MSC Thesis WKUAuler

Western Kentucky University
TopSCHOLAR®
Masters Theses & Specialist Projects Graduate Studies and Research
11-1-1994
Hydrogeological and Hydrochemical

Characterization of the Matozinhos-Pedro
Leopoldo Karst, Brazil
Augusto Auler
Recommended Citation
Auler, Augusto, "Hydrogeological and Hydrochemical Characterization of the Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo Karst, Brazil" (1994).
Masters Theses & Specialist Projects. Paper 927.
http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/theses/927
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HYDROGEOLOGICAL AND HYDROCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE
MATOZINHOS-PEDRO LEOPOLDO KARST, BRAZIL
A Thesis
Presented to
the Faculty of the D e p a r t m e n t of G e o g r a p h y and Geology
Bowling Green, Kentucky
In P a r t i a l Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science
by
Augusto S. Auler
November 1994
Date Recommended // - 3 - l i
Director of Thesis
Director of Graduate Studies Date

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T h i s w o r k w a s o n l y p o s s i b l e t h a n k s to t h e financial
s u p p o r t of R i c h m o n d A r e a S p e l e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , C a v e R e s e a r c h
Foundation and National Speleological Society. A significant
p a r t of t h e r e s e a r c h w a s p e r f o r m e d w i t h e q u i p m e n t a n d m a t e r i a l
f r o m t h e D e p a r t m e n t of G e o g r a p h y a n d G e o l o g y , W e s t e r n K e n t u c k y
U n i v e r s i t y . D r . N i c k C r a w f o r d , m y a d v i s o r , w a s v e r y h e l p f u l in
a r r a n g i n g f o r t h e n e e d e d e q u i p m e n t . T h e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s at
t h e C e n t e r f o r C a v e a n d K a r s t S t u d i e s o f W K U h e l p e d in t h e
i n i t i a l s t a g e s of t h e t h e s i s p r o p o s a l . I a m i n d e b t e d to t h e
s t a f f o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t a n d e s p e c i a l l y to D r . C h r i s G r o v e s a n d
D r . K e n n e t h K u e h n f o r the s u p p o r t a n d h e l p f u l c o m m e n t s . D u r i n g
m y long p e r i o d away from Brazil, several p e o p l e h e l p e d m e feel
a t h o m e -- to n a m e a f e w . B i l l H o w c r o f t , J i m S m i t h , T a m m i e
H e a z l i t , G r e g P i e r c e a n d o t h e r s . S p e c i a l t h a n k s g o to m y
friends Julia and Jim Magnusson from Minneapolis for the
c o n s t a n t h e l p i n a l l p h a s e s of m y g r a d u a t e w o r k .
During the extensive field work, I received substantial

support from a number of people and sources. My caving
partners of Grupo Bambui d e Pesquisas Espeleologicas assisted
m e i n m a n y of t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d d y e t r a c e s . I am especially
grateful to Heloisa Neves, Paulo Pessoa and Luis Pilo for
their assistance during water sampling and dye traces. Adriana
Paiano provided constant help throughout the research and
writing of this thesis. The current meter was kindly lent by
the M u s e u m of N a t u r a l History of Federal U n i v e r s i t y of Minas
Gerais, through Professor Heinz Charles Kohler. CEMIG provided
orthogonal aerial photographs at discount prices. Mylene
Berbert-Born, Maria Leticia Patrus of CPRM and Arnaldo
Carvalho helped with speleological, meteorological and lab
data. NAE (Nucleo de A t i v i d a d e s Espeleologicas) allowed me to
use the map of C o u v e l a b r o Cave. I am grateful to C i m e n t o Maua
SA a n d its d i r e c t o r , Frank Davis, for a l l o w i n g m e to u s e data
collected during professional work in t h e i r a r e a . Thanks also
is e x t e n d e d to t h e m a n y f a r m e r s f o r p e r m i t t i n g a c c e s s to their
properties during sampling and dye tracing. A draft of this
thesis was critically reviewed by H.C. Kohler, L. Pilo and P.
Pessoa. Finally, I must recognize that nothing would be
accomplished without my parents firm encouragement in all my
life's decisions.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements iii
Table of C o n t e n t s iv
List of F i g u r e s vi
List of T a b l e s vii
Abstract viii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Natural Setting 5

2.1 Geology 5
2.2 Physiography 8
2.3 Climate 11
Chapter 3 The Karst Terrain 12

3.1 Karst Landforms 12
3.1.1 Surface Karst 12
3.1.2 Underground Karst 16
3.2 Karst Hydrology 19
3.3 Environmental Problems 21
Chapter 4 Water Tracing 23

4.1 Methods 24
4.2 Dye Tracing Results 27
4.2.1 Samambaia Basin 28
4.2.1.1 Summary 31
4.2.2 Palmeiras-Mocambo Basin 33
4.2.2.1 Summary 37
4.2.3 Other Sites 39
4.2.3.1 Moinho Velho Spring 39
4.2.3.2 Caue Spring 40
4.2.3.3 Olho d'Agua Spring 40
4.3 Discussion 40
4.4 Delineation of D r a i n a g e Basins .... 44
4.5 Conclusions 47
Chapter 5 Hydrochemistrv 48
5.1 Methods 49
5.2 Sampling Points 50
5.3 Sampling Events 50
iv
5.4 Results 52
5.4.1 Physical and Chemical Parameters .. 52
5.4.1.1 Temperature 53
5.4.1.2 Specific Conductance 54
5.4.1.3 pH 55
5.4.1.4 Calcium 55
5.4.1.5 Magnesium 56
5.4.1.6 Alkalinity 56
5.4.1.7 Chlorides 57
5.4.1.8 Potassium 58
5.4.1.9 Sodium 58
5.4.1.10 Sulfates 59
5.4.1.11 Nitrates 60
5.4.1.12 Additional Chemical Data 61
5.5 Discussion 62
5.5.1 Temperature 66
5.5.2 pH 66
5.5.3 Sp. Conductance, Alkalinity and Hardness 67
5.5.4 Other Parameters 69
5.6 Karst Denudation 71
5.7 Conclusions 73
Chapter 6 Paleohydrolocry 76
6.1 Methods 76
6.2 Results 81
6.2.1 Samambaia Basin 82
6.2.2 Palmeiras-Mocambo Basin 82
6.2.3 Other Sites 86
6.3 Discussion 86
6.4 Conclusions 90
Chapter 7 Overall Conclusions and Recommendations 91

7.1 Conclusions 91
7.2 Recommendations for Further Research 93
Appendix A Location of F e a t u r e s 96
Appendix B List of D y e T r a c e s Performed 99
References 103
v
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Location of the Study A r e a 2

2.1 S t r a t i g r a p h i c Column for the A r e a 6
2.2 G e o l o g i c a l M a p of t h e A r e a 7
2.3 P h y s i o g r a p h i c D o m a i n s in t h e A r e a 9
4.1 L o c a t i o n o f D e t e c t e d O u t l e t s in t h e A r e a 25
4.2 Drainage and Hydrogeological
Features of S a m a m b a i a B a s i n 29
4.3 Groundwater Routes and Hydrogeological

F e a t u r e s of P a l m e i r a s - M o c a m b o B a s i n 34
4.4 Drainage Basins at the A r e a 46
5.1 L o c a t i o n of S a m p l e d Springs 51
5.2 T r i l i n e a r D i a g r a m Showing the Range
of V a l u e s of all Sampled water 64
6.1 Plan View and Lateral Section of Scallops 78
6.2 P a l e o f l o w at S a m a m b a i a B a s i n 83
6.3 P a l e o f l o w a t P a l m e i r a s - M o c a m b o B a s i n .... 84
6.4 Hydrogeological Features and Paleoflow
at Mocambeiro Depression 85
6.5 Paleoflow at M o i n h o V e l h o B a s i n 87
6.6 Paleoflow at the M a r g i n of M a t a C r e e k ... 88
vi
L I S T OF TABLES
4.1 Discharge Measurements at M a j o r Springs . 28

4.2 A p p r o x i m a t e S i z e of the Delineated
Drainage Basins 45
5.1 T e m p e r a t u r e Values for Springs 53
5.2 Specific Conductance V a l u e s for Springs . 54
5.3 C a l c i u m V a l u e s for S p r i n g s 55
5.4 M a g n e s i u m Values for Springs 56
5.5 Alkalinity Values for Springs 57
5.6 C h l o r i d e V a l u e s for S p r i n g s 57
5.7 P o t a s s i u m V a l u e s for Springs 58
5.8 Sodium Values for Springs 59
5.9 Sulfate Values for Springs 60
5.10 N i t r a t e V a l u e s for Springs 60
5.11 Physical and Chemical Measurements
a t O l h o d' A g u a S p r i n g 61
5.12 Chemical Data from C a u e Spring 62
5.13 S u m m a r y of the Physical and Chemical
Parameters of t h e M o n i t o r e d Springs 65
5.14 Denudation Rates for Selected
Drainage Basins 72
6.1 List of D r y Caves Studied 80
vii
Augusto S. A u l e r November, 1994 110 Pages
Directed by: Dr. Nicholas Crawford, Dr. Christopher
Groves, and Dr. Kenneth Kuehn
Department of G e o g r a p h y and Geology
The Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo limestone area is a tropical
karst located near the metropolis of Belo Horizonte, East
Central Brazil, in a n a r e a u n d e r g o i n g rapid urbanization and
land degradation. Qualitative dye tracing experiments have
determined the groundwater routes and catchment areas in the
two major drainage basins in the area, Samambaia Basin and
Palmeiras-Mocambo Basin. Other drainage basins were
identified, but not traced due to the absence of related
swallets. Fluorescein and optical brightener had a poor
p e r f o r m a n c e a s t r a c e r s u n d e r t r o p i c a l c l i m a t e . D i l u t i o n d u e to
the existance of lakes at some swallets prevented some dye
t r a c e s . T h e w a t e r t h a t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h i s k a r s t a r e a is almost
entirely autogenic, having a small external contribution from
s o m e p h y l l i t e a r e a s . A b o u t 8 8 % of t h e t o t a l w a t e r d i s c h a r g e of
identified springs drains directly toward Velhas River, the
regional base level. The remaining 12% drains toward Mata
Creek, a tributary of the V e l h a s River.
viii
Hydrochemical monitoring i n f o u r of the m a j o r springs showed
that groundwater quality for the m e a s u r e d parameters in the
discharge zone is generally good, despite the heavy
industrialization and occupation in some of the recharge
areas. Conduit flow predominates in S a m a m b a i a and Palmeiras-
Mocambo Basins. The outlets for these basins show a marked
seasonal variation in the physical and chemical parameters
monitored. Some of the other springs such as Moinho Velho
Spring and Jaguara Spring show little variation in
temperature, suggesting a diffuse flow component. All springs
are characterized by hardness dilution during the wet season,
suggesting a small residence time during the wet season, not
allowing the water to a c h i e v e saturation. Seasonal variation
in r u n o f f is the most important control on the hydrochemical
pattern of the area. It determines the marked dilution of
major ions in both conduit-flow and diffuse-flow springs.
Variation in soil C0 2 due to the rainfall pattern may also
play an important role in t h e w a t e r chemistry.
Observation of p a l e o f l o w indicators made in s e v e r a l dry caves
showed that the past flow pattern at Palmeiras-Mocambo Basin
agrees with the present groundwater routes. At Samambaia
Basin, however, the lower reaches of the b a s i n show paleoflow
directions pointing toward other active base levels such as
Mocambeiro Depression or Velhas River, suggesting that
Samambaia Basin may have developed its p r e s e n t m o r p h o l o g y in
a latter stage.
ix
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
The study of karst terrains has had a slow development
in B r a z i l during the past 160 y ears. The same cannot be said
about the urban development. The high population growth has
accelerated human occupation in m a n y areas. Pressure on the
environment is increasing throughout Brazil, and karst areas
are among the most vulnerable.
The study area is located 40 km northeast of Belo
Horizonte, t h e f o u r t h l a r g e s t c i t y in B r a z i l , w i t h 2 . 0 m i l l i o n
inhabitants (Figure 1.1). Five medium-sized cities occur in
the surroundings of the area. Their populations according to
the 1991 census are: Lagoa Santa: 24,026; Sao Jose da Lapa:
6,841; Pedro Leopoldo: 30,257; Matozinhos: 21,474 and
Vespasiano: 29,000 (IBGE, 1991). There are also many other
smaller villages. The estimated population living upon the
karst area is about 25,000 people. The total surface of the
studied area is approximately 250 km2, bringing population
density to about 100 people/km2, surely one of the highest
among Brazilian karst areas.
1
60° 40°
Figure 1.1 Location of the Study Area

3
The proximity to Belo Horizonte has attracted many
industries to the region. Limestone mining for cement
production is w i d e s p r e a d a n d m o s t of the karst region belongs
to mining companies. Cattle and agricultural farming still
exist, although they are being rapidly suppressed by
industries and urbanization.
Previous studies have referred to t h i s a r e a a s t h e Lagoa
Santa Karst (Kohler, 1989) . This is due to the fact that,
during the last century, the first scientists chose Lagoa
Santa as a convenient base for studying the area. Lagoa Santa,
built over phyllitic rocks, was at that time the best
developed town. In this thesis I will refer to this karst
region as the Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo karst area. Most karst
landforms occur inside the boundaries of these two
municipalities. As the population increases, more villages
will become cities, and probably the area w i l l b e surrounded
by other municipalities.
This study is one of very few done on karst hydrology
in Brazil. It is the first to use a series of dye tracing
experiments to s u r v e y g r o u n d w a t e r flow routes. The hydrology
of Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo Karst was regarded as a "black
box" before this study. The general purpose was to gain a
first view on the groundwater behavior.
This thesis comprises three separate but related
studies. Chapters Two and Three give a general introductory
view on the geography and karst landforms. The heart of the

4
thesis is formed by Chapters Four, Five and Six. These
chapters deal with different aspects of the karst hydrology.
Chapter Four summarizes the groundwater flow in the area
inferred from water tracing experiments. Chapter Five gives an
account of the hydrochemistry at some selected springs.
Chapter Six deals with the paleodrainage, deduced from
solution features in d r y cave conduits. These three chapters
help built an overall picture of the hydrogeology in the
Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo karst. A general conclusion ends the
thesis.
CHAPTER 2 NATURAL SETTING
2.1 Geology
The karst is developed upon crystalline limestones of
Sete Lagoas Formation, Bambui Group. In the outcrops it is a
pure limestone with less than 3% of noncarbonate residue
(Marchese, 1974). The limestone shows thin, n e a r l y horizontal
lamination, with a gentle dip to t h e e a s t (IGA, 1982). It was
deposited in a shallow sea that occupied a stable craton
during the Proterozoic Eon. Radiometric dating and
stromatolite analysis place carbonate deposition between 900
and 600 m i l l i o n y e a r s ago (Inda et a l . , 1984) . The carbonates
overlie gneisses and migmatites (Figure 2.1). Phyllites occur
over the limestone in t h e h i g h e s t p o r t i o n s of the area.
F i g u r e 2.2 s h o w s the g e o l o g i c m a p of the area. Limestone
extends to the northeast while phyllites and high-grade
metamorphic assemblages limit the carbonates in other
directions. The carbonates of Sete Lagoas Formation were
deposited over a highly irregular crystalline bedrock. The
5
Figure 2.1 Stratigraphic Column for the Area. Adapted from CPRM
(1992)
44°07'30" 44° 43°52'30"
Figure 2.2 Geological Map of the Area. Adapted from Silva et al. (1987)
8
limestone thickness varies between approximately 250 m in the
highest portions of the area to a b o u t 50 m in the low plains.
The limestone shows a well-marked joint pattern produced
during the Brasiliano orogenic event (550 M a ) . T h e m o r e common
joint directions as inferred from aerial photographs are N10-
28E and N50-69E (Silva et al., 1987). Apart from vertical
lithological variations, the limestone is quite homogeneous
throughout the study area.
2.2 Physiography
Velhas River, at the n o r t h e a s t e r n b o u n d a r y of the area,
is the major base level. A tributary, Mata Creek, limits the
area in the southern and southwestern boundaries. Mata Creek
flows into a alluvium-filled valley developed mainly over
gneiss.
Silva et al.(1987) recognized eight physiographic
domains in the area. In this thesis these are summarized in
six d o m a i n s : Karst H i g h Plains; M o c a m b e i r o D e p r e s s i o n ; Covered
Karst Surfaces; Phyllite Surfaces; Fluvial Plains; and Igneous
and Metamorphic Domain (Figure 2 . 3 ) . T h i s study was performed
in t h e first two domains.

