PHYSICS

ICSE-IX
BOOKLET

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 INDEX

Sr.No. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE NO.

1. Measurements and Experimentation 3-13

2. Motion in one dimension 14-23

3. Laws of Motion 24-32

Pressure in Fluids and Atmospheric

4. 33-40
Pressure
Upthrust in Fluids, Archimedes’
5. 41-48
Principle and Floatation

6. Heat and Energy 49-62

7. Reflection of Light 63-77

8. Propagation of Sound Waves 78-83

9. Current Electricity 84-91

10. Magnetism 92-99

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PHYSICS
MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTATION
THEORY
INTRODUCTION
SYSTEMS OF UNIT AND UNITS IN S.I. SYSTEM
Need of unit for measurement
Measurement is the process of comparison of the given physical quantity with the known standard
quantity of the same nature.
Unit is the quantity of a constant magnitude which is used to measure the magnitudes of other
quantities of the same nature.
Physical quanitity = (Numerical value) × (unit)
Choice of unit
(i) The unit should be of convenient size.
(ii) It should be possible to define the unit without ambiguity.
(iii) The unit should be reproducible.
(iv) The value of unit should not change with space and time.
Kinds of unit
(i) Fundamental or basic units
A fundamental (or basic) unit is that which is independent of any other unit or which can neither be
changed nor can be related to any other fundamental unit.
(ii) Derived units
Derived units are those which depend on the fundamental units or which can be expressed in terms
of the fundamental units.
➢ Systems of unit
(i) C.G.S system
In this system, the unit of length is centimeter (cm), of mass is gram (g) and of time is second (s).
(ii) F.P.S system
In this system, the unit of length is foot (ft), of mass is pound (lb) and of time is second (s).
(iii) M.K.S system
In this system, the unit of length is metre (m), of mass is kilogram (kg) and of time is second (s).
International System of Units (or S.I. system)
In 1960, the General Conference of Weights and Measures recommended S.I. system of units.
According to that there are seven fundamental units and two complementary fundamental units.

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 Quantity Unit Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogramme kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
Electric Current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Angle radian rd
Solid angle steradian st − rd

Units of length
S.I. unit of length
The S.I. unit of the length is meter (m).
Smaller and bigger units of length
Smaller units Value in meter Bigger units Value in meter

cm 10−2 m Km 103 m

mm 10−3 m A.U 1.496 × 1011 m

μ (or μm) 10−6 m Ly 9.46 × 1015 m

nm 10−9 m Parsec 3.08 × 1016 m

A° 10−10 m
f 10−15 m

Units of mass
The S.I. unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
Smaller and bigger units of mass
Smaller units Value in kg Bigger units Value in kg

g 10−3 kg quintal 100 kg

mg 10−6 kg Metric tonne 1000 kg

u (or a. m. u) 1.66 × 10−27 kg Solar mass 2 × 1030 kg

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Units of time
The S.I. unit of time is second (s).
A second is defined as 1/86400 th part of a mean solar day
1
1 s = 86400 × one mean solar day
Smaller and bigger units of mass
Smaller units Value in Bigger Value in Bigger units Value in
seconds units seconds seconds
ms 10−3 s min 60 s year 3.1536 × 107 s

μs 10−6 s h 3600 s Decade 3.1536 × 108 s

shake 10−8 s day 86400 s Century 3.16 × 109 s

ns 10−9 s month 2.592 × 106 s Millennium 3.16 × 1010 s

Derived units of some physical quantities:

Quantity Definition Derived unit Abbreviation

2
Area length × breadth metre × metre m
Volume length × breadth m3
metre × metre × metre
× height
Density mass kilogram kg m−3
volume (metre)3
Speed distance metre m s −1
or velocity time second
Acceleration velocity metre/second m s −2
time second
Force mass metre kg m s −2 or N
kilogram × or newton
× acceleration (second)2

Work force metre kg m2 s −2 or J

kilogram × × metre or joule
or energy × displacement (second)2

Momentum metre kg m s −1 or N s
mass × velocity kilogram × or newton × second
second
Moment of metre kg m2 s −2
kilogram × × metre
force force × distance (second)2 or N m
or torque or newton − metre

Power work kilogram (metre)2 kg m2 s −3

/second
time (second)2 or J s −1 or W
joule
or or watt
second

Page#5
 Pressure metre
kilogram × /(metre)2
force (second)2
kg m−1 s −2
area newton
or or pascal Or N m−2 or Pa
(metre)2
Frequency 1 1 s −1 or Hz
or hertz
time period second

