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CFRD Practice in Turkey and Their Earthquake Safety Evaluation

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 CFRD Practice in Turkey and Their Earthquake Safety Evaluation

By Hasan TOSUN, Professor, Eskişehir Osmangazi University Turkey and

Keziban TOSUN, Project Manager, TVT Hydrotech Bureau, Ankara Turkey

Abstract

For concrete-faced rockfill dam (CFRD), design and construction seem very simple,
when compared with other types of embankment dam. For static conditions, the
time-dependent deformation, especially separation between concrete face slab and
cushion layer, seems one of the most significant problems of high concrete-faced
rockfill dams. The authors point out the fact that it is necessary to have more
attention about plinth construction, foundation preparation, rockfill selection and
placement, upstream face control, handling of waterstops and upstream face
construction by slipforming. Recent earthquakes occurred in the world indicate that
the behavior of CFRDs are questionable, when they are loaded by a severe seismic
shaking , which is caused by near energy zone.

Turkey is one of the most seismically active regions in the world. There are some
examples of embankment dams in Turkey, which were damaged during the
earthquake occurred in past. The concrete-faced rockfill dam has been constructed
with increasing frequency in Turkey since 1997. Six concrete-faced rockfill dams
ranging in height from 74 to 152 m have been constructed up-to-now. Further
studies for twenty-five dams of this type are in early and final stages of design in
Turkey. This paper generally outlines the CFRD practice in Turkey, describes
evaluation of design principles adopted for this type of dams in the country and briefly
evaluates their eartquake safety.

Introduction

The concrete faced rockfill dam is now one of the most popular types of dam in the
world. In 1940’s it was started to use for moderate height, but it developed fast in
1970’s with the application of vibratory roller. The progress of this type of dam was
very fast in South America and Australia. Significant advances in the design and
construction of dams have been observed nowadays. Especially, the Australian
practice on CFRD is very rich, because there are so many examples with different
problems in this country (Fitzpatrick et al, 1985). Brazil also poses valuable
experience on CFRDs. Foz de Areia, Xingo and Segredo dams are the important
structures in this country. Shuibuya dam in China, which has 232 m height, will be the
highest CFRD in the world when completed. A Malaysian dam, namely Bakun dam
completed in 2007 is the world’s second highest CFRD.

Dam specialists consider the fact that well-compacted CFRD has a high resistance to
earthquake loading. Bureau et al (1985) state that this thought is based on several
factors including acceptable past performance of similar dams, a recognition that the
entire embankment is unsaturated and the fact that compacted rockfill develops high
frictional resistance. Intensive investigations have been performed to explain their
behavior under dynamic loading. Uddin (1999) introduces a dynamic analysis
procedure for concrete-faced rockfill dams subjected to strong seismic excitation.
Numerical solutions performed for CFRD indicates that it is safe as well as other
embankment dams.

There are some CFRD examples which have possed some problems in static
conditions during their operation stage. Seepage problem was observed in the 198 m
high Karahnjukar dam in Iceland, which is highest CFRD in Europe. The Campos
Novos dam in Brazil had an extensive rupturing of the concrete face. The 202 m dam
was started in 2001 and completed in 2005. According to official records, initial filling
of the reservoir began in October and the level rose 160 m in 20 days. Monitoring
system indicated that transversal deformations of the rockfill embankment were as
expected. However, several days later once a rupture along some joints and then a
crack on in a slab was observed in the horizontal construction joint of the second and
third stages. During January and February 2006, further cracks were observed in
some slabs along with a sudden and noticable seepage through the dam. Silt and
fine sand were poured over the the slabs and the seepage was recuced. But the flow
increased rapidly up to 1500 L/s as based on water level rising in reservoir. The
reservoir was lowered immediately (Pereira and Antunes, 2007). Similars events
occurred at other CFRDs in the world.

Some problems were also observed in CFRDs in dynamic loading conditions. The
156 m high Zipingpu CFRD, which is one of the largest CFRDs in China and was
constructed for water supply and irrigation for the Chengdu basin, was affected in the
2008 Wenchuan earthquake. The epicenter of earthquake was 17 km far away from
the dam. The crest of dam and the concrete face and waterproofing system were
seriously damaged. The maximum settlement at the crest and the horizontal
deflection in the reservoir at the time of the earthquake were measured as 735 mm
and 180 mm, respectively. After the earthquake the cross-canyon deformation of
both abutment was 102 mm (Wieland and Houqun, 2009). This incident indicates that
their earthquake behavior is questionable, when they are subjected to seismic
loading, which is caused by near energy zone.

