PEM Contents 6 8

1
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No. __6___
TOPIC/S
NON- FERROUS METALS
I. EXPECTED COMPETENCIES
Upon completion of this material you should be able to do the following:

1. Identify the different kinds of non-ferrous metals.
2. Discuss the uses of different non-ferrous metals.
3. Determine their properties and application.
II. CONTENT / TECHNICAL INFORMATION
Non- ferrous metals include all metal elements and alloys that are not based on iron. They
cover a wide range of materials, including the most commonly used metals such as aluminum,
copper, and magnesium to high-strength, high temperature alloys of tungsten, tantalum, and
molybdenum. Non- ferrous metals and alloys have important engineering applications
primarily because of their resistance to corrosion, high strength-to-weight ratio, and high
electrical and thermal conductivity.
Here are some examples of non-ferrous metals with their properties, uses, and application.
GOLD
Figure 1: Gold
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold)
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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Gold is a precious, heavy, beautiful, bright yellow metal. Grains and nuggets of gold
are found in river gravels and sands of the seashore. Gold is also found in rocks in the form of
gold ore. Pure gold is too soft for articles of general use and it is therefore mixed with copper,
silver, or other metals.
Gold can be hammered into very thin leaves, called gold leaf, much thinner than the
thinnest paper. The art of covering something with gold leaf or gold powder is called gilding.
One pound of gold can be made into a wire one mile long.
Gold is used for ornamental work, jewelry, coins, and fillings in teeth. United States
gold coins were made of 90% gold and 10% copper. The purity of gold is measured in karats.
Pure gold is 24 karats. Thus, an 18-karat gold ring is made of 18 parts by weight of gold and 6
parts by weight of some other metal. Jewelers abbreviate karat as “k”; for example, 14k gold.
They use the spelling carat for the weight of precious stones. White gold, a silvery metal used
for jewelry, is 15% to 20% nickel added to gold, thus changing the color from gold to white.
Green gold has a greenish cast and is used for jewelry. The 15-karat green gold, for example,
is 15 parts gold, 8 parts silver, and 1 part copper.
SILVER
Figure 2: Silver
(https://www.sacredsource.com.au/blog/silver-coloured-crystals/)
Silver is a beautiful, shiny, white metal. It is found in the form of silver ore. Pure silver
is soft. It is used for ornamental works, jewelry, tableware, mirrors, and coins. United States
silver coins formerly contained nine parts of silver and one part copper. Silver is the best carrier
of electricity.
Sterling silver is silver with only a little copper added to make it harder. It is used for
the best tableware and jewelry. German silver is made of copper, zinc, and nickel; it does not
contain silver.
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TITANIUM
Figure 3: Titanium
(https://solidengineers.nl/titaan/)
Titanium is a silvery white metal with high strength and heat resistance. It weighs about
44% less than steel alloys, yet its tensile strength is equal to or greater than common structural
alloys. Temperatures up to 800˚ F. do not weaken the metal and it will tolerate up to 2000˚ F.
for short periods of time. Because of these properties, it is used for many supersonic aircraft
parts, materials for aerospace applications (aircraft, jet engine, and missile components),
marine, racing car, chemical, and petrochemical equipment components.
Titanium is relatively inert and is used to replace bone and cartilage in surgery. It is
also used as a liner for pipes and tanks in the food-processing industries. Titanium dioxide is a
bright white pigment used in the ceramics and rubber industries, and it is rapidly replacing the
poisonous white lead pigment used in paints.
ZINC AND ITS ALLOYS
Figure 4: Zinc
(https://globemetal.com/why-recycling-zinc-improves-your-bottom-line/)
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Zinc is a brittle, bluish white metal. It is used as a coating for iron and steel for
protection against rust. This coating with zinc is called galvanizing and is done by dipping the
metal into melted zinc. As the zinc cools, it forms into crystals which make the spotted color
on galvanized steel. Galvannealed metal is heated after being galvanized, producing a coating
of alloyed zinc and iron or steel. These coated metals are used for wire fences, eave troughs,
metal roofing, water tanks, water pipes, buckets, automobile frames, signs, etc.
Zinc is also used in German silver, brass, and dry cell batteries. Like copper and brass,
zinc hardens when hammered. It can be softened by heating and slow cooling. Zinc-based
alloys are also widely used in producing die castings for items such as engine blocks for small
gas engines, housings for small engines, carburetors, parts of typewriters, car door handles, and
parts of portable electric tools.
Zinc alloys are primarily used for die casting of components for automobile and
appliance industries. It is also alloyed with lead and tin to make solder.
ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS
Figure 5: Aluminum
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium)
Aluminum is a brilliant, silvery white metal. It is one of our most useful metals.
Although it costs four or five times as much per pound as iron or steel, it weighs only about
one-third as much. It machines much faster (two to three times deeper cuts at double speeds).
It cost less to transport, usually needs no finish to prevent rusting, is quite maintenance free,
and has a natural surface beauty. It is also a good conductor of electricity and heat, yet reflects
heat when highly polished. Thus, it may be more economical than other metals when all things
are considered.
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Aluminum melts at about 1200˚ F. and is cast in molds when 100˚ to 300˚ above that.
As this is about one-half the temperature required for iron or steel, aluminum is preferred for
casting in schools or other situations where initial equipment cost and safety are important.
Aluminum Alloys
Other metals are often added to the pure aluminum to improve its physical properties.
Industry uses many varieties of aluminum alloys. These are formed by using various methods
of tempering or hardening the metal. The tensile strength for various aluminum alloys may
range from 13,000 to 81,000 pounds per square inch. In table four typical alloys are compared
with soft and hardened steel.
Figure 6: Table of physical properties of aluminums