Electric A s or C
current × time ampere × second or coulomb
charge
Electric
kilogram × metre2
/ ampere × second kg m2 A−1 s −3
potential or work second2
electromotive charge joule or J C −1 or V
or or volt
force (e.m.f) coulomb

kilogram × metre2 kg m2 A−2 s −3

/ ampere
Electrical potential ampere × second2 or V A−1 or Ω
resistance current volt
or or ohm
ampere
Electrical V A or W
potential × current volt × ampere or watt
power

MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
➢ Least count of a measuring instrument
The least count of an instrument is the smallest measurement that can be taken accurately with it.
Least count of vernier or vernier constant
Value of one main scale division (x)
L. C =
Total number of division on vernier (n)

Vernier Callipers
A vernier calliper is also called the slide caliper. It is used to measure the length of a rod, the diameter
of a sphere, the internal and external diameter of a hollow cylinder, the depth of a beaker.

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 Part Function

Outside jaws To measure length of a rod, diameter of a sphere, external diameter of

hollow cylinder

Strip To measure the internal diameter of a hollow cylinder or pipe

Main scale To measure length correct up to 1 mm.

Vernier scale To measure length correct up to 0.1 mm

Kinds of zero error

(i)Positive zero error
On bringing two jaws together, if zero mark of the vernier
scale is on the right of zero mark of the main scale, the zero
error is said to be positive.
From fig. Zero error = +6 × L. C

(ii)Negative zero error

On bringing two jaws together, if zero mark of the vernier
scale is on the left of zero mark of the main scale, the zero
error is said to be negative.
From fig. Zero error = −(10 − 6) × L. C

Correct reading = Observed reading − Zero error (with sign)

Principle of a screw
The pitch of a screw is the distance moved along its axis by the screw in one complete rotation of its
head.
Least count of screw
Pitch of screw
L. C =
Total number of divisions on circular scale
Screw gauge
A screw gauge is used to measure the diameter of a
wire or thickness of a paper usually to an accuracy
of third decimal place of a cm (i.e. up to 0.001 cm)

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 Part Function

Ratchet To advance the screw by turning it till the object is gently held between the
stud and spindle of screw.

Sleeve To mark main scale and base line.

Thimble To mark circular scale.

Main scale To read length correct up to 1 mm.

Circular scale Helps to read length correct up to 0.01 mm

Kinds of zero error

(i)Positive zero error
If on bringing the flat end B of the screw in contact with the stud A, the zero
mark on the circular scale is below the base line of the main scale, the
zero error is said to be positive.
From fig. Zero error = +5 × L. C

(ii)Negative zero error

If on bringing the flat end B of the screw in contact with the stud A, the zero
mark on the circular scale is above the base line of main scale, the zero
error is said to be positive.
From fig. Zero error = −(100 − 95) × L. C

Correct reading = Observed reading − Zero error (with sign)

Backlash error
Due to wear and tear of threads of screw, it is observed that on reversing the direction of rotation of
the thimble, the tip of the screw does not start moving in the opposite direction at once, but it remains
stationary for a part of rotation. This causes error in the observation which is called the backlash error.

MEASUREMENT OF TIME AND SIMPLE PENDULUM

Simple pendulum
A simple pendulum has a bob made of a metal ball, attached to a thread that is supported rigidly at
one end.

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 (a) Simple pendulum (b)Motion of a simple pendulum

Motion of simple pendulum – To and from motion about its mean or rest position A.

Oscillation

When pendulum completes one to and from motion it is said to complete one oscillation.

From fig. pendulum starts from A goes to B, comes back to A, goes to C and back to A, completes

one oscillation.

Amplitude

The maximum displacement of the bob on either side of mean position is called amplitude.

From fig. AB and AC are amplitudes.

Time period

The time taken by the bob to complete one oscillation is time period of pendulum.

It is denoted by T and measured in seconds.

Frequency

The number of oscillation completed by bob in one second is its frequency.

It is denoted by n or f.

It is measured in hertz or Hz.

Graph showing the variation of square of time period (T 2) with the length

(l) of a pendulum

Graph showing variation of T2 with l

4π2
g=
Slope of T2 vs l graph

Page#9
Factors affecting the time period of a simple pendulum

(i) The time period of oscillation is directly proportional to the square root of its effective length. i.e.,

T ∝ √l

(ii) The time period of oscillation is inversely proportional to the square root of acceleration due to

gravity i.e.,

1
T∝
√g

(iii) The time period of oscillation does not depend on the mass or material of the body suspended

(i.e., bob)

(iv) The time period of oscillation does not depend on the extent of swing on either side (i.e., on

amplitude)

Time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum

l
T = 2π √g

Seconds’ pendulum

A pendulum with a time period of oscillation equal to two seconds, is known as a second’s pendulum.