44"07'30" 43°52'30"
. I9°30'
19° 40'
43° 52'30"
Figure 2.3 Physiographic Domains in the Area

10
The best developed karst topography occurs in t h e Karst
High Plains. They comprise two areas separated by the
Mocambeiro Depression. This domain is highly permeable,
showing typical tropical karst landforms and underground
drainage. This surface occurs between the elevations of 7 0 0 m
and 860 m a b o v e sea level.
The Mocambeiro Depression is a much more dissected
surface, elongated in the SW-NE direction. It is the lowest
area in the karst, usually below 700 m. It can be
characterized as a highly dissected karst, presently at a
fluviokarst stage, with springs, surface streams and lakes.
The Covered Karst Surfaces exist where a thick mantle of
soil overlies the limestone. Karst landforms are generally of
limited expression. This domain occurs along Mata Creek,
limited by the Phyllite Surfaces. Some well-developed surface
karst is located s o u t h of L a g o a Santa.
The Phyllite Surfaces occur in the higher altitudes,
usually above 800 m . It forms a gentle relief that masks the
limestone. The Fluvial Plains develop along the major rivers,
such as Mata Creek and Velhas River. The Igneous and
Metamorphic Domain has a limited expression, forming rounded
slopes along Mata Creek.

11
2.3 Climate
The Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo Karst is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
a well marked wet period during the summer (from October to
March). These months receive nearly 90% of yearly rainfall.
The wettest month is either December or January. The dry
period extends from April to September. The average annual
rainfall at the Raul Soares bridge over Velhas river is 1,265
mm (data from 1973-1990). At Pedro Leopoldo meteorological
station the average annual rainfall reaches 1,284 mm (data
from 1942-1990).
The mean annual temperature at Lagoa Santa is 22.8°C
(data from 1961-1970 and 1987-1990). The highest temperatures
during summer are in t h e u p p e r 30's. The lowest temperatures
during winter reach around 7°C. The mean annual humidity at
Lagoa Santa is 68%.

CHAPTER 3 THE KARST TERRAIN
3.1 Karst Landforms
3.1.1 Surface Karst
The t r o p i c a l k a r s t of M a t o z i n h o s - P e d r o Leopoldo shows a
well-developed karst topography. The small magnesium content
of the limestone and general lack of impurities favor
limestone dissolution (Rauch a n d W h i t e , 1970;1977). The karst
is capped either by phyllite or soil which is b e i n g rapidly
eroded. Exposed limestone presently occurs at the tops and
borders of some hills and at the face of limestone cliffs.
While Journaux (1977) b e l i e v e d the M a t o z i n h o s - P e d r o Leopoldo
Karst is little developed because it is y o u n g , Balasz (1984)
called it a paleokarst being exhumed at present time. The
description of karst landforms that follows shows that the
Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo Karst is a m a t u r e karst possessing
a full r a n g e of k a r s t landforms.
The first detailed description of the surface
geomorphology in t h e a r e a w a s m a d e b y T r i c a r t (1956) . B e f o r e
him, m o s t scientists had focused their studies upon the caves
12
13
and their associated deposits. Tricart's pioneering work
contains some inaccuracies especially concerning the
geological framework of the area. He did not p r o v i d e a well-
balanced description of the landforms, their morphogenesis or
frequency of o c c u r r e n c e . King (1956), in a r e g i o n a l study of
planation surfaces in eastern Brazil, stated that
karstification began in the Late Tertiary, related to an
erosion cycle associated with Velhas River. During the late
1970's, more systematic work took place. A map of the area
karst features, produced by a joint French-Brazilian team, was
the starting point for a number of studies (e.g. Kohler,
1989) . In the description of the map, Coutard et al. (1978)
gave a brief but much improved general view of the karst
geomorphology.
The Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo area contains good
e x a m p l e s of m o s t basic t y p e s of k a r s t l a n d f o r m s . S o m e of these
are widespread throughout Brazil, while others are
characteristic of the region. The small-scale dissolution
forms, known as karren, are well distributed in the area.
Aerial karren such as rillenkarren and rinnenkarren (Bogli,
1960) occur on the denuded high portions of some hills.
Tricart (1956) m a d e a n e x t e n s i v e d e s c r i p t i o n of s e v e r a l karren
types. Among them he described the joint karren, a horizontal
type of karren developed over a weakness zone. The joint
karren is perhaps the most frequent aerial karren form,
favored by the horizontal lamination of the limestone.
Deckenkarren (karren formed by t h e a c t i o n of p l a n t s ) is found
where roots penetrate the limestone. Kamenitza, shallow

14
basin-like features due to both biologic and chemical
dissolution, was observed in s o m e selected outcrops.
Soil-covered karren has widespread occurrence in the
area. Subsurface karren can be observed in the m a n y quarries
throughout the area. They can be sediment-filled depressions
up to 5 m deep, w i t h a n a s s e m b l a g e of intercalated pinnacles.
Since large sections of terrain are having the soil leached
away, rounded karren forms (sometimes the tops of pinnacles)
are exposed in s e v e r a l places.
The sinkholes (or dolines) are the most frequent
landform in t h e a r e a , despite the fact that p r e v i o u s studies
(Tricart, 1956) h a v e claimed that they a r e n o t . T h e y are well-
represented in all karst domains, especially into the High
Plains. Journaux (1977) stated that there are no dissolution
sinkholes in the area. However, t h i s is probably the dominant
sinkhole genetic subtype. Solution sinkholes have a gentle
profile. They range from a few m e t e r s to m o r e than a hundred
meters in w i d t h , a n d t h e i r d e p t h is u s u a l l y less than half the
total width. They can be rounded but usually there is a
limestone outcrop at one side, producing an irregular shape
and profile. As a sinkhole evolves, it c a n m e r g e w i t h nearby
sinkholes. Smaller sinkholes also occur inside major ones. The
bottoms of the sinkholes are usually capped with fertile
soils, which are used for agriculture. Sometimes there is a
cave entrance at one side.

15
Collapse sinkholes were observed in m a n y locations. They
have a m u c h higher vertical dimension, with steeper sides, and
are smaller in a r e a . M a n y s h o w s i g n s of r e c e n t soil collapse.
Some are associated with the underground drainage. Some
ancient collapse sinkholes may have their profiles masked by
later solution and soil covering processes. In t h e Mocambeiro
Depression, the sinkholes are large and shallow, usually
filled by temporary lakes. The frequency of sinkholes
increases at h i g h e r altitudes.
S o m e l a r g e d e p r e s s i o n s o c c u r in t h e a r e a . M o s t of them -
such as Macacos Depression and Sumidouro Lake are interpreted
as m a t u r e sinkholes - the former g e n e r a t e d b y coalescence of
sinkholes and the latter modified by fluvial processes.
Another type comprises depressions on phyllite such as Lagoa
Santa. This lake occupies a large depression up to 4 km2 in
area. It w a s studied by Kohler (1978) and Parizzi (1993) . T h e
genesis is p r o b a b l y due to slow subsidence triggered by the
dissolution of the underlying limestone. The Mocambeiro
Depression is t h e l a r g e s t o n e in t h e a r e a . It is m o r e than 10
km long and about 1.5 km wide, and it is lower in elevation
towards the Velhas River. Relict limestone towers (hums) such
as V a r g e m da Pedra and E x p e r i e n c i a da Jaguara ( C o u t a r d et a l . ,
1978) are being dissolved. The Mocambeiro Depression has been
interpreted as a polje (Auler, 1988; Kohler, 1989).
Fluvial processes are active in the study area. A few
blind valleys exist, such as the first swallet of Palmeiras
Creek. Dry valleys are nearly absent. The lower areas of

16
Mocambeiro Depression show a fluviokarst controlled by
J a g u a r a / M o c a m b o C r e e k . T h e s u r f a c e p o r t i o n of S a m a m b a i a Creek,
between Engenho Farm and Sumidouro Lake, is also a good
e x a m p l e of fluviokarst.
Imposing limestone cliffs are the m o s t characteristic
landform in the area (Coutard et al., 1978). They comprise
abrupt vertical to nearly vertical cliffs up to 60 m high,
along one side of the sinkholes. External speleothems
(anemolites) occur in some cliffs. Lakes and caves are common
a t t h e b a s e o f t h e c l i f f s . T h e g e n e s i s of t h e l i m e s t o n e cliffs
is believed to be related to differential dissolution by a
swallet or lake (Journaux, 1977). Breakdown is a secondary-
process. The distribution of the cliffs suggests that defined
sets of master joints may play an important role. The
orientation of the cliffs is related to the regional
groundwater flow routes.
3.1.2 Underground Karst
So far, m o r e t h a n 3 00 c a v e s h a v e b e e n r e g i s t e r e d in the
area (SBE, 1993). The majority of them are dry and short. The
longest mapped c a v e is L a p a V e r m e l h a I, a t 1,870 m. The caves
are basically horizontal with few noteworthy vertical ones.
The deepest is the 75 m deep Morro Redondo Cave. The depth
potential is s e v e r e l y limited by the limestone thickness and
base level. Caves more than 100 m deep are unlikely to exist.
17
The Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo Karst is t h e b e s t explored
karst area in B r a z i l . The speleological activities date back
to t h e 1 8 0 0 ' s . A few caving c l u b s b a s e d at B e l o H o r i z o n t e and
O u r o P r e t o h a v e b e e n w o r k i n g in the a r e a f o r d e c a d e s . T h e rate
of new discoveries is still high, although major finds are
becoming rare.
Peter Lund, a Danish paleontologist, was the first to
describe the caves in t h e a r e a . B e t w e e n the y e a r s of 1 8 3 5 and
1844 he explored nearly 1,000 caves (Burmeister, 1853). Lund
and his team produced the first cave maps in Brazil. Lund
(1837) believed the caves were formed at a time when the
limestone was covered by a sea or a b i g lake. The caves would
have been generated by the action of w a v e s . In a l a t e r paper
(Lund, 1844), he presented a new mechanism for cave genesis.
In h i s m o d e l , the caves were formed by downward p e r c o l a t i o n of
water through the overlying phyllite into the limestone,
followed by the infilling of the cavities by phyllitic
sediment. The continuous uncovering of the limestone would
then h a v e favored a horizontal flow of w a t e r into the caves,
excavating the sediment and forming m o r e recent deposits. Lund
paid special attention to the sediments inside the caves,
since he was interested in the paleontological remains. He
described in detail the processes of precipitation of
speleothems and deposition of clastic sediments.
Liais (1872) also made remarks about the caves in the
area. He described their genesis by groundwater as it moved
through faults and joints. According to this author, the

18
v a r i a b l e d i m e n s i o n of c a v e p a s s a g e s is d u e to t h e v a r i a t i o n in
the limestone composition, the most soluble paths being
enlarged first. Liais (1872) recognized that large caves are
rare in the area and, like Lund, concluded that two separate
events of w a t e r flow and sediment deposition had taken place.
He also made extensive observations on the chemical and
clastic deposits.
Few studies about the caves have been performed during
the 1900's. King (1956) identified two periods for the
i n f i l l i n g of c a v e s . A c c o r d i n g to h i m , the older sediments were
of L a t e Pliocene age, while the y o u n g e r ones, deposited over
a calcite layer, were from the Late Pleistocene. Hurt & Blasi
(1969) b e l i e v e d t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f t h e s p e l e o t h e m s was
deposited between 7,000 and 4,500 BP during a wet period. Cave
e x p l o r a t i o n a n d m a p p i n g s t a r t e d to b e c o m e f r e q u e n t a f t e r 19 81,
with the booming of caving clubs. The first systematic study
on the speleogenesis was made by Pilo (19 8 6 ) . He determined
that 57% of his total sample of 53 caves are located inside
sinkholes, 5 9 % of these near the bottom. Dry caves comprised
55% of the total sample. Most of the active systems are
drained by lakes and only 9% contain an active stream,
according to t h e s a m e a u t h o r . A u l e r (1988) m a d e a descriptive
study of the caves. According to h i m m o s t caves occur in the
High Plains with phreatic caves being the m o s t common type.
Branchwork and network caves are both frequent. In a
statistical s t u d y of the o r i e n t a t i o n of cave passages in the
area, Beato et a l . ( 1 9 9 2 ) determined that m o s t of the passages
develop along N7 5-85E and N-S joints. Breakdown is p r e s e n t in

19
o n l y a f e w of the caves and appears not to p l a y a significant
role in the morphogenesis.
3.2 Karst Hydrology
The hydrology of the area comprises a free surface
c a r b o n a t e a q u i f e r l i m i t e d at t h e b a s e b y impermeable gneissic
rocks. Some locally perched aquifers exist on the p h y l l i t e and
above some clay-capped lakes. Groundwater flows toward two
base level rivers. To the northeast, the Velhas River is the
principal outlet for karst water. To the southwest, the Mata
Creek drains s o m e of the water.
There are two major drainage basins in the area. The
Samambaia Creek Basin and the Palmeiras-Mocambo Creek Basin
b o t h drain toward the Velhas River. They have b o t h surface and
underground sections. The hydrology of these creeks will be
detailed in the following chapter. Lund (1837) w a s the first
to d e s c r i b e the high frequency of lakes in this karst area.
They are more frequent in t h e M o c a m b e i r o D e p r e s s i o n . A t least
three types of lakes can b e recognized: lakes over phyllite,
sinkhole lakes and water table lakes, with the last two types
developed over limestone bedrock. Sinkhole lakes are located
in the upper portions of the area, at the bottoms of deep
dolines. Water table lakes occur at the lower elevations,
especially in the Mocambeiro Depression. The hydrologic
behavior of the lakes is complex. Some are stable (phyllite