(Source: Metalwork Technology and Practice, p- 162)
Aluminum Association Alloy Designation
In 1954 the Aluminum Association adopted a standard alloy designation system. In the
A.A. number, the first digit identifies the major alloying element as follows: 1- 99% pure
aluminum or better, 2- copper, 3- manganese, 4- silicon, 5- magnesium, 6- magnesium and
silicon, 7- zinc, 8- other elements, 9 is special. These are the main alloying metals. Refer to the
footnote on the table (physical properties of aluminum) showing the composition of each alloy.
COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS
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Figure 7: Copper
(https://www.techexplorist.com/copper-catalysts-better-gain-lose-oxygen-atoms/33884/)
Copper is the oldest metal known to man. It is tough, reddish brown metal. As found in
copper mines, located in Arizona, Michigan, Montana, and Utah, it is known as copper ore. It
is sold in the form of wire, bars, plates, and sheets.
Copper is the second-best carrier of electricity; silver is the best. Copper is used for
electric, telephone, and telegraph wires and cables. It is also used for water heaters, wash
boilers, pipes, kettles, window and door screens, roofing etc.
Figure 7.1: Copper Wire

(https://www.channelpartnersonline.com/2020/06/29/verizon-copper-retirement-planned-in-numerous-states/)
In art metalwork, copper is used for bowls, vases, ashtrays, etc. Copper is also used in
brass, bronze, monel metal, and German silver (which contains about 50% copper, 30% zinc,
and 20% nickel). German silver is used as a substitute for silver in making inexpensive jewelry.
Many beautiful copper articles for the home can be made in the school shop or at home by
hammering or spinning. The surface of copper becomes green in most air. This may be seen
on copper which has not been cleaned for some time. Copper hardens when hammered but can
easily be softened or annealed.
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III. PROGRESS CHECK

Identify the term being asked and write your answer on the space provided
before the number.
__________1. It is brittle, bluish white metal, and used as a coating for iron and steel for
protection against rust.
__________2. 1100 − 03 contains how many percent of aluminum?
__________3. A non-ferrous metal which is used for tableware and jewelry.
__________4. Non-ferrous metal contains all metal elements and alloys except ______.
__________5. These are formed by using various methods of tempering or hardening the
metal.
__________6. This material is known for second best carrier of electricity and conductivity.
__________7. This kind of metal is used for aerospace application and materials.
__________8. A term used for the weight of precious stones.
__________9. A substituted material used in making inexpensive jewelries.
__________10. It is produced as a coating of alloyed zinc and iron or steel.
IV. REFERENCES
Ludwig, Oswald A., McCarthy, Willard J., Repp, Victor E., (1975) Metalwork Technology
and Practice, McKnight Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois
Choudhury, S K, Lal, G K, (Copyright 2005) Fundamentals of Manufacturing Processes,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India
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LEARNING GUIDE
Week No. __7___
TOPIC/S
PLASTIC
1. Identify the different types of plastics.
2. Discuss the plastic raw materials and production.
3. Determine their uses, properties, and characteristics of plastics.
Plastics are organic solids (natural or synthetic resins, or their compounds) that can be
made to flow easily by heat or by pressure or by a combination of both to form definite shapes.
Plastics (derived from the Greek word, plastikes, means it can be moulded and shaped) find
wide application in consumer and industrial products because of their unique and diverse
properties. Plastics are light in weight, with an average specific gravity of 1.4, which makes
these materials suitable for producing light-weight components used in automobiles, air crafts,
and sporting goods. Although tensile strength of some plastics is low, their strength-to-weight
ratio is often comparable with heat treated alloy steels and titanium alloys.
Plastics come in many different forms. They appear in products as unlike as boats or
toasters. They are found as film and sheeting, fibers and filaments, liquids and adhesives, or
molding pellets and powders. Plastics are combined in various ways so that often the range of
properties among the various formulations within a given family may be greater than the range
of basic properties among different plastics.
The official definition of plastics accepted by the Society of Plastics Engineers (SPE)
and the Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI) is a large and varied group of materials which
consist of or contain as an essential ingredient a substance of high molecular weight which,
while solid in the finished state, at some stage of its manufacture is soft enough to be formed
into various shapes- most usually through the application (either singly or together) of heat and
pressure.”
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CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS
The very large number of plastics available is often difficult to comprehend. The same
plastic may appear in many different forms. A given plastic may be called by several different
trade names. The same trade name may be applied to more than one plastic. However, each of
this vast variety of materials can be placed into one of two groups as regards its thermal
properties: thermoplastics and thermosets.
Figure 1: Structure of Thermoplastics and Thermostats

(https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Molecular-Structure-of-Thermoplastic-and-Thermoset-Polymers-
8_fig2_329156276)
The Thermoplastic Family

The thermoplastic plastics become soft when exposed to heat and harden when cooled
no matter how often the process is repeated. By alternate heating and cooling they can be
reshaped many times. They may be compared to wax in this respect. When heated they are
mold-able; when cooled they are rigid, but upon reheating they once again become pliable.
Important members of this group are acrylics, cellulosics, nylon, polystyrene, polyethylene,
fluorocarbons, and vinyls. Below are some of the properties:
⚫ Acetal Plastics- known as excellent electrical insulators. The important feature

for many applications is that this property is maintained at relatively high
temperatures and in humid conditions.
Figure 2: Acetal Gear Plastic

(https://www.aetnaplastics.com/products/d/Acetal)
10
⚫ Acrylic Plastics- are non-conductors of direct current and of AC at power

frequencies. They are unsuitable for high frequency insulation, however. They
have excellent arc resistance.
Figure 3: Transparent Acrylic Plastic