Page#10
 WORKSHEET-01
1. Calculate the time period of a simple pendulum of length 1.44 m, on the surface of moon. The

acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon is 1/6 of the acceleration due to gravity on earth[g

= 9.8 ms–2].

2. A pupil determines velocity of sound as 300 ms–1. If actual velocity of sound is 330 ms–1, calculate the

percentage error in result.

3. A pendulum whose length is 36 cm has time period 1.2 s. Find the time period of another pendulum

whose length is 81 cm.

4. Calculate the length of second’s pendulum on the surface of moon, when acceleration due to gravity

on moon is 1.63 ms–2

5. Define pitch of a screw gauge. The thimble of a screw gauge has 50 divisions for one revolution. The

spindle advances 1 mm when the screw is turned through two revolutions. What is the least count of

the screw gauge? When the screw gauge is used to measure the diameter of the wire, the reading

on the sleeve is found to be 0.05 cm and the reading on the thimble is found to be 27 divisions. What

is the diameter of the wire in CGS unit?

6. Calculate the frequency of oscillation of Second's pendulum. Does it depend upon amplitude of

oscillation?

7. Give the order of magnitude of the following

(i)Height of Mount Everest = 9 x 103m (ii) Mass of a virus = 1 x 10-15 kg

(iii)Life expectancy of a man = 2 x 109 s (iv) A speck of dust = 7 x 10-10 kg.

8. Enrico Fermi (Italian physicist) suggested that the length of one lecture period (50 min) is nearly equal

to one micro-century. Verify it by converting micro-century into minutes

9. What is the function of ratchet in a screw gauge? A screw gauge has positive error of 7 divisions such

that its main scale is marked in half mm and circular scale has 100 divisions. The spindle of the screw

advances by 1 division on one complete revolution. If the screw gauge reading is 9 divisions on the

main scale and 67 divisions on the circular scale for the diameter of a wire, calculate.

(i) Pitch (ii) Least count and (iii) Corrected diameter.

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 WORKSHEET-02
1. What are the fundamental quantities and their units in SI system?
2. Give the order of magnitude of the following:
(i) 0.0002303 (ii) 0.3740 g/cm3 (iii) 6.230 J (iv)7.14 x 1014 kg.
3. What do you mean by the least count of a vernier caliper? When does a vernier caliper have positive
and negative zero error?
4. In an instrument, there are 25 divisions on the vernier scale which coincide with 24 divisions of the
main scale. 1 cm on the main scale is divided in 20 equal parts. Find the least count.
5. Given diagram shows a screw gauge. In one measurement, the
final position of the scale is as shown in the diagram. The circular
scale has 50 divisions.

(i) What is the least count of the screw gauge?

(ii) If 40th division of the circular scale coincides with the main scale line, what is the final reading?
(iii) What do you mean by back-lash error of a screw gauge?
6. What temperature Fahrenheit is equivalent to:
(i) 0oC (ii)100oC
7. A vernier scale has 10 divisions and on its main scale, 1 cm is divided into ten parts. The number of
divisions on the left side of the zero of the vernier scale is 56 and the 8th vernier scale division
coincides with the main scale. If the instrument has 0.09 cm of negative zero error, calculate the
corrected length.
8. Express the smallest possible value measured accurately using the following instruments:
(i) Meter rule (in mm)
(ii) Vernier calipers (Least count 0.1 mm)
(iii) Screw gauge (Least count 0.001 cm)
(iv) Thermometer (0.1oC)
(v) Protractor (in degrees)
(vi) Spring balance (Least count 5 g).
9. Distinguish between fundamental units and derived units.
10. State the essential properties of a unit.
11. A Vernier scale has 40 divisions and its main scale is divided in millimeters. It has an error of +0.0125
cm. While measuring the length of a cylinder, the reading on the main scale is 75 mm and the 12th
Vernier scale division coincides with the main scale. Calculate the corrected length.

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12. Draw a graph between effective length 'l' and square of time period '(T)2' of a simple pendulum. How
will you obtain the value of acceleration due to gravity from the graph?
13. An athlete runs around a circular track of circumference 360 m in (1/60) h and reaches the starting
point. Calculate:
(i) The distance covered by athlete (ii) The displacement
(iii) The average speed and (iv) The average velocity.
14. The table shows the velocity of a two-wheeler at various intervals of time.

t(s) 0 5 7 10 15

V(m/s) 10 10 7 10 0

(i) Plot the velocity-time graph.

(ii) Calculate the rate of change of velocity between 5s –7s, 7s – 10 s and 10s – 15 s.
15. What is the function of ratchet in a screw gauge? A screw gauge has positive error of 7 divisions such
that its main scale is marked in half mm and circular scale has 100 divisions. The spindle of the screw
advances by 1 division on one complete revolution. If the screw gauge reading is 9 divisions on the
main scale and 67 divisions on the circular scale for the diameter of a wire, calculate
a)Pitch b)Least count and c)Corrected diameter.