20
lakes) while the others fluctuate, even drying up on rare
occasions. The water level in t h e s e lakes is p r o b a b l y related
both to rainfall and the input of sediment which plugs the
lake outlet.
Lanari (1909) was the first to produce a detailed
description of the hydrology. Before him, other scientists
such as Lund, Liais and Alvaro da Silveira had made brief
remarks about the sinking streams in the area. Lanari, a
l a n d o w n e r in t h e a r e a , d e s c r i b e d t h e v a r i a t i o n o n l a k e ' s level
and its a s s o c i a t e d sediments.
Coutard et a l . ( 1 9 7 8 ) stated that the g r o u n d w a t e r in the
area follows both the dip of the limestone and the system of
joints. They drew a series of speculative conclusions about
the groundwater routes, without performing dye traces. The
same authors believed that the lakes' dry periods follow a 15
year cycle. There was no systematic monitoring to s u p p o r t such
a statement. The irregular hydrologic pattern of the lakes
seems to b e m o r e complex.
By mapping the hydrogeology, using aerial photographs
and field checking, Silva et al.(1987) determined the
hydrogeological domains in t h e a r e a . Recharge zones occur in
t h e l i m e s t o n e a n d s o i l m a n t l e m a i n l y in t h e k a r s t H i g h Plains.
The Mocambeiro Depression and river beds are the main
discharge zones.
21
3.3 Environmental Problems
The large number of cities, villages and farms in and
around the area has caused major environmental impact. The
Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo Karst is o n e a m o n g several regions
in B r a z i l that are undergoing rapid degradation. No remedial
plan has been put into effect. In 1990 a significant part of
the area was declared a "conservation unity," meaning that
further impact must be assessed and controlled. In reality,
however, the area continues to b e i m p a c t e d b y r a p i d population
growth.
Urbanization is perhaps the greatest cause of
environmental problems. Most cities are experiencing an
uncontrolled growth. The proximity to t h e l a r g e m e t r o p o l i s of
Belo Horizonte makes the area a convenient place for both
industries and weekend resorts. Cities like Matozinhos are
expanding directly over karstified surfaces. Some streets go
across sinkhole bottoms, and limestone cliffs and lakes are
becoming enclosed by new urban sites. Groundwater pollution,
alteration of the landscape and cave vandalism are byproducts
of the urbanization.
Agriculture and cattle farming during the past 200 years
have destroyed most of the original vegetation. Soil erosion
is becoming a major concern. Furthermore, some large scale
projects, such as the building of an international airport,
have changed dramatically the landscape and altered the

22
hydrologic r e g i m e of n e a r b y lakes. Ground subsidence in urban
areas due to groundwater overpumping is a problem of
increasing concern. The largest sinkhole collapses have
occurred in farmlands so far. However, north of the area,
large induced sinkholes have collapsed inside urban limits.
Limestone mining is present throughout the area.
Significant caves have been destroyed. Other problems caused
by mining are the improper disposal of r e s i d u e , air and water
pollution, and landscape degradation. Only recently, the
mining companies have been requested to present a plan of
remedial action prior to t h e b e g i n n i n g of operation.
Groundwater pollution poses a major threat to the
hydrologic resources in t h e r e g i o n . P e s s o a (1992), in a study
of a larger area, estimated that approximately 80% of the
population relies on groundwater. According to this author,
there are three main sources of g r o u n d w a t e r p o l l u t i o n in the
region: urban activities which cause pollution especially from
sewage and landfills, industrial activities that frequently
cause pollution by disposing their residue without planning
a n d f a r m i n g w h i c h c a u s e s p o l l u t i o n t h r o u g h t h e i m p r o p e r u s e of
fertilizers. Microbiological contamination has been detected
in s o m e selected points in t h e r e c h a r g e zone (BMA, 1992).

CHAPTER 4 WATER TRACING
Groudwater tracing is a very useful technique for
determining t h e r o u t e s of s u b s u r f a c e f l o w . A n u m b e r o f tracers
may b e used. Aley and Fletcher (1976) a n d G o s p o d a r i c a n d Habic
(1976) give detailed information on methods and practical
problems associated with the many types of tracers. Dye
tracers are among the most common and easy to handle. They
have been used extensively in karst terrains all over the
world. In Brazil, only isolated experiments have been made,
usually for caving purposes. In t h e M a t o z i n h o s - P e d r o Leopoldo
Karst, the use of dye tracers has been advocated by early
cavers (Dequech, 1975). The large number of swallets and
springs have led people to speculate on the probable
groundwater f l o w r o u t e s , b a s e d o n t h e a p p e a r a n c e of s u g a r cane
and other vegetal debris supposedly cultivated on the
surroundings of certain sinking streams. In fact, some long
time residents in the area, after observing the experiments
w i t h f l u o r e s c e i n p e r f o r m e d for this thesis, remembered seeing
some of the streams t u r n b r i g h t g r e e n 30 to 40 y e a r s a g o . The
results of these possible dye tracing experiments were not
published.
Seventeen qualitative and two q u a n t i t a t i v e dye tracing
experiments were performed in t h e area.
23
24
4.1 Methods
The first step consisted of performing a thorough
hydrogeological inventory of the area. All detected karst
features with flowing water were marked on a map and
described. The discharge of the springs was measured with a
c u r r e n t m e t e r . A m a p of k a r s t l a n d f o r m s b y K o h l e r et al.(1978)
at a 1:50,000 scale was taken as a starting basis. The
prospected hydrogeological features were marked on 1:10,000
orthogonal aerial photographs and then transfered to a
1:25,000 topographic base map. Some springs issuing from
phyllitic rocks were not considered. Only the landforms
developed in l i m e s t o n e w e r e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . D u r i n g t h e w e t
periods, several periodic springs appear in the area. Since
most of these hydrological features last for only a short
period, most of them were not included in the dye tracing
experiments. There are also some small springs issuing from
soil along the b a n k s of the m a j o r streams, s u c h as M a t a Creek
and Velhas River. These springs, together with other very
small karst springs, were not included in the experiments.
Figure 4.1 locates the detected groundwater outlets in the
area. In this figure, karst windows were omitted and only
springs that represent definite outlets for karst b a s i n s and
subbasins are shown.
Fluorescein and optical brightener were the two dyes
chosen for this study. Mull et al.(1988) provided a good
s u m m a r y a b o u t t h e u s e of t h e s e d y e s . O p t i c a l b r i g h t e n e r proved
44° 0 7 ' 3 0 " 44° 43°52'30"
MOCAMBEIRO
L A 8 0 A DE _
S A N T O ANTONIO
INTERNATIONAL
AIRPOflT
I M0CAMB0 7. GAMEIEIRA COW F I N S
PEDRO
1
2. JAGUARA 8. ENGENHO LEOPOLDO
3 . SfTIOSTO ANTONIO 9. SAMAMBAIA

4.P0C0 AZUL 10.CAUE
5 MATA 11. MOINHO VELHO
6.PALESTINA I 2 . 0 L H 0 D'AGUA
N O 12
A 44- 43° 52'30"
Figure 4.1 Location of Detected Outlets in the Area

26
to b e ineffective as a dye tracer in the area. The possible
causes will be discussed in section 4.3. Prior to the
experiments, a background test was performed. Receptors for
f l u o r e s c e i n a n d o p t i c a l b r i g h t e n e r w e r e p l a c e d in t h e t w o m o s t
i m p o r t a n t d r a i n a g e b a s i n s . T h e y w e r e l e f t in t h e w a t e r f o r one
week and then analyzed for dye. The results were negative.
There are no significant background levels of fluorescein and
brightener in t h e area.
The basic tracing procedure consisted of injecting a
s e l e c t e d q u a n t i t y of d y e at t h e i n p u t p o i n t , u s u a l l y a swallet
or karst window. T h e a m o u n t of d y e injected was calculated in
relation to the distance to the p o s s i b l e output. One-to-five
pounds per straight mile were used for fluorescein. For
optical brightener two p o u n d s p e r s t r a i g h t m i l e w e r e injected.
Passive dye receptors were placed in the possible
springs. For fluorescein, the receptor consisted of a small
packet of a c t i v a t e d charcoal suspended into the water flow by
a small diameter nylon rope. The dye is adsorbed onto the
activated charcoal as it p a s s e s through the receptor. Usually
m o r e than one packet was used per spring in a a t t e m p t to avoid
disturbance and theft by locals. The receptors w e r e collected
on average after one week and analyzed for dye. The analysis
consisted in p l a c i n g an amount of charcoal into a small jar
and covering it with an eluent solution. The procedure for
p r e p a r i n g t h e e l u e n t c o n s i s t e d in f i l l i n g a g r a d u a t e d cylinder
to the 5 m l m a r k w i t h solid KOH, covering it w i t h w a t e r to the
3 0 ml mark and adding 70 ml of isopropyl alcohol. The less

27
d e n s e p o r t i o n of t h e l i q u i d is a d d e d to t h e j a r c o n t a i n i n g the
charcoal. If fluorescein is present the liquid will turn
green. Very weak positive tests can be observed through a
light beam. The jars were labeled and stored for about a
month.
For optical brightener, a s m a l l p i e c e of u n d y e d surgical
cotton was tied to the same line, together with the charcoal
packet. After collecting, the cotton was placed into a
homemade wood case containing an ultraviolet light. In a
positive test the cotton will fluoresce blue-white.
4.2 Dye Tracing Results
The two major hydrological networks in the area are
represented by Samambaia and Palmeiras-Mocambo Creeks. Most of
the dye tracing was performed within these basins. Other
isolated drainage basins were analyzed also. The discharge
values inside brackets correspond to m e a s u r e m e n t s in the dry
and wet seasons. Appendix B and Table 4.1 list, respectively,
the d y e traces and the spring's discharge measurements.

28
SPRING DRY SEASON WET SEASON DISCHARGE
m3/s m3/s POINT
Samambaia 0.15 0.15 Velhas River
Engenho 0.05 0.15 Velhas River
Palestina 0.05 0.35 Velhas River
Gameleira 0.05 0.05 Velhas River
P 0 9 0 Azul 0 .15 0.25 Velhas River
Lagoa da Mata 0.05 0.05 Velhas River
Mocambo 0.45 1.00 Velhas River
Jaguara 0.60 0.80 Velhas River
Moinho Velho 0.15 0.15 Mata Creek
Olho d'Agua 0-05 0.10 Mata Creek
Caue 0.05 0.10 Mata Creek
TOTAL 1.80 3 .15
Table 4.1. Discharge measurements and discharge points of major springs of

the Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo Karst. Dry season measurements made at
October 4-7, 1993, except for Caue spring (August 4, 1994.) Wet season
measurements performed at February 2 and 3 1994.
4.2.1 Samambaia Basin
This drainage with its associated hydrogeological
features and groundwater routes is shown in Figure 4.2.
Samambaia Creek issues from a spring (0.15 - 0.15 m3/s) and
has a perennial surface flow that discharges into Sumidouro
Lake. Six tracing experiments were attempted in this basin.

44° 43° 55'
Springs I.P050Azul, 2.Lagoa da Mata, 3.Palestina, 4.Gameleira, 5.Engenho,

6.Samambaia, 7.Jaboticatuba's Olho d'Agua
Swallets 8.Sumidouro Lake, 9.Curral Cave, lO.Chacara Sinkhole, 11.Frances Hole,

12.Goiaba Swallet, 13.Baldo Swallet, 14.Agua Fria Cave, 15.Cocho d'Agua
Karst Window, 16.Paredaozao Cave, 17.Lapa Vermelha I Cave
Figure 4.2 Drainage and Hydrogeological Features of Samambaia Basin

30
On February 15, 1993, 3 . 5 k g of o p t i c a l b r i g h t e n e r were
dumped into Cocho d'Agua Karst Window (No. 15 o n F i g u r e 4.2),
a sinkhole with d r a i n a g e s u m p e d at b o t h s i d e s . R e c e p t o r s were
placed at Engenho Spring (0.05 - 0.15 m3/s) . A n a l y s i s of the
receptors showed negative results.
Simultaneously, 700 g of fluorescein were dumped into
Agua Fria Cave (No. 14 on Figure 4.2), a small cave with a
diminutive drainage across its lower level. Receptors were
p l a c e d at Cocho d'Agua Karst Window and at E n g e n h o Spring. The
results were positive for b o t h receptors.
On November 24, 1992, 5 0 0 g of fluorescein were placed
into Frances Hole (No. 1 1 o n F i g u r e 4 . 2 ) , a v e r t i c a l cave that
intercepts a sumped drainage at the bottom. The dye trace was
p o s i t i v e on receptors placed at Palestina Springs (0.05 - 0.3 5
m3/s) .
On November 25, 1992, 500 g of fluorescein were dumped
into Curral Cave (No. 9 on Figure 4.2), a small cave with a
trickle of w a t e r flowing through it. T h e d y e trace was weakly
positive on receptors placed into Frances Hole.
O n D e c e m b e r 5, 1991, 1 k g of f l u o r e s c e i n w a s d u m p e d into
the Baldo Swallet (No. 13 on Figure 4.2). Receptors were
placed into Poq:o A z u l Spring (0.15 - 0.25 m3/s) , at Lagoa da
Mata Spring (0.05 - 0.05 m3/s), a crystal clear small spring
issuing from a lake, and at Jaboticatuba's Olho d'Agua, a
hardly noticeable spring at the right bank of Velhas River.

31
Receptors at Poqio A z u l and Lagoa da M a t a were negative. The
receptors at Jaboticatuba's Olho d'Agua were stolen.
On December 5, 1991, 3.5 kg of optical brightener were
p l a c e d n e a r the suspected sinking point of Sumidouro Lake (No.
8 on Figure 4.2). Receptors were placed in P 0 9 0 Azul Spring,
Lagoa da Mata Spring and Jaboticatuba•s Olho d'Agua Spring.
The results were negative at P 0 9 0 Azul and Lagoa da Mata.
Jaboticatuba's Olho d'Agua receptors were stolen.
4.2.1.1 Summary
The major part of the water that issues at Samambaia
Spring p r o b a b l y comes from Lapa Vermelha I Cave. This cave has
a lake in its m a i n passage. During exceptionally dry years,
the lake's level drops considerably, showing a good-sized
u n d e r g r o u n d creek that appears from a b r e a k d o w n in its eastern
wall and sumps at the end of the cave. This water possibly
originates from the area around Confins and Lagoa Bonita
Lakes. No dye tracing was attempted due to persistent high
w a t e r levels during 1991-1993. T h e trickle of w a t e r that sinks
at Paredaozao Cave probably also drains to S a m a m b a i a Spring.
Engenho Spring drains an area with few identified
groundwater features. The water that runs through Agua Fria
Cave passes through Cocho d'Agua Karst Window and eventually
appears at Engenho Spring. The several sinkholes to the west

32
of Cocho d'Agua and Agua Fria probably also drain into this
spring.
Palestina Spring issues from another large karst basin.
The water at Curral Cave drains into Frances Hole and then
toward Palestina Spring. Chacara Doline contains the other
known hydrogeological f e a t u r e in t h i s a r e a , a s m a l l t r i c k l e of
water. It p r o b a b l y contributes to t h e w a t e r at Frances Hole.
There is a l s o a s e e p a g e s p r i n g n e a r P a l e s t i n a , flowing out of
soil.
Gameleira Spring (0.05 - 0 . 0 5 m 3 / s ) , at t h e r i g h t margin
of Samambaia Creek, is the probable outlet of the karst area
of Lapinha, to the east. No significant hydrogeological
features are known in t h i s a r e a . The small swallet of Goiaba
(No. 12 o n F i g u r e 4 . 2 ) is r e l a t e d either to t h i s spring or to
Pogo Azul and Lagoa da Mata Springs. Gameleira Spring is
located under a small outcrop of limestone. An artificial
channel at a terrace directly above the spring drains part of
Samambaia Creek. Some of the Gameleira Spring water might
originate from infiltrations from this channel.
The origin of the water that flows from Pogo Azul
Spring, Lagoa da Mata Spring and Jaboticatuba's Olho d'Agua
Spring could not be identified by tracing. Although the
results were negative, Pogo Azul is probably the discharge
point of the water at Sumidouro Lake due to i t s p r o x i m i t y and
downgradient l o c a t i o n . T h e v a s t l a k e v o l u m e c a u s e s d i l u t i o n of
any dye tracer and prevents the precise location of the

33
swallet. The inlet of Baldo is p r o b a b l y related to P o g o Azul
or drains to some unrecorded spring over the Velhas River
channel. The large amount of sediment that covered the
receptor at Pogo Azul might have masked the results. The
limpid water of Lagoa da Mata does not show discharge
variation during the year and probably therefore represents
the outlet of a diffuse aquifer. Jaboticatuba's Olho d'Agua
Spring is c o n s i d e r e d b y m a n y as the outlet of Sumidouro Lake
water (Coutard et al., 1978). The receptors placed at this
s i t e w e r e s t o l e n . It s e e m s u n l i k e l y t h a t a k a r s t c o n d u i t would
drain under the large and deep channel of Velhas River
(average discharge of 85 m3/s) . The volume of water at
Jaboticatuba' s Olho d'Agua is also much smaller than the
volume that feeds Sumidouro Lake. Olho d'Agua should be one
of the outlets of the incipient karst of the right m a r g i n of
Velhas River.
4.2.2 Palmeiras-Mocambo Basin
Palmeiras-Mocambo Creek drains the Karst High Plain
northwest from Samambaia Basin. Figure 4.3 shows the
groundwater routes and associated features. Eight dye traces
were performed in this basin.