(https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/transparent-acrylic.html)
⚫ Cellulosic Plastics- are lightweight plastics with specific gravities of 1.15 to 1.39.
They possess relatively high tensile, compressive, and impact strengths.
Figure 4: Cellulose Nanofibre

(https://www.twosides.info/UK/cellulose-nanofibre-the-new-alternative-to-plastic/)
⚫ Fluorocarbon Plastics- are among the heaviest of all plastics with specific
gravities of 2.1 and 2.3. They have outstanding electrical insulating properties
which remain essentially constant regardless of temperature, frequency, and
humidity.
Figure 5: Flexible bellows of “Teflon” Fluorocarbon

(https://www.gtpl-ptfelining.com/ptfe-expansion-bellow-manufacturer-exporter.html)
11
⚫ Polyamide Plastics (Nylon)- nylons are among the lighter plastics with specific
gravities of 1.09 to 1.14. They are expensive plastics and more difficult to
mold than most. For these reasons, they are unlikely to be used unless the
application requires their peculiar combination of properties.
Figure 6: Polyamide Nylon (toothbrush)

(https://matmatch.com/learn/material/polyamide-nylon)
⚫ Polyolefin Plastics (Polyethylene and Polypropylene)- polyethylene is among

the lightest of plastics with a specific gravity of 0.92. In very thin sections, it is
flexible but as a thick material, quite rigid.While polypropylene are similar to
those polyethylene but it is generally more heat resistant and has greater strength
in spite of the fact that it is lighter in weight with a specific gravity of 0.90.
Figure 7: Materials used by Polyolefin Plastics

(https://www.ptonline.com/hashtag/polyolefins)
⚫ Styrene Plastics- these materials are the lightest of all rigid plastics with specific
gravities ranging from 0.98 to 1.1. They are fairly hard and rigid but tend to be
brittle.
Figure 8: Square tube styrene plastic strip

(https://dorspring.co.uk/products/square-tube-styrene-strip-section-architecture-model-making-3mm-10mm-size)
12
⚫ Vinyl Plastics- are light to medium in weight with specific gravities from 1.1 to
1.65. Flexible vinyls have almost no compressive strength, and medium tensile
strength. They stretch considerably, however, and are difficult to tear.
Figure 9: Vinyl Plastic Ziplock Pouches

(https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/vinyl-plastic-ziplock-pouches_383815266.html)
The Thermoset Family

The thermosetting plastics, thermosets, are set or cured into a permanent shape by heat
and once set cannot be remelted and returned to their original state. They do not necessarily,
however, retain their hardness at extreme heats. Most soften somewhat at temperatures above
350 deg F., but they will not return to their original flow condition. The reaction may be
compared to that of boiling an egg. When heat is applied, the liquid mass is solidified, and
subsequent heating does not re-soften the egg. Prominent members of this group of plastics are
phenolics, aminos, polyesters, epoxies, and alkyds. Below are some of the properties:
⚫ Amino Plastics (Urea and Melamine)- are a little heavier than the average for
plastics, with specific gravities ranging from 1.47 to 1.55. They possess average
tensile strength and exceptional compressive and flexural strength.
Figure 10: Melamine Urea Formaldehyde Resin

(https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/melamine-urea-formaldehyde-resin-4110712030.html)
13
⚫ Casein Plastics- are about average in weight for plastics with a specific gravity
of 1.35. Casein moldings exhibit high impact strength and resist compressive and
flexural forces very well.
Figure 11: Casein plastic buttons

(https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co8663030/casein-plastic-buttons-button)
⚫ Epoxy Plastics- are medium-weight plastics with specific gravities of 1.11 to 1.8.
They possess relatively high tensile, compressive, and impact strength. Epoxies
have excellent electrical resistance. They have low power-loss factors and good
arc resistance.
Figure 12: Epoxies can do “Impossible” repairs

(https://www.loctiteproducts.com/en/know-how/build-things/epoxy.html)
⚫ Phenolic Plastics- are medium-weight plastics with specific gravities of 1.25 to

1.55. They are among the hardest of plastics. They possess only average tensile
strength but have have compressive strength.
Figure 13: Phenolic Molded Grill Handle

(https://www.woodlandplastics.com/grill-handle-appliance-industry.html)
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⚫ Polyester Plastics- polyester resin itself has a specific gravity of 1.3. They are
good insulators of low-frequency currents. They possess some shortcomings as
high-frequency insulators.
Figure 14: Polyester and Recycled Polyester Plastic Bottles

(https://ethicallysustained.wordpress.com/2013/05/08/polyester-and-recycled-polyester/)
⚫ Silicone Plastics- silicone molding compounds are rather heavy plastics with
specific gravities ranging from 1.6 to 2.0. Many silicones are used in liquid form,
but moldings of the resin exhibit medium to high tensile, compressive, and
flexural strengths.
Figure 15: Silicone watch bond

(https://www.hotformed.com/what-materials-do-watch-band-usually-use/)
⚫ Urethane Plastics- urethane resins are light in weight with a specific gravity of
1.15 to 1.20. Foams weighing as little as 1.5 pounds per cubic foot have been
produced. Urethane electrical properties are excellent and allow fine transmission
of radar, radio, and x-ray waves.
Figure 16: Urethane Rollers