The CFRD Project in Turkey

The construction of concrete-faced rockfill dam has been started in 1997 in Turkey,
although it is a common-used type in the world since 1940. However, the concrete-
faced rockfill dam has been used with increasing frequency in recent years in Turkey.
Six concrete-faced rockfill dams ranging in height from 74 to 152 m have been
designed and constructed since 1997 (table 1).

Five of them were entirely completed, while one of them is now under construction.
Three of them, namely Kurtun dam, Atasu dam and Torul dam are constructed within
the same basin at the northern part of Turkey. Gordes and Marmaris dams are
constructed for water supply purpose at west, while the last one is located at south
with multi purpose such as water supply, irrigation, flood control and electricity
poduction. Further studies for twenty-five dams of this type are in early stage of
design in Turkey.
 Table 1. The concrete-faced rockfill dams in Turkey

Dam Purpose* Height Completed Volume of Reservoir Irrigation

from year** embankment capacity area
foundation (hm3) (hm3) (ha)
(m)
Atasu WS+E 122.0 U/C 3.8 35.7 -
Dim WS+I+FC+E 134.5 2007 4.1 250.6 5312
Gordes I+WS 94.9 2009 5.5 448.5 14423
Kurtun E 133.0 2003 3.0 108.2 -
Marmaris I+WS 74.0 2005 1.3 - -
Torul E 152.0 2007 4.6 168 -
(*) WS = Water supply E = Energy I= Irrigation FC = Flood control
(**) U/C = Under consruction

Kürtün dam
Kurtun dam, which impounds 108.2 hm3 of water at maximum water level, is the first
concrete-faced rockfill dam of Turkey. It has 133 m high from foundation and 300 m
long on crest. The total storage capacity of reservoir is 80.3 hm3 in normal water
level. It was originally designed as a rockfill dam with central core. However, its type
was revised to concrete-faced rockfill type, as a result of intensive geotechnical
studies. Intrusive volcanic rocks, regarded as an appropriate rock for dam foundation,
form the basement of Kurtun dam. The crest width is 14 m and the side slopes of
main embankment are 1.4H: 1V for upstream and 1.5H: 1V for downstream. Kurtun
dam is the first finished CFRD in Turkey. The volume of embankment is 3.8 hm3 and
the construction of embankment was completed at the end of May 1999. After this
date, approximately 1.5 year was delayed to provide settlement before beginning to
the construction of concrete slab. Water filling stage was started at the beginning of
February 2002. It produces 198 GWh per year with an installed capacity of 80 MW.
Figure 1 shows a general view from Kürtün dam

Torul dam
Torul dam, located at 5 km east of the reservoir of Kürtün dam in the northern portion
of Turkey, is a concrete-faced rockfill dam on the Harsit River. It has a 152 m height
from foundation and 4.6 hm³ embankment volume. When the reservoir is at normal
capacity, the facility impounds 168 hm3 of water with a reservoir surface area of 3.62
km2. Its construction was started in 2000 and is expected to entirely finish in 2007.
The main embankment consists of four major zones. The impervious section of the
embankment is a concrete slab and plinth structure on upstream. The crest width and
length of dam are 13.1 m and 320 m, respectively. The side slopes of main
embankment are 1.4H: 1V for upstream and 1.5H: 1V for downstream. The main
elements of embankment are large-sized crushed rocks at which the most durable
and high strengthen ones are located on the outer part of the shell. The basement
rock is mainly composed of tuff and limestone, which are underlined by basalt
formation. The impermeability on upstream is provided by a plinth structure including
a single-row curtain grouting with various depth (47-52 m) and two-row consolidation
grouting with 16 m depth. It was designed to produce electricity of 322 GWh per year
with an installed capacity of 103 MW.
 Figure 1. A general view from Kürtün CFRD

Atasu dam
Atasu dam is a concrete-faced rockfill dam 118 m high, with a total embankment
volume of 3.8 hm3. It is located 17 km southeast of the Macka Country and designed
as a multi-purpose dam for providing water supply of Trabzon city and producing
electricity. Its construction was started in 1998 and will be entirely finished in 2011.
When the reservoir is at operation stage with normal water level, the facility
approximately impounds 37.5 hm3 of water with a reservoir surface area of 0.83 km2.
The upstream and downstream shells are composed of large-sized crushed rocks.
The upstream and downstream slopes of main body are 1.4H:1V and 1.5H:1V,
respectively. It has a 372 m-long crest with 8 m width. A 6-m thick alluvium, which is
composed of sand, gravel, clay and silt mixtures, was entirely removed before
beginning to the construction of main embankment. Thus, the dam was based on
good quality bedrock including basalt and andesite. The plinth structure has 2-row
consolidation grouting with 11.0 m depth and single-row curtain grouting with
maximum depth of 40 m. It will produce electricity of 150 GWh per year with an
installed capacity of 45 MW, when completed.