44° 05' 44°02'30"
Springs l.Mocambo, 2.Ze Irene, 3.Po?oes, 4.Pogoes Cave, 5.Ballet, 6.Sacota,

7.Milagres, 8.Perobas, 9.Debris, lO.Bom Jardim, l l . A g u a d e Matozinhos
Swallets 12.Foto Aerea Cave, 13.Agua Surda Karst Window, 14.Agua Surda Cave,
15.Ze Irene, 16.Freatica Cave, 17.Pogoes, 18.Po?oes Cave, 19.Ballet,
20.Sacota, 21.Milagres, 22.Palmeiras, 23.Bom Jardim, 24.Capta?ao,
25.Faustina, 26.Agua de Matozinhos, 27.Boca, 28.Bomba Cave
Figure 4.3 Groundwater Routes and Hydrogeological Features of

Palmeiras-Mocambo Basin
35
On April 1, 1992, 800 g of fluorescein were dumped into
the Palmeiras Swallet (No. 22 o n F i g u r e 4.3), a small sumped
cave. Receptors were placed at Milagres Sinkhole, Sacota
Sinkhole and Ballet Sinkhole, all three are large dolines with
drainage running through their bottoms. The Milagres and
Sacota receptors were positive. The Ballet receptors were
negative.
O n J u n e 3 0, 1992, 2 k g of o p t i c a l b r i g h t e n e r w e r e placed
into Sacota Sinkhole (No. 2 0 on Figure 4.3). Receptors were
placed into Ballet Sinkhole, Pogoes Swallet, a spring that
drains shortly afterward into a rounded sinking lake, and at
Mocambo Spring (0.45 - 1.00 m3/s). The receptors at Ballet
were removed prior to t h e r e t r i e v a l . The others gave negative
results.
On December 5, 1991, 1.7 kg of optical brightener was
dumped at Pogoes Swallet (No. 17 on Figure 4.3). Receptors
were placed at M o c a m b o Spring and at Jaguara Spring (0.60 -
0.80 m3/s). Results were negative for b o t h receptors.
O n J u l y 27, 1992, 2.5 k g of f l u o r e s c e i n w e r e injected at
Sacota Sinkhole. Receptors were placed at Ballet Sinkhole,
Pogoes Swallet, Mocambo Spring and at a k a r s t window between
Pogoes Swallet and Ballet Sinkhole. Positive results were
obtained for all receptors.
On November 10, 1991, 1.5 k g of fluorescein was placed
into M o r r o Redondo Cave, a vertical cave that contains a small

36
creek. Receptors were placed at Mocambo Spring and Jaguara
Spring. Negative results were obtained for b o t h receptors.
O n J u n e 30, 1992, 2.5 k g of f l u o r e s c e i n w e r e injected at
Bom Jardim Swallet. Receptors were placed at S a c o t a Sinkhole,
Ballet Sinkhole, Pogoes Swallet and Mocambo Spring. The
receptor at Sacota Spring gave negative results. All others
were positive.
On July 3 0, 1992, 3 00 g of fluorescein were injected
into Captagao Swallet (No. 2 4 o n F i g u r e 4 . 3 ) . T h r e e receptors
were placed at small springs at the b a s e of a debris cone on
Bom Jardim Lake. The dye was observed coming out after about
39 m i n u t e s . The distance between these points is 200 m. The
mean velocity was 5.1 m/min.
On May 12, 1993, 2 k g of fluorescein were placed at Ze
Irene Sinkhole (No. 15 on Figure 4.3), a karst window.
Receptors w e r e p l a c e d at M o c a m b o a n d J a g u a r a Springs. Mocambo
Spring gave positive results. The Jaguara receptors were
negative. The dye came out at Mocambo Spring approximately 14
hours after being injected. The distance covered by the dye is
2,42 5 m in a s t r a i g h t line. The mean velocity was 3.0 m/min.

37
4.2.2.1 Summary
Part of the water that sinks at Palmeiras Swallet has
its h e a d w a t e r s at t h e p h y l l i t e at t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n b o u n d a r y of
the area. This creek has a series of short underground
sections in its upper portion. It runs through Milagres
Sinkhole, by Sacota Sinkhole, by Ballet Sinkhole, through a
series of karst windows, and eventually drains into Pogoes
Swallet. After about 2.5 km it e m e r g e s a t M o c a m b o Spring. The
negative result on the receptor placed at Ballet Sinkhole
d u r i n g t h e f i r s t d y e t r a c e is a t t r i b u t e d to t h e r e m o v a l of the
detector prior to t h e p a s s a g e of the dye.
The large swallet at B o m Jardim is fed b y two sources.
Part of the water comes from Captagao Swallet. This swallet
drains water from two small creeks, one coming from Perobas
Cave. The other source of water comes from Bom Jardim Cave.
T h e d r a i n a g e a r e a of this resurgence is p r o b a b l y related to a
series of small convergent swallets, some associated with the
M a t o z i n h o s u r b a n a r e a . T h e w a t e r s i n k i n g at B o m J a r d i m Swallet
joins the water coming from Palmeiras Swallet between Sacota
and Ballet Sinkholes, going toward Mocambo Springs, through an
underground route already supposed by the locals in the
beginning of the century (SEE, 1938), and hypothesized by
Coutard et a l . (1978).
38
The water at Ze Irene Karst Window also drains toward
Mocambo Spring. This water is p r o b a b l y related to A g u a Surda
Cave creek and another small karst window to the west. Two
other intermittent s w a l l e t s in t h e a r e a m a y a l s o c o n t r i b u t e to
this drainage.
The dye tracing of the small creek that sumps at the
bottom of Morro Redondo Cave gave negative results both to
Mocambo and Jaguara Springs. The very small discharge of the
creek may have prevented the dye from traveling the long
distance (in e x c e s s of 3 km) to the p r e s u m e d resurgence. On
the other hand, during the end of the dry season, it was
o b s e r v e d t h a t C a e t a n o L a k e at M o c a m b e i r o D e p r e s s i o n is in fact
two lakes -- one working as a spring that drains into the
other, a swallet. Perhaps this water is connected to Morro
Redondo Creek. Unfortunately, the m o r p h o l o g y of C a e t a n o Lake
is n o t favorable f o r a d y e t r a c e , b e c a u s e of d i l u t i o n in both
inlet and outlet lakes. An exceptionally dry season may prove
adequate for an experiment.
Jaguara Spring, a major spring in t h e k a r s t a r e a , is n o t
r e l a t e d to a n y of t h e t r a c e d s w a l l e t s . Its d r a i n a g e b a s i n lies
outside the limits of the study area.

39
4.2.3 Other Sites
4.2.3.1 Moinho Velho Spring
Moinho Velho Spring (0.15 - 0.15 m3/s) is l o c a t e d in the
southern l i m i t of the area (No. 11 o n F i g u r e 4 . 1 ) and drains
into Mata Creek. The sole hydrogeological feature identified
n e a r b y is t h e s m a l l c r e e k d r a i n i n g M o i n h o C a v e . T w o d y e traces
were attempted in this site.
O n F e b r u a r y 16, 1992, 2 5 0 g of fluorescein were injected
a t t h e d o w n s t r e a m e n d of M o i n h o C a v e . R e c e p t o r s w e r e p l a c e d at
Moinho Velho Spring. The result was negative.
In a n o t h e r a t t e m p t o n M a y 5, 1993, 2 1 0 g of fluorescein
were dumped again at the downstream sump of Moinho Cave.
Receptors were placed in f o u r s i t e s a l o n g t h e c o u r s e o f Moinho
Velho Creek, from the spring to the confluence with Mata
Creek. All four were negative.
Clearly Moinho Cave drainage does not flow toward Moinho
Velho Spring, or to a n y u n r e c o r d e d spring along Moinho Velho
Creek. It is h y p o t h e s i z e d that this w a t e r m a y drain directly
toward Mata Creek.

40
4.2.3.2 Caue Spring
Caue Spring (0.05 - 0.10 m3/s) was located late during
the field work (No. 10 o n F i g u r e 4 . 1 ) . It d r a i n s a s m a l l area
of limestone outcrops heavily modified by mining. No swallets
w e r e o b s e r v e d in the area. T h e spring issues from two separate
outlets, draining toward Mata Creek.
4.2.3.3 Olho d1Agua Spring
Olho d'Agua is t h e s o u t h e r n m o s t spring in t h e a r e a (No.
12 o n F i g u r e 4 . 1 ) , d r a i n i n g t o w a r d M a t a C r e e k . N o o t h e r nearby
hydrogeological features were located. Olho d'Agua Spring
(0.05 - 0.10 m3/s) m a y have a hydrological connection with the
karst area around Lagoa Santa's Lapa V e r m e l ha, a mined
limestone outcrop.
4.3 Discussion
The high number of negative results was caused by at
least two factors. The experiments with optical brightener
were highly unsuccessful. The poor performance is probably
related to bad quality (or improper composition) of the
Brazilian brightener used. Although the dye p e r f o r m e d well in

41
some laboratory experiments (e.g. p o u r i n g small quantities of
dye into a water container) , in the field it proved to be
ineffective. Even large amounts of dye were not sufficient.
The use of optical brightener in other tropical areas has
shown that large losses can occur due perhaps to a d s o r p t i o n or
photochemical decay (Smart a n d Smith, 197 6).
Fluorescein dye performed better, but its use in the
Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo Karst proved to b e less effective
than in t e m p e r a t e r e g i o n s . Smart and Smith (1976) stated that
fluorometric dye tracing in tropical areas using charcoal
receptors is n o t recommended due to i t s p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e . To
overcome this difficulty, much larger quantities of
fluorescein w e r e used. Most of the analyzed activated charcoal
receptors were only weakly positive.
Another drawback of standard dye tracing techniques in
the M a t o z i n h o s - P e d r o Leopoldo Karst arises from the fact that
some swallets and springs are lakes during most of the year.
Sites such as Sumidouro Lake would require very large amounts
of dye to achieve positive results. Not enough dye was
available for such experiments. Better results would be
obtained in exceptionally dry years when the swallets are
revealed in the lake bed, allowing the dye to be injected
without being diluted. Such dry periods are reported to occur
at approximately 5-to-10 year intervals. The last one was
probably during 1988. On such occasions, a straightforward dye
trace could be attempted.

42
The karst recharge water is predominantly autogenic.
Very little water comes from other lithologies. The water is
collected by infiltration via small swallets and sinkholes.
The Velhas River is the major discharge zone of the karst
water. The observed total discharge of the springs totals
approximately 1.80 m3/s during the dry season and 3.15 m3/s
d u r i n g t h e w e t s e a s o n . T h e s u m of t h e d i s c h a r g e o f t h e springs
that drain toward Velhas River account for 88% of the total
v o l u m e . T h e r e m a i n i n g 1 2 % f l o w s to M a t a C r e e k (see T a b l e 4.1).
Groundwater flow was considered to b e influenced by fractures
by Silva et al. (1987) and by both fractures and dip by
C o u t a r d et a l . (1978) . T h e s e f a c t o r s a p p e a r to e x e r t a visible
c o n t r o l o v e r g r o u n d w a t e r flow, e s p e c i a l l y c o n s i d e r i n g that the
geologic dip is generally toward Velhas River and that
prominent jointing also extends in this direction. However,
some flow routes do not follow these structures. The favorable
drainage routes toward Velhas River reflect both the geologic
s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of l i m e s t o n e in t h i s direction,
since the w e s t e r n and southern limits of the area are composed
of g n e i s s . Most of M a t a C r e e k m a r g i n s are bounded by gneiss.
The three springs that flow toward Mata Creek are enclosed in
karst areas surrounded by impermeable lithologies (phyllite
and gneiss). It is l i k e l y t h a t o t h e r s m a l l , u n r e c o r d e d springs
exist in t h e area.
Samambaia Creek provides a local base level in the
southeastern Karst High Plain. Much of the incoming flow is
concentrated in four springs along its m a r g i n . In this area,
t h e g e n e r a l f l o w p a t t e r n of t h e u n d e r g r o u n d tributaries is n o t
43
directed toward Velhas River, but toward Samambaia Creek.
However, in the P a l m e i r a s - M o c a m b o Basin, groundwater flow is
more straightforward, not dispersing much from the general
trend toward Velhas River. The controlling factor for
groundwater flow in the Samambaia Basin appears to be the
p o s i t i o n of t h e n e a r e s t s i g n i f i c a n t b a s e l e v e l r i v e r . Existing
sets of joints can b e used for groundwater flow, according to
the direction of the hydraulic gradient.
The siim of the volume of all springs that drain into
Samambaia Creek is about twice the discharge of Pogo Azul
Spring, the presumed resurgence of the system. A significant
a m o u n t of w a t e r is p u m p e d a n d d i v e r t e d f r o m S a m a m b a i a C r e e k in
its 8 km long surface run to Sumidouro Lake. Part of this
water may be lost by evapotranspiration, after agricultural
a n d d o m e s t i c u s e . T h e l a r g e s u r f a c e a r e a of S u m i d o u r o L a k e m a y
also cause significant evaporation l o s s e s . It is a l s o possible
that Pogo Azul Spring is not the sole outlet of Sumidouro
Lake.
Some springs do not r e p r e s e n t the discharge z o n e of any
traced route. They usually have crystal clear water year-round
and show slow response to rainfall. This is the case of
Jaguara, Moinho Velho and Lagoa da Mata Springs. These outlets
may be the discharge points of a d i s t i n c t aquifer, possibly a
diffuse flow aquifer. The behavior of these springs will be
further analyzed in t h e n e x t chapter. The other springs show
rapid response to rainfall and have turbid water during the
wet season. Most of them have been connected to swallets or

44
karst windows by dye tracing. The turbid water m a y b e related
to turbulent conduit flow with open channel and/or surface
sections. Springs such as Olho d ' A g u a and Gameleira, although
not as yet connected by dye traces to any water inlet,
probably carry water from u n d i s c o v e r e d caves.
The results obtained in the q u a n t i t a t i v e d y e t r a c e of Ze
Irene-Mocambo is typical of k a r s t water ( S m i t h et a l . , 1976;
Milanovic, 1981). The experiment in Captagao Swallet is
unreliable in this respect because a huge pile of debris,
released by a nearby mining company over the traced route, has
altered the flow behavior. Water speed at the u p s t r e a m section
of the drainage basins is likely to b e h i g h e r due to steeper
hydraulic gradients, open channel conditions and occurrence of
collapsed features with aerial fluvial sections. The
Mocambeiro Depression has a m u c h gentler hydraulic gradient,
causing groundwater flow to be slower, probably through
completely submerged channels.
4.4 Delineation of D r a i n a g e Basins
The determination of groundwater divides in karst
terrain poses a n u m b e r of p r o b l e m s . Groundwater in k a r s t may
flow b e n e a t h topographic divides. Most of the time the divide
must be inferred because it is rarely directly observed.
Detailed water tracing and the m a k i n g of a p o t e n t i o m e t r i c map
are good ways to increase the accuracy of the estimated
divides.
45
Using the groundwater flow routes, the major drainage
basins were delineated (Figure 4.4). This map should be
considered as a very first attempt to draw the different
groundwater basins in the area. M o i n h o V e l h o , Olho d'Agua and
Caue Drainage Basins were determined without the aid of dye
traces. The estimated limits in t h e s e c a s e s m u s t b e considered
as tentative. Runoff directions in surface landforms and
lithological contacts were used in estimating the basins'
limits.
Phyllite deposits cover limited portions of the area,
resulting in a local predominance of surface flow.
Semiconfined flow may occur then. Surface drainage basins were
not delineated on the map. Table 4.2 gives the approximate
area of the karst drainage basins, measured with a Keuffel &
Esser compensating polar planimeter on a 1:25,000 base map.
Other undetected drainage basins exist, such as the one that
drains to Caetano Spring. These basins were not taken into
account due to the limited data available.
Samambaia Palmeiras- Moinho Caue Olho
Mocambo Velho d'Agua
Area 70 30 4 3 3
Table 4.2 Approximate size of the delineated groundwater drainage basins.