Page#13
 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION
THEORY
TERMS RELATED TO MOTION
Scalar and vector quantities
(1)Scalar quantities or scalars
These are the physical quantities which are expressed only by their magnitude.
E.g., Mass, length, time, distance, density, volume, speed, temperature, potential, work, energy,
power, pressure, quantity of heat, specific heat etc.
(2)Vector quantities or vectors
These physical quantities require the magnitude as well as the direction to express them, then only
their meaning is complete.
E.g., Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, moment of force, impulse, weight,
temperature gradient, electric field, magnetic field, dipole moment etc.
Rest and motion
A body is said to be at rest if it does not change its position with respect to its immediate surroundings,
while a body is said to be in motion if it changes its position with respect to its immediate surroundings.
One dimensional motion
When a body moves along a straight line path, its motion is said to be one dimensional motion.
➢ Distance and displacement
Distance
The total length of path through which a body moves, is called the distance travelled by it.
The distance travelled by a body depends on the path followed by the body.
S.I. unit of distance is meter (m)
C.G.S unit is centimeter (cm)
Displacement
The shortest distance from the initial to the final position of the body is the magnitude of displacement
and its direction is from the initial position to the final position.
S.I. unit of distance is meter (m)
C.G.S unit is centimeter (cm)
Distinction between distance and displacement
(i) The magnitude of displacement is either equal to or less than the distance.
(ii)The distance is the length of path travelled by the body so it is always positive, but displacement is
the shortest length in direction from initial position to the final position so it can be positive or negative
depending on its direction.
(iii)The displacement can be zero even if the distance is not zero.

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➢ Speed and velocity
Speed
The speed of a body is the rate of change of distance with time.
Numerical it is the distance travelled by the body in 1 s
Distance S
Speed v =
Time t
S.I unit of speed is m s−1
Uniform speed
A body is said to be moving with uniform speed if it covers equal distances in equal intervals of time
throughout its motion.
S=vt
Non-uniform or variable speed
A body is said to be moving with non-uniform (or variable) speed if it covers unequal distances in
equal intervals of time.

• Instantaneous speed
Distance travelled in a short time interval
Instantaneous speed =
Time interval
• Average speed
Total distance travelled
Average speed =
Total time taken
• Velocity
The velocity of a body is the distance travelled per second by the body in a specified direction.
S.I. unit of velocity is m s −1
C.G.S unit of velocity is cm s−1
Uniform velocity
If a body travels equal distance in a particular direction, in equal intervals of time, the body is said to
be moving with a uniform velocity.
Non-uniform or variable velocity
If a body moves unequal distances in a particular direction in equal intervals of time or it moves equal
distances in equal intervals of time, but its direction of motion does not remain the same, then the
velocity of the body is said to be variable (or non-uniform)
Instantaneous velocity
For a body moving with variable velocity, the velocity of the body at any instant is called its
instantaneous velocity.
Average velocity
If the velocity of a body moving in a particular direction changes with time, ratio of displacement to
the time taken is called its average velocity.
Displacement
Average velocity =
Total time taken
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 Speed Velocity
The distance travelled by a moving object The distance travelled by a moving object
in one second is called its speed. in one second in a particular direction is
called its velocity.
It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity
It does not tell us the direction of motion It tells us the speed as well as the
direction of motion
The speed is always positive The velocity can be positive or negative
depending on the direction of motion
In one round in a circular path, the In one round in a circular path, the
average speed is not zero average velocity is not zero.

➢ Acceleration and retardation

Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time.
Change in velocity
Acceleration =
Time interval
S.I. unit of acceleration is m s− 2
C.G.S. unit of acceleration is cm s−2
Relation for acceleration
𝐯 = 𝐮 + 𝐚𝐭
If v > u then a is +ve
If v < u then a is – ve
Uniform acceleration
The acceleration is said to be uniform (or constant) when equal changes in velocity take place in
equal intervals of time.
Variable acceleration
If change in velocity is not same in the same intervals of time, the acceleration is said to be variable.
Acceleration due to gravity (g)
When a body falls freely under gravity, the acceleration produced in the body due to the earth’s
gravitational attraction is called the acceleration due to gravity.
When body falls down, its velocity increases with time, so the acceleration is +g
Body moves vertically upwards, its velocity decreases with time, so the acceleration is – g
The value of g does not depend on the mass of the body. Hence if two bodies of different masses are
simultaneously dropped from a height, both will reach the ground simultaneously if the effect of air
(friction and buoyancy due to air) is neglected.

