiya Formation andesites (right, showing more shadows). The fault is crossed by a reddish felsite dyke, in Wadi Sa’al.

Fig. 20. Statistics on mesoscopic faults orientation in the Sa’al Complex. (a) stereographic projection of fault pole data from the study area (72 measurements). Contours are
2%, 4%, 8%; (b) rose diagrams representing fault strike variations. Data from identified references.
128 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131

Fig. 21. (a)–(d) Diagrams explaining the role of D1 extensional shear zones in dealing with strain incompatibilities arising from development of S1. (a) Two layers or
formations, initially of same stratigraphic thickness, with strain circles; (b) as a result of vertical shortening to produce S1 (parallel to bedding) the upper layer experiences
20% vertical shortening (and horizontal stretching of 25%), assuming the strain is non-dilatant (and 2-dimensional). The lower layer has experienced a greater vertical
shortening of 50%, but as a result of dilatation ( 38% e.g. through stylolitization) there is no strain incompatibility at the contact between the upper and lower layer; (c) same
strain for the upper layer as for (b). The lower layer also has same vertical shortening as for (b), however. There is no dilatation in the lower layer. This leads to strain
incompatibility across the contact between the two layers; (d) same strains in the upper and lower layers as for (c), with the strain incompatibility between the upper and
lower layers accommodated by extensional shear zones, as envisaged for the Sa’al Complex; (e) an example of D1 extensional shear zones in the Ra’ayan phyllites. The white
dashed body is a sill displaced on the shear zone (marked with black line).

They further noted that reverse movement on the reactivated
extensional listric faults produces a floor thrust from which steep
imbricate thrusts splay, accommodating displacement away from
the arc. In their study area there were also lesser thrusts that
had opposite vergence (i.e. displacements towards the arc). These
features correlate well with the style of D2 deformation in the Sa’al
Complex, and would indicate the presence of the arc to the SE of
the Sa’al Complex with direction of subduction towards the NW.
The dating of the syn-D2 Firinga gabbro to only 8 My after the
eruption of the Agramiya Formation suggests that at least the
major thrusting and folding aspects of D2 date from soon after
the basin rifting phase in a back-arc rift model for the complex.
6.4.4. Correlation and interpretation of the Sa’al D3 and D4 events
The Sa’al D3 event postdated the diorite intrusion, hence
appears to have been <615 Ma. Similar NW–SE compression related
folds are present in the Kid Complex where they affect the Quneia
diorite (581 ± 11 Ma) but not the nearby syenogranites
(570 ± 4 Ma) (Moghazi et al., 1998), giving an approximate age
somewhere within 590–570 Ma for the Kid D3 folding. The domi-
nant deformation in the Feiran Complex was a NW–SE trending
SW-vergent series of folds and folds and thrusts that affected all
units of the complex and postdated the HT metamorphism. The
youngest date obtained for the metamorphism at Feiran by Abu
El-Enen and Whitehouse (2013) was 587 ± 7 Ma for a biotite–horn-
blende gneiss in Wadi Feiran. The NW–SE trending folding and
thrusting at Feiran then dates to <595 Ma and may also correlate
with Sa’al D3. This event has been identified as relating to the latest
collision of east and west Gondwana, and was associated by Abu-
Alam and Stüwe (2009) with Najd activity (though at 610–615 Ma).
The D4 faults are also consistent with NE–SW compression.
Shimron et al. (1993b) regarded the faults in the Sa’al Complex
 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131 129

Fig. 22. Cartoon showing progression of the D2 compressional deformation event for the Sa’al Complex. (a) Pre-D2 configuration – no folding of beds (S0) and foliations (S1).
Some D1 normal macrofaults may have existed; (b) onset of D2 event begins with minor open F2 folding of beds and S1 and inversion of any pre-existing macroscopic normal
faults to form NW-vergent thrusts; (c) development of D2 thrust imbrication to the NW; (d) steepening of imbricates, development of the D2 macroscopic syncline in the
northern part of the complex, and back thrusting to the SE across the syncline. Intrusion of the Firinga gabbro along thrusts and beds; (e) intrusion of the Wadi Murad foliated
diorite along active SE-vergent thrusts in the east of the complex. Intrusion of the diorite in the central part of the complex along the steepened D2 thrusts with some minor
thrusting to the NW during or soon after intrusion. Minor folding of the Firinga intrusion and associated thrusts. Minor late thrusting to the SE across earlier D2 thrusts. A
possible time gap of several hundred millions of years between (d) and (e) is shown as a bold dashed line. This time gap is inferred from recent geochronological results
though is not a preferred possibility in our model. See text for discussion of the geochronology.

as reflecting the northernmost strand of the Najd fault system and
illustrated this with the Agram Fault along the western side of the
complex. They noted that this fault did not affect 600 Ma dykes
transecting the fault. We have two points to make about this fault.
The first is that the SW side of the complex is entirely intrusive and
no discrete fault trace crops out. The second is that the estimated
r1 for the fault data collected in our study has a NE–SW orienta-
tion incompatible with sinistral motion on NW-trending faults.
Indeed, the dominant faults are N–S dextral and show no sig-
nificant transpressional behaviour. This is inconsistent with a Najd
origin for these faults but consistent with NE–SW convergence per-
sisting from D3 to D4.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the assistance in the field by our col-
leagues Prof. Baher El-Kalioubi, Prof. Ali Al-Mishwat, Ms. Mariam
Al-Shumaimri, and by students Mohammed Atef Abu El-Nour
and Osama Dessouky (Suez Canal University), and Waleed Sayed
Hussein (Ain Shams University).
130 A. Fowler et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 104 (2015) 103–131

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