Area in km 2 .
Figure 4.4 Drainage Basins at the Area
47
4.5 Conclusions
The water drained by the Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo Karst
is a l m o s t e n t i r e l y a u t o g e n i c , o r i g i n a t i n g from runoff into the
limestone.
About 88% of the identified discharge drains toward
Velhas River, the regional b a s e level. Twelve percent drains
to Mata Creek. Samambaia Creek is a local base level,
concentrating a series of springs along its channel.
A l a r g e n u m b e r of u n s u c c e s f u l dye traces are attributed
to t h e p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e of o p t i c a l b r i g h t e n e r , fluorescein and
the r e l a t e d receptors under tropical conditions.
Five distinct drainage basins were delineated in the
study area. Other basins may exist, especially in the
Mocambeiro Depression. The flow in the upstream portion of
the area tends to b e turbulent and possibly vadose. Phreatic
flow dominates the lower hydraulic gradient downstream
portion.
CHAPTER 5 HYDROCHEMISTRY
No significant published data are available about the
chemical characteristics of karst water in the Matozinhos-
Pedro Leopoldo area. Only a few analyses have been performed
by previous researchers. T h e g o a l of the hydrochemical survey
of the karst water is to provide a first insight into the
basic composition of the w a t e r and its seasonal variations.
The nearby urban areas and industries are possible sources of
groundwater contamination. Water quality was established at
selected points. The hydrochemical data are also useful as a
means to c o m p a r e a n d d i s t i n g u i s h different types of springs.
The variation of chemical parameters with time can help to
characterize the t y p e of flow (Shuster and White, 1971).
The denudation rates were also calculated. These data
provide a chemical basis from which some assumptions about
karst evolution can be drawn.
48
49
5.1 Methods
Eleven physical and chemical parameters were measured in
four different sites in order to characterize the water
chemistry. Temperature was measured in the field using the
temperature probe of the portable Fisher Accumet Mini pH
Meter, model 955. Measurements of pH were also done in the
field with the same equipment. Specific conductance readings
were taken in t h e field with a Fisher Conductivity Meter.
The selected chemical parameters were calcium,
magnesium, alkalinity, chloride, potassium, sodium, sulfate
and nitrate. The collected samples were stored in a cooler
before being transported to Belo Horizonte. Two different
laboratories (Ecolab and Sanear) performed the measurements.
All samples for cations were acidified (to p H < 2 ) with HN03.
Calcium and magnesium were measured by titration with EDTA.
Potassium was measured with a Hach DR/2000 spectrophotometer.
Sodium was determined by atomic absorption using a
Variantechtron instrument. Chloride was determined by
volumetric methods. Sulfate was measured by turbidimetry using
a Polilab AP 1000 Turbidimeter. Nitrate was acidified (to
pH<2) with H2S04 and determined by spectrophotometric method
using a Shimadzu Spectrophotometer. Due to t h e low values of
the chemical parameters other than calcium, magnesium and
alkalinity, the lower limit of detection was considered as
being 1 mg/1. The range in values below this limit were not
taken in a c c o u n t in t h e s t a t i s t i c a l calculations.
50
5.2 Sampling Points
Sampling locations were selected at sites that would
represent the downstream end of a g r o u n d w a t e r f l o w p a t h as it
emerges from the subsurface. Four springs were selected. They
are among the largest in the area: Moinho Velho Spring,
Mocambo Spring, Jaguara Spring and Pogo Azul Spring. These
four sites represent more than 90% of all detected outlet
flow. Additional sampling was made at Caue Spring and Olho
d'Agua Spring. Figure 5.1 shows the location of the sampling
points.
5.3 Sampling Events
Monthly sampling was planned at the beginning of the
project. However, pH meter breakdown, impassable roads during
the wet season and other problems prevented monthly sampling.
Event sampling was then chosen as an alternative approach.
Nine sampling events were selected as follows:
October 17, 19 91. End of the dry season. After a short
duration rain.
November 26, 1991. E n d of the dry season.

Figure 5.1 Location of Sampled Springs
52
December 19, 1991. Beginning of the wet season. Only-
temperature, conductivity and pH were measured.
J u n e 4, 1992. Middle of the dry season.
July 9, 1992. M i d d l e of the dry season.
March 1, 1993. E n d of the wet season.
October 4-7, 1993. E n d of the dry season. Soon after a short
duration storm.
February 2, 1994. Middle of the wet season.
August 4, 1994. Middle of the dry season.
5.4 Results
5.4.1 Physical and Chemical Parameters
The assemblage of results gives a good insight on the
chemical characteristics of the karst water. Each parameter
will be discussed separately.

53
5.4.1.1 Temperature
Table 5.1 gives the results of temperature measurements.
Moinho V e l h o and Jaguara Springs have the smallest temperature
ranges throughout the year, b o t h around 0.5°C. Mocambo Spring,
the outlet of a drainage with many surface sections, has a
much higher variation (2.0°C). The water at Pogo Azul Spring
comes out as a small lake, subject to insolation. This spring
probably drains the large Sumidouro Lake. The high temperature
values at this spring are, therefore, probably due to heat of
lake water by sunlight. During the winter, both Pogo Azul and
Mocambo Springs have a sharp decrease in t e m p e r a t u r e w h i l e the
water t e m p e r a t u r e at Jaguara and Moinho Velho Springs remains
nearly constant.
Mointo VelHo Mocambo Jaguara P090 A z u l
10-17-91 23.0 2 2 .8 23 .0 25.5
11-26-91 23 .1 23 . 0 23 .0 26.1
12-19-91 2 3 .4 23 .7 23 .0 24.5
06-04-92 23 .2 2 2 .2 2 2 .8 2 3 .9
07-09-92 22.9 21.9 2 2 .7 23.6
03-01-93 23.0 23 .3 23 .2 2 7 .3
10-4/7-93 23 .1 22.6 22 . 8 24.3
02-02-94 23 .1 23 .9 - 2 4 .1
Table 5.1 Temperature values for springs (in "Celsius).

54
5.4.1.2 Specific Conductance
Table 5.2 p r o v i d e s the specific conductance values taken
at the four springs. Jaguara Spring consistently had the
highest values. The smallest values were measured at Moinho
Velho S p r i n g . M o s t of the springs show an increase in specific
conductance during high discharge. At the December 19
sampling, Moinho Velho, Jaguara and Pogo Azul Springs showed
an increase in values while the specific conductance at
Mocambo Spring decreased a bit.
Moinho Velho Mocambo Jaguara P090 Azul
10-17-91 308 340 357 328
11-26-91 306 342 360 332
12-19-91 319 339 371 343
06-04-92 301 333 357 328
07-09-92 306 328 355 334
03-01-93 305 340 362 329
10-4/7-93 303 361 386 334
02-02-94 307 355 368 330
Table 5.2 Specific conductance measurements for springs (in micromhos per
centimeter at 25°C).
55
5.4.1.3 pH
The pH measurements were subject to a s e r i e s of problems
related either to e q u i p m e n t breakdown or low quality buffers.
The values were highly inconsistent. It was decided to
consider them only as approximate values. All pH values fall
between 7.10 and 7.87. Jaguara Spring had the highest range
while the highest values were taken at M o c a m b o Spring.
5.4.1.4 Calcium
The calcium values obtained are representative of
limestone areas (Table 5.3). The data show an increase during
the dry season, followed by dilution during wet periods.
Jaguara Spring has the highest m e a n calcium concentration and
Moinho Velho Spring has the smallest. All four springs show a
large range of values.
10-17-91 62 .3 70.3 85.8 65 .7
11-26-91 150.0 1 4 4 .0 148.0 158.0
06-04-92 1 6 3 .3 181.8 1 9 3 .9 1 7 3 .7
07-09-92 146.9 179 . 6 191.8 1 6 7 .3
03-01-93 60.2 61.8 69.7 58.7
10-4/7-93 50.2 61.2 67 .7 62 .7
02-02-94 58.5 69.8 71.7 66.0
Table 5.6 Chloride values for springs (in mg/1).

56
5.4.1.5. Magnes ium
Magnesium values are shown in T a b l e 5 . 4 . T h e y follow the
trend set by the calcium cation, although the ratio between
them (Ca/Mg) varies greatly. Magnesium values exhibit an
erratic pattern. Sharp increases were measured in samples
taken one month apart (sampling of June 4 and July 9).
Moinlio Velho Mocambo Jaguara P090 Azul
10-17-91 2.1 1.2 1.0 2.5
11-26-91 10.0 8.0 - 12 .0
06-04-92 - 4.0 4.0 12 .1
07-09-92 20.4 1 2 .2 6.1 28.6
03-01-93 2.3 5.2 3.1 6.8
10-4/7-93 6.2 3.8 4.8 6.7
02-02-94 2.3 1.1 2.3 1.1
Table 5.4 Magnesium values for springs (in mg/1).
5.4.1.6 Alkalinity
Alkalinity from bicarbonate was the only one considered
in this study. Apart from a lack of m e a s u r e m e n t s in the first
sampling, alkalinity values increased during high discharge
and decreased during low discharge -- an inverse trend
compared to the other parameters. The values are shown in
Table 5.5. Jaguara Spring had the highest values and Moinho
Velho had the smallest.

57
Moinho Velho Mocambo Jaguara Poqo Azul
11-26-91 165 174 175 176
06-04-92 153 164 17 8 167
07-09-92 151 162 177 166
03-01-93 160 176 187 175
10-4/7-93 156 168 186 178
02-02-94 157 180 193 172
Table 5.5 Alkalinity values for springs (in mg/1).
5.4.1.7 Chloride
Chloride comes from rainfall, landfills, organic wastes,
fertilizers, or may occur naturally in s o i l . C h l o r i d e d a t a are
shown in Table 5.6. The karst water does not contain
significant amounts of chloride.
06-04-92 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
07-09-92 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
03-01-93 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
10-4/7-93 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
02-02-94 1.3 1.5 <1.0 <1.0

58
5.4.1.8 Potassium
Most of the measured values for potassium fall below 1
mg/1 (Table 5.7).
10-17-91 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
11-26-91 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
06-04-92 1.0 <1.0 <1.0 1.0
07-09-92 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
03-01-93 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
10-4/7-93 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
02-02-94 <1.0 1.4 <1.0 1.2
Table 5.7 Potassium values for the springs (in mg/1).
5.4.1.9 Sodium
According to the data shown in Table 5.8, sodium was
concentrated during the dry season and at the middle of the
wet season. The highest values belong to Pogo Azul Spring.
Jaguara Spring has the smallest values.

59
10-17-91 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 1.4
11-26-91 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 1.6
06-04-92 1.5 1.2 1.3 2 . 0
07-09-92 1.1 1.2 <1.0 1.9
03-01-93 <1.0 1.1 <1.0 1.6
10-4/7-93 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 1.2
02-02-94 1.2 1.2 1.8 2.8
Table 5.8 Sodium values for springs (in mg/1).
5.4.1.10 Sulfate
Rainfall, bedrock (including pyrite), anaerobic decay of
organic material, chemical fertilizers, runoff from livestock
feedlocks and sewage effluents are the possible sources of
sulfate (Grow, 1986). Low values characterize the sampled
water. Mocambo Spring has the highest values. Moinho Velho
Spring shows very low levels of sulfate throughout the year.
Table 5.9 presents the sulfate values.

60
10-17-91 <1.0 5.0 1.3 1.1
11-26-91 <1.0 6.9 1.7 1.2
06-04-92 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
07-09-92 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
03-01-93 <1.0 1.0 <1.0 <1.0
10-4/7-93 <1.0 4.0 1.0 <1.0
02-02-94 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
Table 5.9 Sulfate values for springs (in mg/1).
5.4.1.11. Nitrate
Nitrate comes mainly from agricultural sources, usually
associated with fertilizers. Jaguara and Mocambo Springs
present the highest nitrate content (Table 5.10). The values
do not show an apparent pattern.
10-17-91 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
11-26-91 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
06-04-92 1.1 <1.0 2.0 <1.0
07-09-92 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
03-01-93 <1.0 1.4 2.0 <1.0
10-4/7-93 <1.0 1.3 <1.0 <1.0
02-02-94 <1.0 1.6 <1.0 <1.0

61
5.4.1.12 Additional Chemical Data
Some isolated samplings were made at other sites. Olho
d'Agua spring was located after much of the field work had
been done. Three water samples were collected for the purpose
of characterizing the major parameters. Table 5.11 shows these
data.
Temp. SpC Ca Mg
10-4-93 2 2 .6 329 6 4 .2 11.4
2-2-94 2 2 .7 353 67.9 2.3
8-4-94 23 .1 320 63 .1 1.9
Table 5.11 Physical and chemical measurements at Olho d'Agua Spring.

Temperatures in °C, Specific Conductance in microhmos per centimeter at
25 °C, Ca and Mg in mg/1.
Caue Spring was also found at the final stages of the
thesis field work. It d r a i n s a h e a v i l y m i n e d a r e a . C a u e Spring
was sampled for the standard set of p a r a m e t e r s (Table 5.12).
The spring consists of two outlets: one draining from under a
limestone outcrop and the other coming out diffusely at a bog
subject to intense sun heat.