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 GRAPHICAL REPERESNTATION OF LINEAR MOTION
Displacement- time graph
Slope of displacement-time graph gives the velocity.
If slope is +ve, it implies that the body is moving away from the starting point
If slope is – ve, the body returning towards the starting (or reference) point.

Case (I):
If the position of a body does not change with time, the body is
said to be stationary and the displacement as measured from the
origin at all instant is same as that at t =0, so the displacement-
time graph is a straight line parallel to the time axis.

Case(II):
If a body is moving with uniform velocity, its displacement
increases by the same amount in each second and so the
displacement-time graph is a straight line inclined to the time
axis.

Case(III):
If a body moves with varying speed in a fixed direction i.e., with
variable velocity, the displacement-time graph is a curve.

➢ Velocity-time graph
(i) Determination of displacement from the velocity-time graph
Velocity × Time = Displacement
The area enclosed between the velocity-time sketch and X-axis (i.e., the time axis) gives the
displacement of the body.
(ii) Determination of acceleration from the velocity-time graph
Acceleration is equal to the ratio of change in velocity and time taken, therefore the slope (or
gradient) of the velocity-time sketch gives the acceleration.

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Case (I):
If a body is in motion with uniform velocity (i.e., velocity remains
constant with time), the velocity-time graph is a straight line
parallel to the time axis.

Case (II):
(a) If the body is in motion with uniform acceleration, the velocity-
time graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis. The slope of
the line gives the acceleration.

(b) If the motion is with uniform retardation, the velocity-time graph

will be a straight line inclined to the time axis with negative slope.
Larger the slope, higher is the acceleration or retardation.

(c)The velocity-time graph can never be a straight line parallel to the

velocity axis because such a line would mean that the velocity
increases without any increase in time which is impossible.

(d) If the body is initially moving with some constant velocity and then
it accelerates, the velocity-time graph for the accelerated motion will
start from the point on the velocity axis corresponding to the initial
velocity of the body.

Case (III):
In fig. part AB shows the downward journey of body with positive
velocity while part CD shows the upward journey with negative
velocity (since the direction of motion has reversed).

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➢ Acceleration-time graph
From the area enclosed between the acceleration-time sketch and the
time axis, we get the change in speed of the body for the given time interval.

Case(I):
If the body is stationary or if it is moving with a uniform
velocity, the acceleration is zero.
The acceleration-time graph is straight line coinciding with the
time axis.

Case (II):
If the velocity of body in motion increase uniformly with
time, the acceleration is constant.
The acceleration-time graph is a straight line parallel to
the time axis on the positive side of acceleration axis.

Case (III):
If the velocity of body decreases at a constant rate, the retardation is constant.
The acceleration-time graph is a straight line parallel to the time axis on the negative side of
acceleration axis.
Case (IV):
If the velocity of body changes in an irregular manner, the acceleration is variable.
The acceleration-time graph will then be a curve of any shape.
➢ Motion under gravity
A body falling freely under gravity moves with a uniform acceleration of 9.8 m s−2.
For a body moving vertically upwards, there is a uniform retardation of 9.8 m s −2.
Thus, motion under gravity is an example of uniformly accelerated or uniformly retarded motion.
EQUATION OF MOTION
➢ Equation of uniformly accelerated motion
Initial velocity (u), final velocity (v), acceleration (a), time of journey (t), and distance travelled (S)
1 1
(i) v = u + at (ii) S = (u + v)t = ut + at 2 (iii) v 2 = u2 + 2aS
2 2

Special cases
(a) When a body starts from rest, initial velocity is zero (u = 0) then,
1
(i) v = at (ii) S = at 2 (iii) v 2 = 2aS
2

(b) If a body is moving with a uniform retardation, ‘a’ will be negative.

1
(i) v = u − at (ii) S = ut − at 2 (iii)v 2 = u2 − 2aS
2

Page#19
 WORKSHEET-01
1. (a) Define the term acceleration.

(b) When is acceleration (i) Positive? (ii) Negative?

(c) State the unit of acceleration in C.G.S. and S.I. systems.

2. What is the relation between distance and time, when:

(i) Body is moving with a uniform velocity?

(ii) Body is moving with variable velocity?

3. What do you understand by the terms (i) rest (ii) motion? Support your answer by giving two examples
each.
4. The Shatabadi Express covers a distance of 450 km in 5 hrs between Amritsar and Delhi. What is

average speed of train in (i) km hrs-1 (ii) ms-1

5. A race horse runs straight towards north and covers 540 m in one minute. Calculate

(i) displacement of horse (ii) velocity in (a) ms-1 (b) kmhr-1.