Gordes dam
Gordes dam is constructed as a concrete-faced rockfill dam on Gordes River at the
western portion of Turkey. It is a multi-purpose dam for proving drinkable water of
Manisa city and irrigating an area of 14423 ha. Its height from riverbed and
foundation is 82.9 m and 94.9 m, respectively. It has the largest capacity of
concrete-faced rockfill dams in Turkey. When the reservoir is at normal capacity, the
facility impounds 448.5 hm3 of water with a reservoir surface area of 14.05 km2. Its
construction was started in 1998 and completed in 2010. The volume of total
embankment is 5.5 hm³. The upstream and downstream slopes are 1.4H:1V and
1.5H:1V, respectively. It has a crest with 547 m long and 8.0 m width. The
geological formation of dam site consists of schist and marble. The plinth structure
was designed with two-row consolidation grouting (10 m depth) and single-row
curtain grouting (maximally 37 m depth) to provide the impermeability of upstream
toe.

Dim dam
Dim dam is designed as a multi-purpose structure to be built at the southern part of
Turkey. It is also a concrete faced rockfill dam with 123.5 m height from riverbed and
134.5 m from the foundation. When the reservoir is at operation stage with normal
water level, the facility approximately impounds 253 hm 3 of water with a reservoir
surface area of 4.5 km2. The upstream and downstream shells are composed of
large-sized crushed rocks. The upstream slope of embankment is 1.4H:1V, while it is
just 1.5H:1V for downstream face. The volume of embankment is 5 hm 3 . Its crest
length and width are 365 m and 7.8 m, respectively. The embankment was founded
on good quality bedrock including schist and limestone formations. On the plinth
structure, a single-row curtain grouting and two-row consolidation grouting were
constructed to obtain impervious conditions on upstream toe. The depth of curtain
grouting ranges from 26 to 44 m, while that of consolidation grouting has a constant
depth of 10 m along the alignment of plinth structure. It will produce electricity of 123
GWh per year with an installed capacity of 38.3 MW. It is expected to finish in 2007,
although it is the first concrete faced rockfill dam, which was started in Turkey.

Marmaris Dam
Marmaris Dam is the first concrete-faced rockfill dam of country, which was
constructed by a municipality with the international credit. The volume of
embankment is 1.3 hm3. It is available to store water of 30.0 hm³ at normal water
level in the reservoir. It provides drinkable water for Marmaris city and its vicinity,
which is one of most fantastic area for tourism sector. It has a 74 m height from
foundation. It was planned to supply water for the region up to 2040. The geological
unit of foundation and abutments is entirely composed of peridotite rock. The
upstream and downstream faces have the same slope value with 1.6H:1V. The
plinth structure poses the consolidation and curtain grouting. The consolidation
grouting was performed in two rows with 7.5 m depth. The curtain grouting was
constructed with 40 m depth maximally.

Design and Construction Practice for CFRD in Turkey

In Turkey the CFRDs were designed with considering similar zonation materials.
Their slopes are 1.0V:1.4H for upstream face, while it is 1.0V:1.5H for downstream
for five CFRDs in Turkey. However, The slopes of both side is 1.0V:1.6H for
Marmaris dam. A typical cross-section for the CFRDs in Turkey is given in figure 2. In
general, the embankment is composed of quarry rock, processed-crushed and
selected rock having a maximum grain size of 300 mm as cushion layer of concrete
slab, impervious clay material for providing impermeable condition on heel of
embankment and natural river alluvium to protect impervious zone compacted clay
material on upstream.