62
2-2-94 8-4-94
Temperature 23 .1 2 2 .3
Sp. Conductance 426 367
Calcium 7 3 .6 72.3
Magnesium 0.7 2.3
Alkalinity 195 182
Chloride 1.8 <1.0
Potassium <1.0 <1.0
Sodium 2.6 <1.0
Sulfate <1.0 5.2
Nitrate 4.4 2.7
Table 5.12 Physical and chemical data from Caue Spring. Temperatures in °C,
Specific Conductance in microhmos per centimeter at 25°C. Other values in
mg/1.
5.5 Discussion
Water chemistry of karst springs is related to
discharge, season (Jacobson & Langmuir, 1974), C02 supply
(Atkinson, 1977), bedrock and surficial geology (Drake, 1983),
recharge type and flow path length (Scanlon & Thrailkill,
1987) and human activities. Several studies on hydrochemistry
of springs have been performed throughout the temperate world
(for example Bakalowicz, 1979 and Patterson, 1979). Very few
have taken place in tropical areas, most of them (such as
Miller's (1981), Laverty's (1980) and James' (1980) works)

63
gathered data on selected months during expeditionary type
research. O n e of the few c o m p r e h e n s i v e surveys of groundwater
chemistry in tropical karst was made by Crowther (1989) in
Malaysia. I n h i s s t u d y of a u t o g e n i c p e r c o l a t i o n , he attributed
the variability in calcium values to different source area
PC02's and underground reprecipitation of carbonate minerals.
The water t y p e of a l l four springs falls into a calcium
bicarbonate type, according to the trilinear diagram
containing all analysis presented (Figure 5.2). The lack of
significant concentrations of ions other than calcium and
magnesium attest to the autogenic nature of the recharge
water.
The effects of increased discharge on the water
c h e m i s t r y of s p r i n g s a r e s t i l l c o n t r o v e r s i a l a n d d e p e n d o n the
type of flow and behavior of the aquifer. Several studies
p o i n t out that a d i l u t i o n occurs as d i s c h a r g e increases (Ogden
& Rauch, 1976; Ash & Ehrenzeller, 1983; Meus, 1988; Sesiano,
1989) . However, a direct correlation between discharge and
c h e m i c a l p a r a m e t e r s h a s b e e n f o u n d in s o m e c a s e s (Rossi, 1976;
Crowther, 1989). Complex behavior has been found in some
situations (Bakalowicz, 1979; Miller, 1981). Clearly, some
ions show distinct response to different flow conditions.
Differences i n t h e f r e q u e n c y of s a m p l i n g e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g the
storm flow events can help explain the distinct
interpretations.
Hydrochemical Classification System Using the Trilinear Diagram (Fetter, 1988)
Figure 5.2 Trilinear Diagram Showing the Ranges of Values of all

Sampled Water
65
The general trend for the Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo
Karst is of a dilution of the chemical parameters. Higher
values are found during the dry season, related to increased
residence time during low d i s c h a r g e . The response t i m e s of the
springs are diverse due to variations of type and speed of
water flow. Springs such as M o c a m b o show a faster response in
the physical and chemical parameters. Table 5.13 summarizes
the physical and chemical characteristics of the four
monitored springs.
MOINHO VELHO MOCAMBO JAGUARA POQO AZUL
T RANGE 2 2 . 9 - 23.4 21.9-23.9 22.7 23.2 23.6 - 27.3

MEAN 23.1 22.9 22.9 24.9
SD 0.1 0.7 0.2 1.3
CV 0.6 3.0 1.1 5.1
SpC RANGE 301 319 328 - 361 355 386 328 - 343
MEAN 307 342 364 332
SD 5 11 10 5
CV 2 3 3 2
Ca RANGE 50.2 - 163.3 6 1 . 2 - 181.8 67.7 193.9 58.7 173.7
MEAN 98.8 109.8 118.4 107.5
SD 51.5 56.4 58.0 55.3
CV 52.12 51.3 49.0 51.5
Mg RANGE 2.1 - 2 0 . 4 1.1 12.2 1.0-6.1 1.1 - 2 8 . 6
MEAN 7.2 5.1 3.6 10.0
SD 7.2 3.9 1.8 9.2
CV 99.3 77.3 51.1 92.3
ALK. RANGE 151 - 165 162 - 180 175 - 193 166 - 178
MEAN 157 171 183 172
SD 5 7 7 5
CV 3 4 4 3
CI RANGE < 1 . 0 - 1.3 < 1 . 0 - 1.5 <1.0 <1.0
K RANGE < 1 . 0 - 1.0 <1.0 1.4 <1.0 < 1 . 0 - 1.2
Na RANGE < 1 . 0 - 1.5 < 1 . 0 - 1.2 < 1 . 0 - 1.8 1.2-2.8
so4 RANGE <1.0 <1.0-6.9 < 1 . 0 - 1.7 < 1 . 0 - 1.2
NO, RANGE < 1 . 0 - 1.1 < 1 . 0 - 1.6 <1.0-2.0 <1.0
Table 5.13 Summary of the physical and chemical parameters of the

monitored springs. Range of minimum and maximum values. SD (Standard
Deviation). CV (Coefficient of Variation) in percentage. Temperature in °C.
Specific conductance in microhmo/cm at 25 °C. Other values in mg/1.
66
5.5.1. Temperature
Temperature measurements at Jaguara and Moinho Velho
Springs show a small coefficient of variation. This is
p r o b a b l y r e l a t e d to a f l o w w i t h n o s u r f a c e c o n n e c t i o n s (closed
system). The air temperature variation during the seasons does
not affect the water temperature significantly. On the other
hand, the variation on temperature values of M o c a m b o a n d Pogo
Azul is typical of an open system. According to Bonacci
(1987), w a t e r s w i t h g r e a t v a r i a t i o n of temperature throughout
the y e a r g e n e r a l l y represent turbulent conduit flow. Diffuse
flow shows little variation (Jaguara a n d M o i n h o V e l h o Basins).
The marked increase in the values during summer for Mocambo
S p r i n g s h o u l d b e c r e d i t e d to b o t h h i g h s u m m e r t e m p e r a t u r e s and
small residence time under turbulent conditions, due to the
increase in d i s c h a r g e and water velocities.
5.5.2 pH
T h e u n k n o w n a c c u r a c y of the p H v a l u e s o b t a i n e d precludes
any further consideration.

67
5.5.3 Specific Conductance, Alkalinity and Hardness
The specific conductance is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the total
ion concentration in t h e w a t e r . Jaguara and Mocambo have the
highest mean values. Moinho Velho has the smallest. These
values could be related to drainage basin area or C02
availability. The small size of Moinho Velho Basin gives a
shorter groundwater path. According to O g d e n & Quick (1986),
high specific conductance values mean a higher residence time.
T h e s h o r t e r g r o u n d w a t e r p a t h of M o i n h o V e l h o B a s i n w o u l d allow
less time for water-rock interactions assuming the flow
velocities are similar. The same holds true for alkalinity and
hardness. The other three springs are the outlet of much
larger drainage basins, therefore possessing higher specific
conductance values.
Alkalinity falls in the usual range of karst waters
(Milanovic, 1981) , being similar to v a l u e s obtained in Puerto
Rico and Jamaica (Corbel & M u x a r t , 1 9 7 0 ) . It b e h a v e s inversely
to the hardness, the highest values occuring during the wet
season. Hardness values are inversely related to the
discharge. All four springs have a large variation, indicating
the effect of recharge water on the aquifer. Scanlon (1989)
obtained similar results in Ca-subtype water in the Inner
Bluegrass Region of Kentucky. The hardness dilution data do
not match the temperature data for M o i n h o Velho and Jaguara
Springs. Probably the aquifer that drains these springs has a
small storage capacity, being frequently replenished by runoff

68
water, although the flow is slow enough to allow the
temperature to reach equilibrium with the rock. However,
although the hardness undergoes dilution during the wet
season, the discharge at Moinho Velho Spring was constant
during both seasons. This curious behavior of Moinho Velho
S p r i n g c o u l d b e r e l a t e d to t h e s t o r a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of this
aquifer, holding the incoming recharge water and supplying it
to t h e s p r i n g at a c o n s t a n t r a t e . T h e d i l u t i o n , however, would
occur due to the mixing w i t h the unsaturated recharge water.
M o r e s a m p l i n g a n d d i s c h a r g e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e n e e d e d to p r o v i d e
a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e d y n a m i c s of t h i s d r a i n a g e basin.
Jaguara Spring has the highest mineralization. Moinho Velho
has the smallest values. Magnesium values experience sharp
variations throughout the year.
According to White (1990) , PC02 in the soil of warm
climate regions is maximized in the wet season. The
significant increase in hardness values soon after the wet
season could be attributed not only to the decrease in
discharge but also to t h e i n c r e a s e d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f C 0 2 in the
soil due to p l a n t growth during the wet season. The decrease
in h a r d n e s s values for all springs in t w o samplings made one
month apart in t h e m i d d l e of the dry season can be associated
with the lowering l e v e l s of b i o g e n i c C0 2 c a u s e d b y the lack of
rainfall.
Caue Spring and Olho d'Agua Spring were sampled few
times and showed no significant variation between the wet and
dry seasons. Their small drainage basins are located near

69
urban areas, and they have been highly modified by mining.
Percolation through limestone debris may increase the values
of chemical parameters. A more thorough sampling is needed.
5.5.4 Other Parameters
The series of cations and anions analyzed show that
contaminant levels at all four springs are within acceptable
limits. The maximum levels for Class 1 type water (used for
human consumption with little treatment) by the Brazilian
government are: 250 mg/1 f o r s u l f a t e a n d c h l o r i d e a n d 10 mg/1
for n i t r a t e . The karst water, despite intensive urbanization
and agriculture in m o s t of the recharge zones, is remarkably
clean. BMA (1992) sampled water in the recharge zone of the
Palmeiras-Mocambo Basin. In this study the chemical and
microbiological parameters analysed were turbidity, total
solids, total dissolved solids, hardness, dissolved oxygen,
biochemical oxygen demand, nitrate, phosphate, oil, total
coliforms, fecal coliforms and fecal streptococo. High levels
of total coliforms (>2,400 per 100 ml) and low levels of
dissolved oxygen (minimum of 3.5 mg/1) were found in some
selected points. Except for nitrates, the distinct parameters
studied by BMA (1992) and this writer preclude an immediate
comparison between the water at the recharge and discharge
zones. Nitrate levels were comparatively low for b o t h zones.

70
T h e r e is a m i x e d b e h a v i o r of t h e p a r a m e t e r s a c c o r d i n g to
discharge. Some may undergo dilution during the wet season,
while others may become concentrated in t h e e p i k a r s t and soil
and then be washed through during rains, increasing the
concentration during the wet season (Quinlan & Alexander,
1987). Pogo Azul Spring showed the highest values of sodium,
probably related to concentration due to evaporation at
Sumidouro Lake as well as in o t h e r r e s e r v o i r s along Samambaia
Creek. As expected, the highest levels of sulfate were found
at the Mocambo Spring due to the fact that it drains water
that comes both from t h e c i t y of M a t o z i n h o s and from a large
cement industry. The values at Mocambo Spring are at least
three times higher than t h o s e of the other m o n i t o r e d springs.
Jaguara Spring on the other hand, has some of the lowest
values in sulfate, potassium, sodium and chloride. However,
the values of n i t r a t e at J a g u a r a Spring, although quite low,
remain the highest among the springs, because its catchment
area, a l t h o u g h away from u r b a n centers, has several farms with
intensive agriculture. Mocambo Spring also shows increase in
nitrate levels during the wet season, probably related to the
harvesting cycle.
Caue and Olho d'Agua Springs need additional data. These
springs drain heavily mined areas. The values obtained so far
probably have already been affected by the m i n i n g operations.

71
5.6 Karst Denudation
Corbel (1957) p i o n e e r e d the studies of karst denudation
on a regional scale. Several measurements have been made
throughout the world, although comparatively few were
performed in t r o p i c a l areas, and none in t h e B r a z i l i a n karst.
T h e k a r s t d e n u d a t i o n g i v e s a n i n s i g h t o n t h e r a t e of landscape
lowering for a drainage basin. Smith & Atkinson (1976) and
Atkinson & Smith (1976) found a positive correlation between
d e n u d a t i o n r a t e s a n d r u n o f f . In k a r s t a r e a s the study requires
selective sampling of an outlet for calcium and magnesium,
data about the discharge of the b a s i n (or r u n o f f derived from
precipitation and evaporation), and the drainage b a s i n area.
Although much can be said about possible misassumptions
underlying the m e t h o d (see F o r d & Williams, 1989), it remains
a useful tool for c o m p a r i n g karst e v o l u t i o n in d i f f e r e n t parts
of the world.
Effects of variation in p a l e o c l i m a t e s in the tropical
karst of Brazil are still not well understood. It is likely
that the Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo Karst did not experience
sharp variations in t e m p e r a t u r e d u r i n g Q u a t e r n a r y glaciations,
but wetter periods have occurred in t h e p a s t (Lanari, 1909),
a t t e s t e d b y a n e p i s o d e of m o r e intense speleothem deposition.
Therefore, the general amount of runoff is likely to have
changed somewhat during the evolution of the karst landscape.
The denudation values obtained are preliminary in s c o p e d u e to
the small n u m b e r of w a t e r samples per basin.

72
Drainage in the Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo Karst is
mainly autogenic, although in some portions there are small
areas of p h y l l i t e overlying the limestone (see section 4.4).
In the c a l c u l a t i o n s of d e n u d a t i o n the p h y l l i t e lenses were not
taken in account, due to their small areal extent.
Calculations were performed separately for the identified
drainage basins. A bulk density of 2.5 g/cm3 was assumed for
the limestone. The values of carbonate ions Ca and Mg in the
springs were averaged for the wet and dry periods. Denudation
was calculated for both wet and dry periods, using the
measured discharge for each period. There is an almost even
yearly relation between wet and dry months; thus the results
were averaged, giving the final denudation rate for each
drainage basin. Jaguara Drainage Basin was not included since
most of its catchment surface lies outside the study area.
Caue and Olho d'Agua Springs, located in the final stages of
the thesis, have very little chemical data. No denudation rate
was calculated for these two basins. Table 5.14 gives the
denudation rates for the d r a i n a g e basins.
Samambaia Palmeiras- Moinho
Mocambo Velho
Denudation 10 79 140
Rates
Table 5.14 Denudation rates for selected drainage basins. Values in

millimeters per thousand years.
73
The very low denudation value at Samambaia Drainage
B a s i n is p r o b a b l y l a r g e l y a f f e c t e d b y w a t e r e x p l o i t a t i o n along
its aerial portion. The other drainage basins show more
realistic data, since they have not been substantially
affected by anthropogenic modification. The denudation during
wet periods was higher for Samambaia Basin but lower for
Palmeiras-Mocambo Basin. Considering imprecisions in the
d e l i m i t a t i o n of t h e d r a i n a g e b a s i n s , a d e n u d a t i o n r a t e between
70-150 mm/ka-1 is preliminarily assumed for the Matozinhos-
Pedro Leopoldo Karst. This rate, although high compared with
the fitting curve of A t k i n s o n & Smith (1976), is i n accordance
with rates obtained in o t h e r tropical karst areas such as the
Cave Branch area, Belize (90 m m / k a ) (Miller, 1981), Sarawak
(80 mm/ka) (Day, 1981), Mexico (80-100 mm/ka) (Fish, 1978
quoted by Miller, 1981) or Guilin, China (89.68 mm/ka)
(Sweeting, 1990). A more continuous monitoring is recommended
in o r d e r to r e f i n e the results.
5.7 Conclusions
Diffuse-flow probably predominates in M o i n h o Velho and
Jaguara Springs. Moinho Velho Spring does not show any
significant increase in discharge during the wet season,
although it follows the general trend of hardness dilution.
The temperature also remains fairly constant throughout the
year. The data suggest that these drainage basins do not have
surface exposure sections. Basins with surface sections such

74
as M o c a m b o and Samambaia show higher temperature variations.
In these basins conduit-flow predominates.
The hardness concentrations show a well marked decrease
due to dilution during the summer. Even for springs with
hypothesized diffuse flow there was a marked variation in
calcium, probably related to t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of unsaturated
recharge water, which does not allow the water to become
saturated during the wet season.
The seasonal variation in r u n o f f appears to b e the most
important control over the w a t e r chemistry since it affects
the concentration of the m a j o r ions -- even in springs with
major diffuse flow component, such as Moinho Velho and
Jaguara Springs. Soil C0 2 availability at different seasons
may also b e an important factor.
The low concentration in ions other than calcium and
magnesium are due to t h e a u t o g e n i c n a t u r e of the karst water,
not having significant drainage over rocks other than
l i m e s t o n e . It s h o w s t h a t t h e g r o u n d w a t e r p o l l u t i o n b y chemical
e l e m e n t s is n e g l i g i b l e , d e s p i t e t h e i m p o r t a n t h u m a n occupation
in t h e area.
The denudation r a t e of 7 0 - 1 5 0 m m . k a - 1 a g r e e s with other
estimates from tropical karst areas. A correlation between
drainage basin area and karst denudation rates was not
observed. The wet period tends to show either increase or
decrease in the denudation rates, depending on the drainage

75
b a s i n . T h e a n o m a l o u s l y low results o b t a i n e d at S a m a m b a i a Basin
may be affected by drainage basin degradation.