6. Draw displacement-time graphs in the following situations:

(i) When the body is stationary.

(ii) When the body is moving with a uniform velocity.

(iii) When the body is moving with variable velocity.

7. How can you calculate the following?

(i) Velocity from displacement-time graph.

(ii) Acceleration from velocity-time graph.

(iii) Displacement from velocity-time graph.

(iv) Velocity from acceleration-time graph.

8. Suggest real life examples about the motion of body from the following velocity-time graphs:

Page#20
9. Draw a diagram to show the motion of a body whose speed remains constant, but velocity changes
continuously.

10. From the displacement–time graph shown below

calculate:
(i) Average velocity in first three seconds.
(ii) Displacement from initial position at the end of 13 s.
(iii) Time after which body is at initial position.
(iv) Average velocity after 8 s.
11. A truck running at 90 km hr-1 is brought to rest over a distance of 25 m. Calculate the retardation and

time for which brakes are applied.

12. A stone thrown vertically upward, takes 3 s to attain maximum height. Calculate

(i)Initial velocity of stone

(ii) Maximum height attained by the stone. [Take g = 9.8 ms-2]

13. A train starting from rest, picks up a speed of 20 ms-1 in 200 s. It continues to move at the same rate

for the next 500 s and then brought to rest in another 100 s.

(i) Plot a speed-time graph.

(ii) From the graph calculate:
(a) Uniform rate of acceleration (b) Uniform rate of retardation
(c)Total distance covered before stopping (d)Average speed.
14. A spaceship is moving in space with a velocity of 60 kms-1. It fires its retro-engines for 20 s and the
velocity is reduced to 55 kms-1. Calculate the distance travelled by spaceship in 40 s, from the time
of firing retro-engines.
15. The table above shows the velocity of a motor bike at various intervals of time.

(i) Plot the velocity-time graph.

(ii) Calculate de-acceleration between 5 s – 7 s.
(iii) Calculate acceleration between 7 s and 10 s.
(iv) Calculate de-acceleration between 10 s and 15 s.
(v) Total distance travelled by motor-bike.
(vi) Average velocity of motor bike.

Velocity in (ms-1) 20 20 10 20 0

Time in (seconds) 0 5 7 10 15

Page#21
 WORKSHEET-02
1. An electron moving with the speed of 5 × 104 m/s enters into an electric field and attains a uniform

acceleration of 1015 m/s2 in the direction of motion. In how much time, will it attain a speed twice of its

initial speed? In this time, how much distance will it cover?

2. (i) Explain with the help of an example whether the velocity or the

acceleration of a body give the direction of motion.

(ii) In the given figure, velocity-time graph of a body moving in a

straight line is shown. Find the displacement and the distance

travelled by the body in 6 s.

3. A body is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 98 m/s. Find

(i)The maximum height attained by the body and

(ii)Time taken by body to reach the highest point. Take g = 9.8 m/s2

4. A person moves 10 m towards the east and then 10 m towards the north. What is the displacement?

5. A body is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity ‘u’. Calculate the:

(a) Maximum height attained by the body.
(b)Time of ascent.
(c)Time of descent.
(d)Speed of the body on reaching the ground.
6. Draw the velocity-time graph for the displacement-time graph shown in the
figure.

7. Given figure shows velocity-time graph of a car moving along a straight line
from 0 to 25 s. Calculate the Acceleration of the car.
(i) Retardation of the car.
(ii) Maximum velocity of the car.
(iii) Initial velocity of the car.
(iv) Final velocity of the car.
(v) Distance covered by the car in first 10 s.
(vi) Distance covered by the car in last 15 s.
(vii)Average velocity of the car.

Page#22
8. A body starts from rest and moves with a constant acceleration ‘a’. Prove that the distance travelled
by the body in a certain time varies directly with the square of the time
9. Define speed and velocity.
10. Can a body be at rest as well as in motion at the same time?

11. A rocket fired vertically upwards, has its fuel exhausted in 10 s.

Calculate the height attained by the
rocket from its velocity-time graph given below:

12. A lift gets accelerated from rest to a speed of 72 km/h in 1/12

minute. It then moves uniformly for the next 30 s before coming
to rest at the topmost storey of the building in 8 s.
(i) Draw velocity-time graph of the lift.
(ii) What is the acceleration of the lift?
(iii) What is the retardation of the lift?
(iv) What is the height of the building?
13. A body starts from rest and moves with constant acceleration ‘a’. Show that its instantaneous velocity
varies directly with the square root of the distance travelled.
14. (i) A body has constant acceleration. During its motion, is it possible for the body to travel opposite
to the direction of acceleration? Give an example.
(ii) Why does square of time occur in a unit of acceleration?