Figure 2. The cross-section of Atasu dam

The main element of embankments is quarry rock. It is generally divided into two
zones. The first one, which has a maximum grain size of 1000 mm, was used on
downstream side, while the other part with a maximum grain size of 600 to 800 mm is
adopted in upstream side. Both zones were compacted as 4 to 6 passes by a
vibratory compactor having 18-20 tons of static loads. For the quarry rock located on
upstream portion of all dams, water jet (150 L/m3) is systematically used during the
compaction process. Fine content is limited with 2 percent for both zones. These
materials are crushed from different rock types, which are originally composed of
igneous and metamorphic rocks. For only Dim dam, the source of quarry rock is
limestone.

The laboratory tests are performed on core samples of intact rock to obtain the
physical and mechanical properties of embankment material. The embankment
materials are selected as based on the results of laboratory tests on rock samples.
The long-term durability of these materials are evaluated by means slake durability
test. The limitations for some physical and mechanical tests are given in the related
specification of State Hydraulic Works. It is needed to obtain more detail data before
commencing to final design (Brenner et al, 2005; Tosun et al, 1999).

The thickness of concrete slab for all CFRD’s in Turkey ranges from 0.3 m to 0.80 m.
In fact, an empirical equation which consider the water head at the related level, is
used for calculating the thickness of concrete slab in design stage (Tosun et al,
2007).
The thickness of concrete face slabs, is 0.35 m at the crest level for Gördes and
Torul dams, while it just about 0.30 m for other dams at the same level. The plinth
width changes from 4.0 m to 10.50 m for the CFRDs in Turkey. The minimal and
maximal values of plinth thickness are 0.4 m and 0.7 m for all CFRDs with exception
of Marmaris dam. A typical cross section of a plinth structure constructed in Turkey
is given in Figure 3.

Figure 3. The plinth structure of Dim dam.

Plinth structure is generally donated by consolidation grouting and curtain grouting in

order to provide impervious conditions on foundation and abutments. A single-row
curtain grouting has been adopted with different depth as based on the nature of
foundation rock. Consolidation grouting is generally applied on both side of curtain
grouting as two-row with different depth (table 2).

For a CFRD in Turkey, an instrumentation program is prepared to measure

settlement and pressure under the dead load of embankment. This program should
include at least three sections and four levels for each section. It is a common way in
Turkey that for each location the change on settlement of embankment with time is
evaluated to find a correlation with the predicted value by means of numerical
methods (Tosun et al, 2006). For example, the total settlement value was measured
as 232 cm maximally for the case of end-of-construction for Kürtün dam. This was
confirmed by the results of a finite element analysis (Tosun et al, 2006).

Earthquake Safety Evaluation

The total risk for dam structures mainly depends on the seismic hazard rating of dam
site and the risk rating of the dam and appurtenant structures. The seismic hazard of
a dam site can be based on the peak ground acceleration. This value derived from
the defined design earthquake produces the main seismic loads. For preliminary
study, the existing map of seismic zones can be used to estimate the seismic hazard
of a dam site. The seismic sources were identified and the recurrence interval of
earthquakes was estimated. As a result of an extensive survey and a search of
available literature, several sources have been identified to help analyze the seismic
hazard of dams in Turkey (Yucemen, 1982; Erdik et al., 1985; Saroglu et al., 1992).
The location of dams on the seismo-tectonic map of Turkey is given in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Location of CFRDs on the seismo-teconic map of Turkey

The data about historical and 20th century instrumentally recorded earthquakes for
Turkey and vicinity collected by the National Disaster Organization was considered
as a basis for the seismic hazard analyses. The earthquakes that occurred within the
last 100 years were used for estimating seismic parameters. Due to the unavailability
of strong motion records, various attenuation relationships were adopted
(Ambraseys, 1995; Campbell, 1981) to calculate the peak ground acceleration (PGA)
acting on dam sites. Throughout the study, seismic zones and earthquakes within the
area having a radius of 100 km around the dam site were considered. For all
analyses, the peak ground acceleration was deterministically determined by
considering the Maximum Credible Earthquake (Kramer, 1996). All procedures
mentioned above can be executed by the DAMHA program, developed at the
Earthquake Research Center of Osmangazi University-Turkey, that is working on the
basis of geographic information system (GIS). The extensive studies have been
realized for large dams of other types in Turkey (Tosun and Seyrek, 2005; Tosun and
Savas, 2005;Tosun and Tosun, 2009).
For the study, six CFRDs, located in different seismic zones were considered. The
PGA values with risk classes obtained from seismic hazard by means of the program
mentioned above are given in Table 2 for all dams. Two of them are very close to the
energy source, while others are located on sites with low seismicity. The PGA values
range from 0.01g to 0.20g. According to ICOLD classification, one of them will be
subjected to moderate hazard rating. The others are identified as low hazard ratings
(Table 2).