(https://plantech.com/urethane-rollers/)
15
HOW PLASTICS ARE MADE

Although plastics are synthetics, they are made from many common natural materials
such as wood, air, water, petroleum, natural gas, and salt. Complex chemical reactions are used
to produce a great variety of plastics by slightly modifying the processes and ingredients.
Ingredients of Plastics
Most plastics are identified by their principal constituent which is a resin. Other
materials are present as well, such as fillers, solvents, plasticizers, and colorants. A resin or
binder serves to bind the plastic together and to impart some of the principal characteristics to
the material. The plastic is usually named by the resin involved. The resin determines whether
a plastic is thermosetting or thermoplastic. Most plastics make use of a filler before being
processed into finished products. Many materials are used as fillers. Wood flour gives good
surface appearance and excellent electrical properties. Asbestos provides resistance to acid and
fire.
Many resins are hard and brittle in their natural state, though some are soft and tacky.
All of them must be made fluid and their particles must weld together. The solvent serves this
function. Over 300 solvents are used for various plastics. Many plastic resins possess high
viscosity and are rather stiff in final form. Plasticizers are used to lower viscosity at high
processing temperatures and to impart plasticity to the final product. Plastics are subjected to
heat and light during processing and in service. Stabilizers are often added to prevent
degradation by heat, light, and aging.
Figure 17: Binders or Resin (Coating Ingredients)

(https://www.coatings.com.sg/binders-and-resins/)
Visual Examination of Plastics:

1. Rigidity
2. Colour
3. Density
4. Feel, Texture, and Appearance
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PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS
The general properties of many materials are understood by the layman. Most people
know that wood burns and that most metals do not, that iron rusts and glass does not, that
rubber is elastic and paper tears when stretched. The properties of plastics are not commonly
known and appreciated. The same person who would not be surprised that a drinking glass
breaks if dropped on the floor often complains of an inferior product if a plastic toy is smashed
when stepped on.
Plastics is the designation of a large group of materials. Various members of the group
have widely varying properties just as various members of the metal’s family have different
properties. There are some general properties that are quite characteristic of the plastics family,
however. These have been divided into physical, electrical, thermal, and chemical properties.
A. Physical Properties
1. Weight- most plastics are relatively light in weight. A few, such as polyethelene,
will float in water.
2. Hardness- is a very general term and usually represents a combination of more or
less related properties.
3. Tensile Strength- is the ability of a material to resist a pulling force.
4. Compressive Strength- is the ability of a material to resist crushing when a
squeezing force is applied to it.
5. Impact Strength- is the ability of a material to resist sharp blows or shocks.
6. Creep and Cold Flow- when a material is subjected to a stress it will change
dimension which is recovered after the stress is removed.
7. Dimensional Stability- is a very general term which involves a number of
properties.
8. Fatigue- is a general term used to describe the behavior of materials under constant
cycles of loading and fatigue unloading.
9. Damping- is the property of resisting the transmission of vibrations.
10. Viscosity- refers to the ease with which a liquid flows.
11. Optical Properties- light transparency represents the ability of a plastic to allow
light rays to pass through it.
B. Electrical Properties
1. Dielectric Strength- represents the electrical insulating value of a plastic.
2. Dielectric Constant- is a measure of the material’s usefulness as the insulating
element in a capacitor.
3. Dissipation (Power) Factor- this property is a measure of the electric power lost in
a plastic insulator.
4. Arc Resistance- is a measure of the ability of an insulator to resist the action of an
electric arc tending to burn a conducting path across the surface of the material.
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C. Thermal Properties
1. Scientific Heat- is an indication of the amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of a given volume of plastic.
2. Thermal Conductivity- (k factor), is a measure of its ability to conduct heat.
3. Thermal Expansion- this property represents the increase in size, length, area, or
volume of plastic per unit temperature rise.
4. Heat Resistance- this property is usually specified as the maximum temperature at
which a plastic can be held for a period of time without loss of certain properties such
as tensile or compressive strength, color or clarity, or electrical insulating values.
5. Fire Resistance- the properties commonly considered in connection with fire
resistance of plastics are: (1) Flammability, the temperature at which the plastic bursts
into flame, and (2) Burning rate, the speed at which the plastic burns.
6. Resistance to Cold- this property is a measure of the ability of a plastic to maintain
certain properties such as impact and tensile strength at low temperatures.
D. Chemical Properties
1. Resistance to Acids- most plastics are extremely resistant to weak acids. Almost
none are affected by fruit juices, vinegar, etc.
2. Resistance to Alkalies- most plastics are very resistant to weak alkalies, but only
about half of them resist strong alkalies completely.
3. Resistance to other chemicals- most plastics are resistant to common vegetable and
mineral oils and greases. Some are affected by gasoline and kerosene. Few are affected
by photographic solutions.
PROCESSING OF PLASTICS
A wide range of plastic materials are available and the fabrication method to be used
for converting them into the desired shape depends upon the type or nature of polymer. A large
number of different processes are used for processing of plastics. Since plastic materials are
converted into finished products in a single operation, the selection of material-process
combination is extremely important for achieving the final shape and the desired properties.
The commonly used methods for processing of plastics are:
⚫ Extrusion
⚫ Injection moulding
⚫ Blow moulding
⚫ Thermoforming
⚫ Compression moulding
⚫ Transfer moulding
⚫ Casting
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EXTRUSION
In this method grannules of plastics are allowed to fall from a hopper into the extruder
barrel (Fig. 18). As the screw extruder is rotated the material passes through a preheating zone,
where it is heated, homogenized and compressed, and is finally forced through the die. The
extruded material comes on to a conveyer where it is cooled by air or water sprays. The extruder
screw clearly has three distinct sections- the feed section, the compression section and the
melting section. The lengths of these section are varied to suit the melting characteristics of the
extruded material. Owing to the continuous nature of the process, it is extensively used for
producing long products to uniform cross-section such as rods, tubes, and channels from
thermo-plastics. Plastic coated wires and cables are also produced using this technique. For this
purpose, the wire is fed into the die opening at a controlled rate as shown in Figure 18.1.
Figure 18: Screw Extruder