Page#23
 LAWS OF MOTION
THEORY
CONTACT AND NON-CONTACT FORCES
A force is that physical cause which changes (or tends to change) either the size or shape or the
state of rest or of motion of the body.
Kinds of forces
(i) The contact forces
(ii) The non-contact forces
Effect of force
A force when applied on a body can produce two main effects
(i) It can change the state of rest or of motion of the body i.e., it can produce motion in the body.
(ii) It can change the size or shape of the body i.e.; it can change the dimensions of the body.
➢ Contact forces
The forces which are applied on bodies by making a physical contact, are called the contact forces.
(1) Friction force
When a body slides over a rough surface, a force
starts acting on the body in a direction opposite
to the motion of the body, along the surface in
contact. This is called the frictional force or the
force of friction.
(2) Normal reaction force
When a body is placed on a surface, the body exerts a force
downwards, equal to its weight, on the surface, but the body
does not move (or fall) because the surface exerts an equal
and opposite force on the body normal to the surface which
is called the normal reaction force

(3) Tension forces as applied through strings

When a body is suspended by a string attached to a rigid support, the body,
due to its weight W, pulls the string vertically downwards and the string in
its stretched condition pulls the body upwards by a force which balances the
weight of the body. This force developed in the string is called tension T.

(4) Force exerted by a spring

Page#24
 In fig (c) The spring exerts a force F opposite to the direction of displacement of its free end, the
magnitude of this force is directly proportional to the magnitude of displacement i.e., its elongation or
compression. This force is called restoring force.

(5) Force exerted during collision

When two bodies collide, they push each other. As a result,
equal and opposite forces act on each body. These forces are
the force of action and force of reaction.

➢ Non-contact forces
The forces experienced by bodies even without being physically touched, are called the non-contact
forces or the forces at a distance.
(1) Gravitational force
In universe, each particle attracts the other particle due to its mass. This force of attraction between
them is called the gravitational force.
(2) Electrostatic force
Two like charges repel, while two unlike charges attract each other. The force between the charges
is called the electrostatic force.
(3) Magnetic force
Two like magnetic poles repel, while two unlike magnetic poles attract each other. The force
between the magnetic poles is called the magnetic force.
General character of non-contact forces
(i) The gravitational force is always of attractive nature, while the electrostatic force and the
magnetic force can be either attractive or repulsive.
(ii)The magnitude of non-contact forces on the two bodies depends on the distance of separation
between them. It decreases with the increase in separation and increases as the separation
decreases.
Its magnitude varies inversely as the square of distance of separation i.e., on doubling the separation,
the force becomes one-fourth.

Page#25
 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION AND INERTIA
➢ Newton’s first law of motion
According to Newton’s first law of motion, if a body is in a state of rest, it will remain in the state of
rest and if it is in the state of motion, it will remain moving in the same direction with the same speed
unless an external force applied on it.
The property of an object by virtue of which it tends to retain its state of rest or of motion, is called
inertia.
It is the inherent property of each object.
Force is that external cause which tends to change the state of rest or the state of motion of an
object.
➢ Mass and inertia
Inertia is an inherent property of each body by virtue of which it has a tendency to resist the change
in its state of rest or state of motion.
This property of inertia is because of the mass of the body.
The greater the mass, the greater is the inertia of body
➢ Kinds of inertia and its examples as illustration of first law
(i) Inertia of rest
If a body is at rest, it will remain at rest unless an external force is applied to change its state of rest.
This property of body is called the inertia of rest.
Examples:
(1) When a train suddenly starts moving forward, the passenger standing in the compartment tends
to fall backwards.
(2) When a hanging carpet is beaten with a stick, the dust particles start falling out of it.
(3) On shaking (or giving jerks to) the branches of a tree, the fruits fall down
(4) On striking the coin at the bottom of a pile of carrom coins with striker, lowest coin only moves
away, while the rest of the pile remains intact.
(5) When a smooth card placed over the mouth of a tumbler is flicked sharply in the horizontal
direction, the card flies away, but the coin kept over the card falls into the tumbler.
(6) When a corridor train suddenly starts the sliding doors of some compartments may open.
(i) Inertia of motion
A body in a state of motion, continues to be in the state of motion with the same speed in the same
direction in a straight line unless an external force is applied on it to change its state. This property of
body is called the inertia of motion.

Page#26
 Examples:
(1) A cyclist riding along a level road does not come to rest immediately after he stops pedaling.
(2) When a passenger jumps out of a moving train, he falls down.
(3) When a running car stops suddenly, the passenger tends to lean forward.
(4) An athlete often runs before taking a long.
(5) A ball thrown vertically upwards by a person in a moving train comes back to his hand.