Table 2. Hazard class of CFRDs in Turkey

Hazard
Dam PGA in g * MDE **
class

Atasu 0.05 5.3 I

Dim 0.01 5.4 I
Gordes 0.09 6.7 I
Kurtun 0.03 6.2 I
Marmaris 0.20 6.7 II
Torul 0.07 7.9 I

(*) PGA =Peak ground acceleration

(**) MDE =Maximum Design Earthquake

Kurtun, Atasu ve Torul dams are very close to each other and located in the same
energy source (Figure 4). Kurtun dam is not located on active seismic region and
also its Total Risk Factor (TRF) value is not high (Tosun et al, 2007). This dam site is
in excellent condition, but landslides on reservoir area seem as problem for overall
stability of project. Atasu dam is not one of the critical dams within the basin. It will be
subjected to a peak ground acceleration of 0.05g with a M L of 5.3. Table 2 indicates
that it seems safe for earthquake conditions. Torul dam will be subjected to a peak
ground acceleration of 0.07g with a ML of 7.9 and it is not close to the energy source.
Its total risk is high, even if it is located in an area with low seismic activity. Because
its structural acting on the value of Total Risk Factor (TRF) is very high (Tosun,
2007).
Dim dam, which is located at south part of country, will be subjected to a peak ground
acceleration of 0.01g with a ML of 5.4 (Table 2). Its location has very low seismic
activity. There can be leakage problem for foundation in long-term for this structure.
There two separate dams under the influence of near energy zone in western Turkey.
One of them is Marmaris dam that is located on an active seismic zone. Its Peak
Ground Acceleration (PGA) obtained from a detail seismic hazard analysis, is 0.20g.
The other one is Gordes dam which is located on a shear zone. It will be subjected to
a peak ground acceleration of 0.09g with a ML of 6.7 (Table 2).

Conclusions

The recent researches indicate that high compressive strains could be imposed on
concrete face slabs due to an adverse combition of dam height, low rockfill
deformation modulus and an unfovourable valley shape. Therefore, more attention
should be paid about plinth construction, foundation preparation, rockfill selection and
placement, upstream face control, handling of waterstops and upstream face
construction by slipforming. The appropriate measures should be taken into account
in design stage to increase structural safety in static loading conditions.

It is a common thought that a well-compacted CFRD has a high resistance to

earthquake loading. This thought is based on several factors including acceptable
past performance of similar dams, a recognition that the entire embankment is
unsaturated and the fact that compacted rockfill develops high frictional resistance.
Numerical solutions performed for CFRDs indicate that it is safe as well as other
embankment dams. However, recent incidents indicate that their earthquake
behavior is questionable, when they are subjected to seismic loading, which is
caused by near energy zone. Especially, the concrete face lining has a critical
position due to large in-plane forces resulted from strong ground shaking during
earthquake.

In Turkey, the CFRDs, which are now under operation stage, can not be subjected to
strong ground shaking during earthquake because of their locotions being in the
region with low seismic activity. However, there can be some problems resulted from
local ground conditions. The design drawings of a dam are identical to ones of
another dam. In other words, it seems that recently designed dams never based on
thellocal physical conditions investigated by detail geotechnical studies. Therefore,
authors suggest to make a further study including a detail site investigation for each
dam and to re-design them as based on local ground conditions, if necessary.

References
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seismic safety assessment” 16 th CSMGE, Osaka, 2005.
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rockfill dams” Concrete Face Rockfill Dams-Design,Construction and Performance
(edited by Cooke and Sheard), ASCE, 479-508, 1985.
Campbell, K.W., Near-Source Attenuation of Peak Horizontal Acceleration” Bulletin
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Authors

Hasan Tosun, who is the president of Turkish Association of Dam Safety and director
of the Earthquake Research Center, is a professor in the Civil Engineering
Department at Osmangazi University, Turkey. He is a dam consultant and
geotechnical specialist for large engineering structures.

e-mail: htosun@ogu.edu.tr

Keziban Tosun, a senior design engineer who was retired from State Hydraulic
Works. She has designed a lot of large dams in Turkey and currently the general
manager of TVT Hydrotech Bureau in Ankara, Turkey

e-mail: keziban_tosun@mynet.com

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