(Fundamentals of Manufacturing Processes; GK Lal, S K Choudhury, p124)
Figure 18.1: Wire Coating

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INJECTION MOULDING
Figure 19 shows a schematic diagram of injection moulding process and an injection

moulding machine (Fig. 20). Raw thermoplastic grannules are placed in a hopper located above
a reciprocating punger (Fig. 19a). As the plunger is withdrawn, plastic grannules fall into the
chamber under gravity. During the forward stroke the plunger forces the raw material into the
heating zone for preheating. Further movement of the plunger causes preheated material to
move into the injection section where it is melted and superheated to a temperature of 200-300
deg C. The molten material is finally forced into the closed mould cavity under a pressure of
around 35-140 MPa, through sprue, runners, and gates. The mould is kept cool by circulating
cold water to ensure that the thermoplastic material solidifies as soon as the mould is filled.
While the moulded product is ejected by opening the mould, the material for the next moulding
cycle takes 1 to 45 seconds, depending on the material and final shape and size.
Most new injection moulding machines use a screw set-up (Fig. 19b), similar to those
on extrusion machines, instead of a reciprocating plunger. The rotating screw causes the
material to pass through the preheating zone, the injection section and finally into the mould
cavity as in the case of reciprocating plunger. On these machines (Fig. 19b), as pressure at the
mould entrance builts up, the reciprocating screw moves backwards to precisely control the
volume of material to be injected. The screw now stops rotating and is pushed forward to force
the molten plastic into the mould cavity.
Large quantities of thermoplastic components are produced by injection moulding with
relatively lower cost per piece. Complex parts can be produced with very close tolerance and
practically no finishing requirements.
Figure 19(a): Injection moulding with a reciprocating plunger

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Figure 19(b): Injection moulding with a reciprocating and rotating screw

Figure 20: Injection Moulding Machine

(https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/327988785333626770/?autologin=true)
BLOW MOULDING
In blow moulding a hot tube of plastic material is placed between two halves of the
mould. The mould is closed and air or a non-reactive gas like argon is blown under pressure of
20-40 MPa which expands the hot tube outwards to fill the mould cavity. The mould is then
opened and the product, hollow in shape, is removed from the mould (Fig. 21). The process is
commonly used for making plastic bottles and containers.
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Figure 21: Blow Moulding

THERMOFORMING
The process, also known as thermoforming, is depicted schematically in Figure 22. In

this process a sheet of thermoplastic material is placed over a die and heated until it becomes
soft. A vacuum is then created inside the die cavity which draws down the heated plastic sheet
into the shape of the die. The material is then cooled, the vacuum is released and the final
product is taken out. Because of low strength of plastic materials, the pressure differential is
generally sufficient for most forming operations. Sometimes air pressure or mechanical means
are applied to increase the pressure differential. The cycle time of the process is generally a
few minutes only and is quite economical since high strength dies are not required. It finds
extensive use in making of plastic advertising signs, liners, panels, and housings.
Figure 22: Thermoforming

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COMPRESSION MOULDING
In compression moulding (Fig. 23) the raw plastic material in the form of solid
grannules is placed in the cavity of an open mould which has been preheated to a temperature
of 120 to 240 deg C. A punch, also heated upto the same temperature, squeezes the material
into the mould cavity. The plastic material melts at this temperature and under the pressure of
punch it flows into all portions of the mould cavity. Pressures used in compression moulding
varies from 7 to 140 MPa, depending upon the size and nature of material. The material is kept
inside the mould for some time to allow it to cure under continued exposure of heat and then
removed to obtain the final product.
Compression moulding is performed mostly for thermosetting plastics which require
pressure in the range of 7-15 MPa. Parts produced are simple with uniform walls, thickness of
which are generally not more than 3 mm. Sometimes the raw plastic material (charge) is
preheated to reduce the curing time.
Three types of compression moulds used for this process are:
⚫ Positive-type
⚫ Semi-positive type
⚫ Flash type
Figure 23: Compression Moulding

Figure 24: Compression Moulds (a) positive type, (b) semi-positive, (c) flash type
23
In positive-type moulds the plunger fits snugly in the mould. In this case (Fig. 24a) the
force exerted by the plunger is fully utilized to fill the mould. The amount of raw plastic
material or charge should, therefore, be precisely controlled to produce a part of accurate size.
In semi positive-type moulds (Fig. 24b) the plunger makes a close fit only during the
last few millimeter of its travel. Full pressure is, therefore, exerted only during the final closing
of the mould and excess material appears as a small flash.
In flash-type moulds (Fig. 24c) the plunger closes the mould bearing on a narrow flash
ridge. In this case, the excess material is squeezed out around the cavity as flash and results in
some wastage of material. This kind of moulds are, however, cheapest to fabricate since a close
fit of the plunger is not required.
TRANSFER MOULDING
Compression moulding often results in turbulence and uneven flow of liquid plastic in
the mould because of non-uniform pressure. This phenomenon can be avoided using transfer
moulding. In this process the raw plastic material is heated and compressed in a chamber and
then forced into the mould cavity (Fig. 25). Pressures in the range of 30-100 MPa, depending
upon the polymer properties, are generally used.
The process provides relatively close tolerances and fairly uniform density. Walls of
thin sections can also be obtained using this process. The process is, however, relatively more
expensive primarily because of the cost of mould.
Figure 25:Transfer Moulding