CHAPTER 6 PALEOHYDROLOGY
Most of the caves in t h e s t u d i e d a r e a a r e d r y , isolated
from present day hydrological processes. They are situated
above the valleys or in the m i d d l e of sinkhole slopes. These
caves are remnants from a past hydrological network that
existed over the area. The analysis of flow marks on cave
w a l l s and ceilings can indicate the flow d i r e c t i o n that formed
the cave. Scallops are small-scale, ripple-like features
commonly found in c a v e s (Goodchild & Ford, 1971). Curl (1974)
gives equations and general rules to f i n d p a s t flow velocity
and flow direction through analysis of scallops. The scallop
l e n g t h is i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d to t h e f l o w v e l o c i t y . Observations
made in 54 d r y caves allowed the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the general
flow direction in these caves and its comparison with the
present day hydrogeology outlined in c h a p t e r 4.
6.1 Methods
Over 3 00 c a v e s have been identified in the Matozinhos-
Pedro Leopoldo Karst. The 54 studied caves do not have a
perennial stream or lake. The only hydrological activity
inside these caves is d r i p p i n g cause by percolation water or
76
77
invasion runoff during severe storms. Some caves have
undergone massive modification by both chemical deposition and
clastic sedimentation. Relict levels of calcified, fine-
g r a i n e d s e d i m e n t s a r e f o u n d i n s i d e m o s t of t h e c a v e s . A cyclic
sequence of sedimentation and outwash appears to have
occurred. Also, the formation of speleothems can mask the
original shape of the conduit. These two types of
modifications change the profile of the cave, making it
difficult to r e c o g n i z e the flow direction.
No radiometric dating has been made in the Matozinhos-
Pedro Leopoldo Karst. Kohler (1989) b e l i e v e s that the genesis
of these caves may have occurred during late Pleistocene. In
the studied sample, the caves m a y have b e c o m e dry at different
periods. Therefore, not being uniform in age, the flow
patterns deduced from the caves may not have occurred
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h e p u r p o s e of t h e s t u d y w a s to c o r r e l a t e past
g r o u n d w a t e r f l o w , r e g a r d l e s s o f its a g e , w i t h t h e p r e s e n t flow
directions.
Curl (1974) d e s c r i b e s the formation of scallops (Figure
6.1). The steeper s l o p e of the scallop indicates the upstream
side. A mechanical device to r e c o r d scallop profiles has been
designed by Lauritzen (1981). In this study, visual
inspections of several sections of cave walls were performed
in a l l caves. The scallops are generally medium sized (around
10 c e n t i m e t e r s ) a l t h o u g h v e r y l a r g e o n e s a r e c o m m o n l y f o u n d at
sites formerly occupied by paleolakes. Small scallops due to
rapid flow were also observed.

DIRECTION OF FLOW
Figure 6.1 Plan View and Lateral Section of Scallops (Bogli, 1980)
79
In most of the caves the walls are smooth, and the
scallops are not well defined. It a p p e a r s t h a t d i s s o l u t i o n by-
water vapor in the cave air or under sediment covering may
have played a role in masking the scallops. In one cave
(Caieiras Cave), primitive human incisions in the cave wall
apparently were weathered, becoming less n o t i c e a b l e closer to
the entrance. Water vapor dissolution is a possible
explanation for this phenomenon. The hot and humid climate m a y
favor this p r o c e s s . Cave passages with their floor covered by
sediment are a very common occurrence. Uniform dissolution
under the sediment may have smoothed the cave walls. Later
sediment removal would have exhumed entire sections of caves.
Caves with active drainage have well defined scallops.
The results obtained were divided into three categories.
In some caves the scallops are not visible at all. In other
caves the flow points to a random direction, suggesting
backflooding or changing directions. These two t y p e s of caves
have a 'undetected paleoflow.' Other caves show nonprominent
scallops, where flow direction was determined with
uncertainty. These caves have a 'poorly defined paleoflow'
direction. Other caves have a 'well defined paleoflow'
d i r e c t i o n t h r o u g h w e l l p r e s e r v e d s c a l l o p s . In s o m e situations,
o t h e r cave features such as ceiling m e a n d e r s , w a l l p o c k e t s and
sediments were used to confirm suspected flow directions.
Table 6.1 shows the flow characteristics in t h e c a v e s studied.
Appendix A shows the location of these caves.

80
Cave Reference number Flow

Galinheiro 1 PD
Entrada Alta 2 PD
Borges 3 PD
Encanacao 4 PD
Bau 5 WD
Varsem 6 WD
Lapmha 1 7 WD
Lapinha II 8 WD
Lapinha III 9 WD
Corredor de Pedra 10 PD
Labirinto Fechado 11 PD
Buraco do Frederico 12 WD
Faustina 13 WD
Boca 14 WD
Itapucu 15 PD
Mifagres 16 WD
Periperi I 17 WD
Periperi II 18 WD
Ballet 19 WD
Chapeu 20 PD
Posoes 21 WD
Paredao dos Pogoes I 22 WD
Paredao dos Pocoes II 23 WD
Escadas 24 WD
Trincheira 25 WD
Lavoura 26 WD
Caieiras 27 PD
Cacimbas 28 WD
Esquecida 29 WD
Vargem da Pedra 30 PD
Forno de Cal 31 WD
Couvelabro 32 PD
Perdidas - U
Tombo - U
Estudantes - U
Tiineis - U
Feiti^o - U
Lapinha - U
Paredao da Lapinha
lO small caves) - U
ifacao Perdido - U
Mortuaria - U
Dois condutos - U
Jiboia - U
Retiro - U
Table 6.1 List of dry caves studied. WD - Well Defined paleoflow, PD

Poorly Defined paleoflow, U - Undetected paleoflow. The latter is not
shown in the figures.
81
Flow direction represented as a single vector was
plotted on a map. Caves, especially in low gradient karst
areas, are known to m e a n d e r . The vector might not represent
the precise direction of p a l e o f l o w since it m i g h t have been
obtained in a nonrepresentative section of the cave.
Therefore, a margin of tolerance should be included with the
acceptance of these values. In a d d i t i o n it m u s t b e n o t e d that
the active groundwater routes have been represented as a
straight line due to t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s of d e f i n i n g the precise
c o u r s e of an u n d e r g r o u n d stream. It m u s t b e a s s u m e d that both
the paleoflow directions and the present day flow routes are
approximations of the actual flow. For the p u r p o s e of general
flow direction comparison, a reasonably good overall picture
can be obtained even with the limitations discussed above.
6.2 Results
The results obtained are described according to the
likely drainage basin. Poorly defined flow direction and well
defined flow direction are not distinguished in the figures.

82
6.2.1 Samambaia Basin
Figure 6.2 shows the paleoflow in this basin. In the
upstream section, the paleoflow of the few caves studied,
Entrada Alta, Borges and Encanagao Caves (No. 2 , 3 a n d 4) match
well the existing underground hydrology. On the other hand,
the d o w n s t r e a m section has some intriguing anomalies, with the
paleoflow not pointing toward the present local base level,
the Samambaia Creek. Some caves point toward the present
regional base level (Velhas River) while others are directed
toward the Mocambeiro Depression to t h e west.
6.2.2 Palmeiras-Mocambo Basin
Figure 6.3 shows the direction of flow in t h e d r y caves
a n a l y z e d . T h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y of t h e p a l e o f l o w in t h i s b a s i n is
concordant with the present day active hydrogeology. In the
upstream section, the flow in all dry caves analyzed agree
with the existing flow directions. The sole exception occurs
in t h e d o w n s t r e a m section for Caieiras Cave (No. 27)
Some caves located in t h e e a s t e r n s i d e o f this drainage
basin may have their paleoflow pointing toward the Mocambeiro
Depression (Figure 6.4).

44° 43® 56'
Figure 6.2 Paleoflow at Samambaia Basin. Refer to Table 6.1 for Cave
Names
44°05' 44° 02'30"
Figure 6.3 Paleoflow at Palmeiras-Mocambo Basin. Refer to Table 6.1

for Cave Names
44°02,30"
CAETANO
LAKE
'PEDRA
LAKE
26
CERCA DE ACHAS
LAKE
M0RR0 REDONDO
CAVE
VARGEM DE
PEDRA LAKE
k
I Km
I
Figure 6.4 Hydrogeological Features and Paleoflow at Mocambeiro

Depression. Refer to Table 6.1 for Cave Names
86
6.2.3 Other Sites
The Moinho Velho Drainage Basin shows one cave, Forno de
Cal Cave (No. 31), with paleoflow direction pointing toward
t h e a c t i v e d r a i n a g e at M o i n h o C a v e , a w a y f r o m t h e M o i n h o Velho
Spring (Figure 6.5).
Couvelabro Cave (no. 32) is a relict cave about 20
m e t e r s a b o v e M a t a C r e e k . S c a l l o p s s h o w t h a t it o n c e discharged
into the creek (Figure 6.6) .
6.3 Discussion
The downstream portion of the Samambaia Basin shows
little concordance between the present day hydrology and the
paleoflow. Bau and Buraco do Frederico Caves (No. 5 and 12)
point toward the Mocambeiro Depression, showing that the
l i m i t s of t h e w a t e r d i v i d e b e t w e e n t h e S a m a m b a i a B a s i n a n d the
Mocambeiro (Caetano?) Basin were perhaps shifted to the east
in t h e p a s t . V a r g e m , Lapinha I, II, III a n d C o r r e d o r d e Pedra
Caves (No. 6 to 10) near the Samambaia Creek have paleoflow
t o w a r d t h e p r e s e n t l o c a t i o n o f V e l h a s R i v e r . It is interesting
to n o t e t h a t e v e n i n s o m e c l i f f s b y t h e s i d e of t h e c r e e k , the
ancient flow in the dry conduits is pointing to another
direction, toward the present Velhas River channel. It seems
likely that the Samambaia Creek did not represent a

43°57'30"
Figure 6.5 Paleoflow at Moinho Velho Basin. Refer to Table 6.1 for
Cave Names
Figure 6.6 Paleoflow at the Margin of Mata Creek. Ten Meter Interval
Surface Contour. Cave Survey by N.A.E.
89
significant base level at the time of g e n e s i s of these caves.
The groundwater paleoflow ignores the p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n of the
creek, flowing toward other basins (Mocambeiro) or straight to
the p r e s e n t location of V e l h a s River.
Galinheiro Cave (No. 1), at the p r o b a b l e headwaters of
Samambaia Creek, used to d i s c h a r g e into the closed basin now
occupied by the Confins Lake. The hydrological behavior of
t h i s l a k e is s t i l l u n k n o w n . It is b e l i e v e d t h a t it f e e d s water
to the Lapa Vermelha I Cave, although no swallet is visible.
The lake level shows little variation throughout the year,
regardless of the rainfall. Galinheiro Cave used to input
w a t e r into the lake. Some hydrological connection to Samambaia
B a s i n is t h e r e f o r e l i k e l y to h a v e e x i s t e d i n t h e p a s t , a n d m a y
exist today.
The dry caves at the Palmeiras-Mocambo Basin show a
concordant paleoflow direction when compared to the active
routes. The general drainage flow pattern does not appear to
h a v e c h a n g e d m u c h in t h a t a r e a . T h e r e is c o n v e r g e n t paleoflow
in t h e u p s t r e a m p o r t i o n a n d m o r e u n i f o r m flow directions with
some tributaries such as C h a p e u C a v e (No.20) in t h e downstream
p o r t i o n . T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e o f a m a j o r a l l o g e n i c paleostream
entering this basin as suggested by Kohler (1989). Evidence
points toward multiple autogenic input points that used to
join forming the ancient drainage.
Both past and present flow within the Moinho Velho Basin
are not related to the active m a j o r spring in the area. This

90
s p r i n g is p r o b a b l y m o r e r e c e n t , n o t r e p r e s e n t i n g the outlet of
the m o r e m a t u r e karst conduits.
6.4 Conclusions
The data suggest that the Palmeiras-Mocambo Basin is a
more mature drainage basin than the S a m a m b a i a B a s i n since its
flow pattern at the time of genesis of today's dry caves
resembles the present f l o w p a t t e r n . S o m e p o r t i o n s of Samambaia
Basin had probably a more recent development. Ancient flow in
the dry caves in the downstream portion of this basin points
toward other active base levels such as the Mocambeiro
Depression and Velhas River.
The general paleounderground flow trend at the
Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo Karst matches well the present
groundwater flow routes. Past groundwater flow used to
d i s c h a r g e a t t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l o c a t i o n of t o d a y ' s V e l h a s River.
Mata Creek was also an important base level.

CHAPTER 7 OVERALL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 Conclusions
The Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo Karst is a well-developed
karst area possessing a well-developed groundwater flow system
and a full r a n g e of all typical karst landforms.
The karst recharge water is b a s i c a l l y autogenic, with a
small contribution from phyllite areas. About 88% of the
identified groundwater flow discharges at Velhas River, the
major base level for the area. The r e m a i n i n g 12% flows toward
Mata Creek.
Samambaia and Palmeiras-Mocambo are the two best
developed drainage basins in t h e a r e a , h a v i n g b o t h underground
and surface sections. Samambaia Creek works as a local base
level, concentrating the flow toward a series of springs along
its margin. Palmeiras Creek has fewer tributaries, flowing
essentially toward Velhas R i v e r . T h e flow in the u p p e r portion
of the study area tends to be faster and turbulent. In the
lower reaches the gentler hydraulic gradient causes slower
phreatic flow to t a k e place.
91
92
Optical brightener and fluorescein had a poor
p e r f o r m a n c e a s w a t e r t r a c e r s in t h i s a r e a , p r o b a b l y d u e to the
characteristics of the B r a z i l i a n optical brightener, as well
a s d u e to a d s o r p t i o n o r p h o t o c h e m i c a l decay for b o t h dyes. The
low p e r f o r m a n c e of the dyes was also caused by the existence
of lakes in s w a l l e t s and springs, causing dye dilution.
Some springs s h o w e v i d e n c e of p r e d o m i n a n t diffuse flow,
s u c h as c o n s t a n t t e m p e r a t u r e and little v a r i a t i o n in discharge
throughout the year. This is the case of Moinho Velho and
Jaguara Springs. However, all springs show a sharp decrease in
hardness during the wet season due to dilution, suggesting
that replenishment by recharge water and/or fast flow during
the rainy season may take place not allowing sufficient time
f o r t h e w a t e r to a c h i e v e s a t u r a t i o n . C o n d u i t f l o w predominates
in t h e m a j o r b a s i n s , such as S a m a m b a i a and Palmeiras-Mocambo.
The annual trend of major ions dilution in all springs is
determined by the seasonal variation in runoff. It affects
both diffuse-flow and conduit-flow springs. Soil C0 2
a v a i l a b i l i t y d u e to t h e r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n m a y a l s o p l a y a role.
Chemical water quality is g o o d for the area.
Samambaia Basin has b e e n heavily exploited by dams and
water pumping. The overall water budget may have been severely
affected.
93
A preliminary denudation rate of 70-150 mm/ka1 obtained by
four drainage basins is concordant with values from other
tropical karst areas.
Paleoflow studies indicate that the downstream section
of Samambaia Basin used to discharge to the east, toward
V e l h a s R i v e r o r to t h e w e s t t o w a r d M o c a m b e i r o D e p r e s s i o n . The
present hydrological features located downstream, such as
Sumidouro Lake, are possibly more recent. Palmeiras-Mocambo
Basin paleoflow has changed little since the time of
speleogenesis of the dry caves.
The general pattern of groundwater circulation in the
Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo Karst in the past shows that flow
evolution and cavern genesis have been controlled by Velhas
River and Mata Creek, similarly to t h a t occurring today.
7.2 Recommendations for Further Research
This thesis represents a first characterization of the
karst hydrology of the Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo region. It
was a generic study of a very large area. Other research
focusing on more specific topics and encompassing smaller
areas would increase the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the active and past
processes envolved in t h e g e n e s i s of this karst area.