24
CASTING
Casting is the simplest and cheapest process when the number of parts required is small.
Here no fillers are used and no pressure is required while pouring the liquid plastic into the
mould. For making moulds for small products, a steel pattern is dipped into molten lead,
removed and allowed to cool. The lead shell when removed from the sides of pattern becomes
the mould for casting. The casting process is a slow process. Thermoset resins, while in the
mould, are required to be heated for hours or days at 65 deg to 95 deg C to harden. Other types
of plastics can be cured at room temperature. Hollow shapes in the plastic components can be
obtained by centrifugal casting. Thick plates can be obtained by casting in glass plate moulds.
The casting process is commonly used for producing sheets, gears, lenses, ornaments,
prototypes, and dies.
Note: Be careful of poisonous fumes when burning plastics. Many plastic materials melt and
can drip when burned. Great care should be taken that molten materials do not fall on
the hands or to the clothing.
25
III. PROGRESS CHECK

A. IDENTIFICATION: Identify the term being asked and write your answer on
the space provided before the number.
______1. This property represents the increase in size, length, area, or volume of
plastic per unit temperature rise.
______2. Type of moulds which the plunger makes a close fit only during the last few
millimeter of its travel.
______3. It is identified as the main ingredient of plastic.
______4. They exhibit high impact strength and resist compressive and flexural forces
very well.
______5. When heated they are mold-able, when cooled they are rigid, but upon
reheating they once again become pliable.
______6. In this process the raw plastic material is heated and compressed in a
chamber and then forced into the mould cavity.
______7. It is the ability of a material to resist sharp blows or shocks.
______8. Type of plastic which stretch considerably, however, and are difficult to tear.
______9. They are set or cured into a permanent shape by heat and once set cannot be
remelted and returned to their original state.
______10. Part of injection moulding machine which causes the material to pass
through the preheating zone, the injection section and finally into the mould
cavity as in the case of reciprocating plunger.
B. Explain briefly the following visual examination of plastics:
1. Rigidity
2. Colour
3. Density
4. Feel, Texture, and Appearance
IV. REFERENCES
Choudhury, S K, Lal, G K, (Copyright 2005), Fundamentals of Manufacturing Processes,

Swanson, Robert S. (1965), Plastics Technology, Basic Materials and Processes,McKnight

& McKnight Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois
Ableson, Barry W., Pateman, Allan J., (1974), Metalworking, McGraw-Hill Book
Company Australia Pty. Limited
26
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No. __8___
TOPIC/S
GLASS
4. Identify the different types of glass..
5. Discuss the glass raw materials and production.
6. Determine their uses, properties, and characteristics of glass.
Glass is an organic , non-metallic compound and is a ceramic as a glassy state solid

material. Most of the commercial glasses have silica (SiO2 ), most commonly found as
quartz in silica sand and sand stone, as their principal ingredient. Additional ingredients are
added to alter the optical properties, thermal stability and chemical resistance.
Glasses have low thermal conductivity, high electrical resistivity and dielectric
strength. Because of these properties, the use of glass ranges from window glass, bottles
light bulb glass, laboratory glassware, and cookware to special glasses used for fibre optics
communication, lenses for eye glasses, and optician instruments such as cameras and
microscopes, insulating fibre-glass wool and fibre-glass reinforced plastic.
MANUFACTURE OF GLASS
SODA LIME GLASS

Soda lime glass is the most common type of glass in present day usage. Its uses
include windows, ornaments, tableware, lamp shades, light globes, or any purpose
where light transmission or ornamentation is required. The raw materials required for
the manufacture of this glass are:
⚫ Sand (silica)
⚫ Soda ash (sodium carbonate)
⚫ Limestone (calcium carbonate)
The glass produced from these materials is clear and hence suitable for light
globes and windows, but a large percentage of glass produced is coloured so that it will
27
be more decorative. To colour the glass, metal oxides are added in precise quantities to
be prepared raw materials. These quantities are determined by the glass manufacturer
and accurate records are maintained by the chemist. Not only is the quantity of metal
oxide critical to the colour; but the temperature of the glass, the atmosphere in the
furnace, and the heating rate of the glass during manufacture are important.
Figure 1: Reusable soda–lime glass milk bottles

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass)
Below is a list of some of the coloring additives and the resultant colors:
Green ---------- Chrome salts

Brown ---------- Nickel salts
Blue ---------- Cobalt salts
Blue grey ---------- Cobalt and nickel salts
Yellow ---------- Cadmium sulphides
Orange ---------- Cadmium sulphide and selenium
Red ---------- Selenium and cadmium sulphides
Pink ---------- Selenium
Amber ---------- Carbon and sulphur
It must be remembered that the quantity of the additive will determine the depth of
produced.
OPAL GLASS
Opal glass is the white glass seen often in light shades, although sometimes the
white glass is produced by etching soda lime glass in hydrofluoric acid. If the latter is
used the glass will feel rough to the touch and have a dull finish. Opal glass itself is too
dense to be used alone for lighting, therefore it is usually produced as a layered glass
with the white opal glass placed between two layers of soda lime glass.
28
Figure 2: Glass being blown into mould

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PMNIEfo6vZY)
This is achieved by forming a ball of soda lime glass on the blowpipe, covering this
with a layer of opal glass and a final layer of soda lime glass, then forming the article
by blowing into a mould as in Figure 2. The composition of opal glass batch is as
follows:
⚫ Sand (silica)
⚫ Soda ash (sodium carbonate)
⚫ Zinc Oxide
⚫ Cryolite (sodium, aluminum, fluoride)
⚫ Fluorspar (calcium fluoride)
LEAD GLASS
Lead glasses are used for two specific purposes:
Decorative lead glasses of 30% lead oxide have a particularly high refractive
index. These glasses are relatively soft and this property allows the glass to be cut and
polished quite easily. Polishing is achieved by using either carborundum or aluminum
oxide powders for the first stage and finally polishing with pumice or cerium oxide,
completing the process by immersion in a sulphuric acid preparation to acid polish the
product. Lead glass is usually melted in pots when blown crystal-ware is required, while
continuous furnaces are used to produce tubing or rods.
Electrical lead glasses have a very high electrical resistance and are used
wherever high voltages are involved in equipment, e.g. lamp bulbs and X-ray tubes.
Soda lime glass, being a liquid, is in fact an electrolyte and breaks down at the electrical
contacts. The composition of lead glass is approximately as follows:
⚫ Sand (silica) 55%

⚫ Aluminum oxide 1.5%
⚫ Sodium oxide 7.5%
⚫ Potassium oxide 4.5%
⚫ Lead oxide 30%
29
OPTICAL GLASS
Optical glass, as the name suggests, is used in the manufacture of lenses for
spectacles, cameras, telescopes, etc. As uniformity of quality in the finished article is
essential, all constituents used in the manufacture of this glass must be of the highest
purity. Also chemicals must be more finely ground than those used for other glasses.
Figure 3: Optical glass lenses for optical instrument

(https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Kingopt-Custom-Optical-Glass-Lenses-for_60483264018.html)
The glass is produced in plates, blocks, and discs according to the requirements of the
manufacturers who use the glass. The moulded glass is annealed and the surfaces
ground and polished to allow detailed examination for imperfections. Finally, the
selected perfect glass is ground and polished to its finished size and shape. The
annealing of optical glass, e.g. from 12-125 mm can take from one to three days.
THERMAL GLASS
If boron oxide is used instead of soda plus lime this figure is gradually reduced to
point where Pyrex glass is formed. Pyrex contains approximately 14-17% B2 O3. The
limitation is in the melting point of this glass since temperatures of approximately 1550
deg C are required and the glass itself is very susceptible to crystallization. In recent
years Pyroceram glass has been developed. This glass contains lithium-aluminum-
silicates which upon controlled reheating crystallize, resulting in a matrix having an
expansion as low as zero. Sometimes these glasses have a high negative expansion, e.g.
they contract slightly when heated. The approximate composition of Pyrex is:
⚫ 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 79%
⚫ 𝐵2 𝑂3 14.5%
⚫ 𝑁𝑎2 O 3.5%
⚫ 𝐾2 O 1%
⚫ 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 1.5%
30
MANUFACTURE OF HAND-BLOWN GLASS
There are approximately eight basic steps in the manufacture of an article from glass
using hand blowing techniques and these are as follows:
1. Preparation. the sand must be washed to remove all foreign matter such as organic
matter and heavy minerals. This is carried out only by using a washing table similar in
nature to the ones used to extract gold. The pure silica sand is then dried, the correct
preparation of raw materials added by weight and these materials are thoroughly mixed
by a suitable means of agitation as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Sand Washing Plant

(Metalworking, Ableson and Pateman, p335)
2. Melting. the mixed raw materials are added to an oil or gas fired furnace. The furnace
temperatures are already determined and the furnace atmosphere (reducing or
oxidizing) set to achieve the correct colour. The heating cycle is commenced in the
evening and continues to ensure sufficient time to melt the required number of fills of
prepared batch in time for the glassblowers to commence work when their shift begins
on day work. The approximate melting temperatures are 1400 deg C. for flint or soda
lime glass to 1350 deg C. for opal glass. These temperatures are critical if the desired
results are to be achieved, since glass must be specially free of undissolved batch, and
free of stone.
3. Gathering. the apprentice glassblowers gather from the furnace a small quantity of
glass on the end of a blowpipe and place the blowpipe in a rack near the glassblower.
The glassblower when he is ready takes the blowpipe and gathers the correct quantity
of glass from the furnace at 1100 deg C. for flint and 1000 deg C. for opal and
commences to blow a basic shape ready for moulding.
31
4. Moulding. this gives the final shape to the article. The partly blown glass is placed
into a mould which is made either from hardwood, cast iron, or aluminum with a
charcoal lining, and the glass is blown to take the shape of the mould.
5. Cooling. The glass, once formed, must be cooled in a special way to prevent
cracking. The cooling is done by placing the glass into a machine called a Lehr which
contains a slow moving conveyor belt. The glass is heated almost to its softening point
then gradually cooled back to room temperature. Naturally the thickness of the glass
will have an effect on the time required for this cooling but as a general rule it takes
about one hour for lighting ware.
Figure 6:Lehr, Glass annealing

(http://www.sszn.cz/en/production/glass-machinery/glass-annealing-lehr)
6. Cracking off and cutting. after the glass has been formed it is necessary to remove
excess glass by some means. The most common method used is cracking off which is
achieved by firstly scratching the glass with a tungsten carbide tipped tool at the correct
location. This is done by placing the glass into a jig and rotating it against the scratching
tool. The glass is then placed onto a rotating jig, and oxy-acetylene flames directed at
the scratch. This causes tension in the glass and it cracks along the area covered by the
flame.
Figure 7:Melting point about 2,732 degrees F (1,500 degrees C)