94
Some important underground drainage connections were not
traced successfully. The hypothetical hydrological connections
between Lapa Vermelha swallet and Samambaia Spring as well as
between Sumidouro Lake and P050 Azul Spring, among others,
need to be confirmed. A tracing experiment during
exceptionally dry years would avoid the major problem of dye
dilution in the lakes. Minor swallets or even dry sinkholes
could be traced during the wet season or storm events. This
additional data would help increase the accuracy of the
delineated drainage basins and provide data on other
nondetected underground drainage basins.
The cause of the p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e of optical brightener
and fluorescein in t h e a r e a (and a l s o in o t h e r tropical areas
throughout the world) have not been determined. An
investigation on the flow behavior of these dyes in tropical
karst areas would be of interest of hydrogeologists. Also,
other tracing techniques best suited for tropical conditions
should be attempted.
A more detailed monitoring of the karst springs should
be performed. Data-loggers running through an entire
hydrological cycle and detailing the flow and hydrochemical
variation during storm events would provide a much improved
view of the subsurface hydrological processes. Groundwater
quality periodical sampling should be continued. Bacterial
data and additional biological parameters should be included
in t h e analysis.
95
Dating of the cave sediments by some of the several
methods available (uranium series disequilibrium, ESR,
paleomagnetism, among others) would represent a quantum leap
in d e t e r m i n i n g the timescales of karst development and would
h e l p in b u i l d i n g a c h r o n o l o g i c a l sequence for the evolution of
the M a t o z i n h o s - P e d r o Leopoldo Karst.

Appendix A
LOCATION OF FEATURES DESCRIBED IN T H E TEXT
CAVES LATITUDE LONGITUDE
Agua de Matozinhos 19 ° 3 3 ' 2 2 " S 4 4 0 0 4 ' 3 0" W

1 44°00'06" W
Agua Fria 19 ° 3 4 4 9 " S
1 W
Agua Surda 19 ° 2 9 5 1 " S 44°03'20"
Ballet 19°31'56" S 4 4 ° 0 3 ' 3 5" W
Bau 19 ° 3 3 ' 1 2 " S 43°59'24" W
Boca 19 ° 3 3 • 0 7 " S 44 0 04'04" W
0
Bomba 19 ° 3 3 " 2 0 " S 44 03'37" W
1 0
Bom Jardim 19 ° 3 2 5 7 " S 44 0 4 ' 0 9 " W
Borges 19°35'20" S 44 0 00'32" W
Buraco do Frederico 19 ° 3 2 ' 2 6 " S 43 0 5 8 ' 2 6 " W
Cacimbas 19 °3 0 ' 1 4 " S 4 4 ° 0 3 ' 3 6" W
Caieiras 19 ° 3 0 ' 2 9 " S 44°03'23" W
Chapeu 19°31'50" S
0
44 0 3 ' 1 4 " w
Corredor de Pedra 19 ° 3 3 ' 0 8 " S 43°56'59" w
Couvelabro 19 ° 4 1 • 5 3 " S 43°53'44" w
Curral 19°32,34" S 43°59'25" w
Dois Condutos
1
19 ° 3 1 4 8 " S 43058'44" w
Encanagao 19°35'05" S 44 0 00'34" w
Entrada Alta 19 °3 5 ' 5 1 " S 43 ° 5 9 ' 0 7 " w
Escadas 19°30'59" S 44°04'05" w
Esquecida 19°30'04" S 44 0 0 3 ' 0 5 " w
Estudantes 19 ° 3 1 ' 2 8 " S 44°03'26" w
Facao Perdido 19 ° 3 1 ' 4 7 " S 44 0 02'57" w
Faustina 19 ° 3 3 ' 0 2 " S 44004>42" w
Feitigo 19°33'36" S 43 0 5 7 ' 3 5" w
Forno de Cal I 9 0 3 9 .44.. S 43°57'21" w
Foto Aerea 19 ° 2 9 ' 3 0" s 44°03,46" w
Frances 19°32'45" s 43°58'46" w
Freatica 19°30'05" s 44°03'24" w
Galinheiro 19°38'00" s 43°58'06" w
Itapucu 19 ° 3 2 ' 0 1 " s 44 0 04'01" w
Jiboia 19°31'26" s 44 0 02'58" w
Labirinto Fechado 19 ° 3 3 ' 0 9 " s 43°56'59" w
Lapa Vermelha I 19 °3 6 ' 4 2 " s 43°59'44" w
Lapinha 19°33'40" s 43 ° 5 7 ' 3 0 " w
Lavoura 19°31'27" s 44 0 02'14" w
Milagres 19°32'01" s 44 0 04'01" w
96
c
Moinho 19 °39 4 9 " S 43 ° 57 '19" W

Morro Redondo 19 °32 0 7 " S 4 4 ° 02 ' 5 3 " W
Mortuaria 19 °3 8 '21" S 43 °58 '46" W
Paredao da Lapinha I 19 °33 '38" S 43 ° 57 ' 4 8 " W
Paredao da Lapinha II 19 °33 '38" S 43 °57 '48" W
Paredao da Lapinha III 19 °33 '39" S 43 °57 '48" W
Paredao da Lapinha 19 °33 '38" S 43 °57 '48" w
(10 o t h e r small caves)
Paredao de Pogoes I 19 °31 •36" S 44 ° 03 '12" w
Paredao de Pogoes II 19 °31 •31" S 4 4 ° 03 ' 05" w
Paredaozao 19 °36 1 0 " S 43 °59 ' 09" w
Perdidas 19 °31 •29" S 4 4 ° 03 0 7 " w
Periperi I 19 °31 5 9 " S 4 4 ° 03 '49" w
Periperi II 19 °32 0 1 " S 4 4 ° 03 •42" w
Perobas 19 °32 3 1 " S 4 4 ° 04 •21" w
Pogoes 19 °31 4 3 " S 4 4 ° 03 1 4 " w
Retiro 19 °3 9 4 9 " S 43 ° 57 0 7 " w
Tombo 19 °30 0 7 " S 4 4 ° 0 1 '42" w
Trincheira 19 °31 2 7 " S 4 4 ° 02 5 9 " w
Tuneis 19 °33 4 0 " S 43 °57 3 7 " w
Varzea 19 °34 0 5 " S 43 °56 5 2 " w
Vargem da Pedra 19 °32 4 0 " S 4 4 ° 0 1 •21" w
SPRINGS
Caue 19 ° 37 1 4 " S 44 ° 01 04" w

Debris 19 °32 4 8 " S 4 4 ° 04 2 0 " w
Engenho 19 °34 5 0 " S 43 °59 07" w
Gameleira 19 °33 0 2 " S 43 ° 57 4 8 " w
Horta Palestina 19 °32 5 9 " S 43 ° 5 8 01" w
Jaboticatuba's Olho d'Agua 19 °31 1 3 2 " S 43 ° 55 2 3 " w
Jaguara 19 °29 3 5 " s 4 4 ° 00 5 3 " w
Lagoa da Mata 19 °32 1 9 " s 43 ° 55 1 5 " w
Mocambo 1
19 °30 2 8 " s 44 ° 01 50" w
Moinho Velho 19 °3 9' 5 3 " s 43 °57 2 4 " w
Olho d'Agua 19 °41' 3 0 " s 43 °53 1 5 " w
Palestina 19 °32 5 8 " s 43 ° 57 5 8" w
Pogo Azul 19 °32 1 5 " s 43 °55 2 5 " w
Samambaia 19 °35 1 1 " s 43 °59 08" w
Sitio Santo Antonio 19 °35 4 3 " s 4 4 ° 03 06" w
98
OTHER FEATURES
Baldo Swallet 19 °33 0 4 " S 43 ° 5 6 ' 0 7 " W

Ballet Sinkhole 19 °31' 59" S 44 ° 03 ' 3 0 " W
Bom Jardim Swallet 19 °32 4 4 " S 44 ° 04 ' 0 3 " w
Caetano Spring and Swallet 19 °311 09" S 44 ° 00 • 5 6 " w
Captagao Swallet 19 °32' 44" S 44 ° 04 • 2 5 " w
Chacara Sinkhole 19 °32' 46" S 43 °59 • 4 7 " w
Cocho d'Agua Karst Window 19 ° 3 4 ' 3 8" S 44 ° 00 ' 0 0 " w
Goiaba Swallet 19 ° 3 3 ' 08" S 43 0 5 6 ' 5 2 " w
Milagres Sinkhole 19 °32' 01" S 44 ° 04 ' 0 1 " w
Palmeiras Swallet 19 °31' 49" S 44 ° 04 ' 2 0 " w
Pogoes Lagoons Swallet 19 °31' 19" S 44 ° 03 ' 0 7 " w
Pogoes Cave Swallet 19 °31' 43" S 44 ° 03 • 1 4 " w
Sacota Sinkhole 19 °32' 01" S 44 0 03 • 4 2 " w
Sumidouro
Ze Irene
Lake
Sinkhole
Swallet 19
19
°32' 29"
° 2 9 ' 57"
S
S 44 0 03 .07..
43 ° 5 6 • 3 1 " w
w
Appendix B
L I S T OF D Y E T R A C E S PERFORMED
I- I n p u t p o i n t
R- R e c e p t o r
N- N e g a t i v e r e s u l t
P- Positive result
October 11, 1991 Background dye
Mocambo Creek (N)

Samambaia Creek (N)
November 10, 1991 1.5 kg of fluorescein
IP - Morro Redondo Cave
R1 - Mocambo Spring (N)

R2 - Jaguara Spring (N)
December 5, 1991 3.5 kg of o p t i c a l brightener
IP - Sumidouro Lake
R1 - Pogo Azul Spring (N)

R2 - Lagoa da Mata Spring (N)
R3 - Jaboticatuba's Olho d'Agua (detector not found)
December 5, 1991 1 kg of fluorescein
IP - Baldo Swallet
R1 - Pogo Azul Spring (N)

R2 - Lagoa da Mata Spring (N)
R3 - Jaboticatuba's Olho d'Agua (detector not found)
99
100
December 5, 1991 1.7 kg of o p t i c a l brightener
IP - Pogoes Swallet

February 16, 1992 250 g of fluorescein
IP - Moinho Cave
R1 - Moinho Velho Spring (N)
April 1, 1992 800 g of fluorescein
IP - Palmeiras Swallet
R1 - Milagres Spring (P)

R2 - Sacota Spring (P)
R3 - Ballet Spring (N)
June 30, 1992 2 . 5 k g of fluorescein
IP - Bom Jardim Lake Swallet
R1 - Sacota Spring (N)

R2 - Ballet Spring (P)
R3 - Pogoes Lagoons (P)
R4 - Mocambo Spring (P)
June 30, 1992 2 k g of o p t i c a l brightener
IP - Sacota Swallet
R1 - Ballet Spring (detector not found)

R2 - Pogoes Lagoons (N)
101
July 27, 1992 2 . 5 k g of fluorescein
IP - Sacota Swallet
R1 - M o c a m b o S p r i n g (P)
R2 - P o g o e s L a g o o n s (P)
R3 - B a l l e t S p r i n g (P)
R4 - P o g o e s S p r i n g (P)
July 30, 1992 300 g of fluorescein
IP - Captagao Swallet
Visual observation at Bom Jardim Lake
November 24, 1992 500 g of fluorescein
IP - Frances Hole
R1 - Palestina Spring (P)
November 25, 1992 500 g of fluorescein
IP - Curral Cave
R1 - Frances Hole (P)
February 15, 1993 700 g of fluorescein
IP - Agua Fria Cave
R1 - Cocho d'Agua Karst Window (P)

R2 - E n g e n h o S p r i n g (P)
102
February 15, 1993 3.5 kg of optical brightener
IP - Cocho d'Agua Karst Window
R1 - Engenho Spring (N)
May 5, 1993 210 g of fluorescein
IP - Moinho Cave
R1 - Moinho C r e e k u p s t r e a m (N)
R2 - Moinho C r e e k u p p e r m i d d l e (N)
R3 - Moinho C r e e k l o w e r m i d d l e (N)
R4 - Moinho C r e e k d o w n s t r e a m (N)
May 12, 19 93 2 kg of fluorescein
IP - Ze Irene Karst Window

R2 - Mocambo Spring (P)
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Western Kentucky University

Hydrogeological and Hydrochemical

the Faculty of the D e p a r t m e n t of G e o g r a p h y and Geology

Western Kentucky University

Bowling Green, Kentucky

of the Requirements for the Degree

MATOZINHOS-PEDRO LEOPOLDO KARST, BRAZIL

Director of Graduate Studies Date

During the extensive field work, I received substantial

Chapter 2 Natural Setting 5

Chapter 3 The Karst Terrain 12

Chapter 4 Water Tracing 23

Chapter 7 Overall Conclusions and Recommendations 91

Appendix B List of D y e T r a c e s Performed 99

1.1 Location of the Study A r e a 2

4.3 Groundwater Routes and Hydrogeological

4.1 Discharge Measurements at M a j o r Springs . 28

Augusto S. A u l e r November, 1994 110 Pages

Directed by: Dr. Nicholas Crawford, Dr. Christopher

Groves, and Dr. Kenneth Kuehn

Department of G e o g r a p h y and Geology

Western Kentucky University

The Matozinhos-Pedro Leopoldo limestone area is a tropical

karst located near the metropolis of Belo Horizonte, East

Central Brazil, in a n a r e a u n d e r g o i n g rapid urbanization and

land degradation. Qualitative dye tracing experiments have

determined the groundwater routes and catchment areas in the

two major drainage basins in the area, Samambaia Basin and

Palmeiras-Mocambo Basin. Other drainage basins were

identified, but not traced due to the absence of related

swallets. Fluorescein and optical brightener had a poor

the existance of lakes at some swallets prevented some dye

entirely autogenic, having a small external contribution from

identified springs drains directly toward Velhas River, the

regional base level. The remaining 12% drains toward Mata

Creek, a tributary of the V e l h a s River.

that groundwater quality for the m e a s u r e d parameters in the

discharge zone is generally good, despite the heavy

industrialization and occupation in some of the recharge

areas. Conduit flow predominates in S a m a m b a i a and Palmeiras-

Mocambo Basins. The outlets for these basins show a marked

seasonal variation in the physical and chemical parameters

monitored. Some of the other springs such as Moinho Velho

Spring and Jaguara Spring show little variation in

temperature, suggesting a diffuse flow component. All springs

are characterized by hardness dilution during the wet season,

suggesting a small residence time during the wet season, not

allowing the water to a c h i e v e saturation. Seasonal variation

in r u n o f f is the most important control on the hydrochemical

pattern of the area. It determines the marked dilution of

major ions in both conduit-flow and diffuse-flow springs.

Variation in soil C0 2 due to the rainfall pattern may also

play an important role in t h e w a t e r chemistry.

Observation of p a l e o f l o w indicators made in s e v e r a l dry caves

showed that the past flow pattern at Palmeiras-Mocambo Basin

agrees with the present groundwater routes. At Samambaia

Basin, however, the lower reaches of the b a s i n show paleoflow

directions pointing toward other active base levels such as

Mocambeiro Depression or Velhas River, suggesting that

Samambaia Basin may have developed its p r e s e n t m o r p h o l o g y in

The study of karst terrains has had a slow development

in B r a z i l during the past 160 y ears. The same cannot be said

about the urban development. The high population growth has