(https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/487796203368090177/)
32
Naturally the cut surface has sharp corners. To remove this sharpness and unevenness
a grinding and polishing operation must follow.
7. Grinding, bevelling, and drilling. the article is ground by placing the cut surface of
the article on a horizontal rotating steel wheel onto which carborundum grinding
material flows. The glass is moved by hand in either a circular or figure-eight movement
while sufficient carborundum paste is maintained. Bevelling is a process used to remove
the sharp corners from the cut glass and is carried out using the same process as grinding
although a cone is used instead of a flat disc. Sometimes it is necessary to drill holes
through the glass for which a diamond drill is used. Glass can be cracked by applying
heat to a localized area so the drill must be kept well lubricated with water to remove
any heat. In the glass industry where fast production is necessary, tubular drills are used.
8. Decorating. quite often the decoration of glass objects is achieved by adding textures
to the glass when blowing, e.g. optic effects, bubbles of glass, moonstone, crocodile,
cracked area, from certain areas using a wooden tool. The article is then fired to fuse
the enamel to the glass surface. Another method of applying the enamel is by spraying
and using a stencil to give the desired pattern or by silk screen printing.
MECHANICAL BLOWING OF GLASS

The preparation of materials and the melting of the glass for mechanical
blowing is similar to that described in hand blowing techniques, although some special
compositions may be used for a particular purpose.
33
III. PROGRESS CHECK
A. IDENTIFICATION: Identify the term being asked and write your answer on
the space provided before the number.
______1. These glasses are relatively soft and this property allows the glass to be cut
and polished quite easily.
______2. It is a white glass that be seen often in light shades, although sometimes the
white glass is produced by etching soda lime glass in hydrofluoric acid.
______3. Is a process used to remove the sharp corners from the cut glass and is
carried out using the same process as grinding although a cone is used
instead of a flat disc.
______4. What is the melting point of Pyrex glass which are required and the glass
itself is very susceptible to crystallization.
______5. It is known as the most common type of glass in present day usage.
______6. Cobalt salts additive produces what colour of glass?
______7. A chemical compound which mostly used for commercial glasses is?
______8. It is a machine used for annealing the glass and undergo the process of
cooling.
______9. Drill is used in the process of hand blown glass and it is lubricated by water
to remove _______.
______10. Lamp bulbs is an example of what type of glass?
B. Explain briefly the following:

What are the factors which the quantity of metal oxides affect the color of the
glass and explain each briefly.
IV. REFERENCES
Choudhury, S K, Lal, G K, (Copyright 2005), Fundamentals of Manufacturing Processes,

Ableson, Barry W., Pateman, Allan J., (1974), Metalworking, McGraw-Hill Book
Company Australia Pty. Limited

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1

Week No. __6___

NON- FERROUS METALS

Upon completion of this material you should be able to do the following:

II. CONTENT / TECHNICAL INFORMATION

ZINC AND ITS ALLOYS

ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Figure 6: Table of physical properties of aluminums

Aluminum Association Alloy Designation

COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

Figure 7.1: Copper Wire

III. PROGRESS CHECK

Choudhury, S K, Lal, G K, (Copyright 2005) Fundamentals of Manufacturing Processes,

Week No. __7___

II. CONTENT / TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Figure 1: Structure of Thermoplastics and Thermostats

The Thermoplastic Family

⚫ Acetal Plastics- known as excellent electrical insulators. The important feature

Figure 2: Acetal Gear Plastic

⚫ Acrylic Plastics- are non-conductors of direct current and of AC at power

Figure 3: Transparent Acrylic Plastic

Figure 4: Cellulose Nanofibre

Figure 5: Flexible bellows of “Teflon” Fluorocarbon

Figure 6: Polyamide Nylon (toothbrush)

⚫ Polyolefin Plastics (Polyethylene and Polypropylene)- polyethylene is among

Figure 7: Materials used by Polyolefin Plastics

Figure 8: Square tube styrene plastic strip

Figure 9: Vinyl Plastic Ziplock Pouches

The Thermoset Family

Figure 10: Melamine Urea Formaldehyde Resin

Figure 11: Casein plastic buttons

Figure 12: Epoxies can do “Impossible” repairs

⚫ Phenolic Plastics- are medium-weight plastics with specific gravities of 1.25 to

Figure 13: Phenolic Molded Grill Handle

Figure 14: Polyester and Recycled Polyester Plastic Bottles

Figure 15: Silicone watch bond

Figure 16: Urethane Rollers

HOW PLASTICS ARE MADE

Figure 17: Binders or Resin (Coating Ingredients)

Visual Examination of Plastics:

Figure 18: Screw Extruder

Figure 18.1: Wire Coating

Figure 19 shows a schematic diagram of injection moulding process and an injection

Figure 19(a): Injection moulding with a reciprocating plunger

Figure 19(b): Injection moulding with a reciprocating and rotating screw

Figure 20: Injection Moulding Machine

Figure 21: Blow Moulding

The process, also known as thermoforming, is depicted schematically in Figure 22. In

Figure 22: Thermoforming

Figure 23: Compression Moulding

Figure 25:Transfer Moulding

III. PROGRESS CHECK

B. Explain briefly the following visual examination of plastics:

Choudhury, S K, Lal, G K, (Copyright 2005), Fundamentals of Manufacturing Processes,

Swanson, Robert S. (1965), Plastics Technology, Basic Materials and Processes,McKnight

Week No. __8___

II. CONTENT / TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Glass is an organic , non-metallic compound and is a ceramic as a glassy state solid

SODA LIME GLASS

Figure 1: Reusable soda–lime glass milk bottles

Green ---------- Chrome salts

Figure 2: Glass being blown into mould

⚫ Sand (silica) 55%

Week No. 6_

Week No. 7_

Week No. 8_