LINEAR MOMENTUM AND NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

➢ Linear momentum
Linear momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity.
𝐩 = 𝐦𝐯
−1
S.I. unit of momentum is kg m s
C.G.S. unit is g cm s−1
Change in momentum
∆𝐩 = ∆(𝐦𝐯)

Rate of change of momentum

The rate of change in momentum of body is equal to the product of mass of the body and acceleration
produced in it due to that force, provided that the mass of the body remains constant.
Rate of change of momentum = mass × acceleration = m × a

➢ Newton’s second law of motion(F=ma)

According to newton’s second law of motion, the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the force applied on it and the change in momentum takes place in the direction in
which the force is applied.
Initial momentum of body = mu
Final momentum = mv
Change in momentum of body in ‘t’ second = mv − mu = m(v − u)
m(v−u)
Rate of change of momentum =
t
dp
F∝ dt
m(v−u)
=K t

F = K ma , where a = acceleration
K = constant = 1
F = ma

Page#27
Examples
(1) While catching a ball, the cricketer withdraws his hands along with the ball.
(2) Athletes often lands on sand (or foam) after taking a high jump.
(3) When the glass vessels fall on a hard floor, they break, but they do not break when they fall on a
carpet (or sand)
➢ Unit of force
S.I. unit of force is newton (N).
1 newton = 1 kg × 1 ms−2
One newton is a force when act on a body of mass 1 kg, produce an acceleration of 1 ms −2
C.G.S. unit of force is dyne.
1 dyne = 1 g × 1 cms−2
One dyne is a force when act on a body of mass 1 g, produce an acceleration of 1 cm s −2
Relationship between newton and dyne
1 newton = 1 kg × 1 ms−2
= 1000 g x 100 cms−2 = 105 g x cms−2 = 105 dyne
Thus, 𝟏 𝐧𝐞𝐰𝐭𝐨𝐧 = 105 dyne
Newton’s second law of motion in terms of rate of change of momentum
According to Newton’s second law of motion, the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the force applied on it and the change in momentum takes place in the direction in
which the force is applied
To obtain Newton’s first law of motion from Newton’s second law of motion
From Newton’s second law, F = ma
If F =0, then a = 0
This means that if no force applied on the body, its acceleration will be zero
If the body is at rest. It will remain at rest and if it is moving, it will remain moving in the same direction
with the same speed.
Thus the body is not acted upon by any external force, has a unaccelerated motion.
This is the statement of Newton’s first law of motion

Page#28
 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
➢ Newton’s third law of motion
To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
In an interaction of two bodies A and B, the magnitude of reaction (i.e. the force F AB applied by the
body B on the body A) is equal in magnitude to the action (i.e. the force FBA applied by the body A on
the body A on the body B), but they are in direction opposite to each other.
Examples:
(1) A book on a table.
(2) Pushing a wall
(3) Motion of a boat moving away from the above.
(4) Motion of boat in water.
(5) Firing a bullet from a gun.
(6) Rocket motion.
(7) Motion of man on ground.
(8) Motion of boat away from the shore while stepping down from it.
(9) Catching a ball.
GRAVITATION
➢ Universal law of gravitation
The force of attraction between the two particles because of their masses, is called the gravitational
force of attraction.
According to Newton, the force of attraction acting between the two bodies is
(i) Directly proportional to the product of their masses
(ii) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
m1 m2
F=G r2

Gravitational constant G is numerically equal to the magnitude of force of

attraction between the two masses each of 1 kg placed at a separation of
1m.
o Unit of G = N m2 kg-2
o The value of G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
Importance of the law of gravitation
Newton explained the motion of planets around the sun, the motion of moon around the earth and the
motion of a freely falling body by this law.
Forces due to gravity
According to the law of gravitation, the earth attracts each object around it, towards its centre. The
force with which the earth attracts a body is called the force due to gravity on the body.
The force due to gravity on a body of mass m kept on the surface of earth of mass M and radius R, is
equal to the force of attraction between the earth and that body.

Page#29
 It is given as
GMm
F= R2
- - - - (1)

➢ Acceleration due to gravity

• The rate at which the velocity of a freely falling body increases, is called the acceleration due gravity.
• It is the acceleration produced in a freely falling body due to the attraction of earth
• acceleration due gravity is represented by the letter g.
• its S.I. unit is m s-2.
• It is vector quantity directed vertically downwards towards the centre of the earth.
Relationship between g and G
If g is the acceleration due gravity at place, the force on body of mass m at that place will be
F = mass x acceleration due to gravity = mg …….. (2)
From equation (1) and (2)
𝐆𝐌𝐦
𝐅= 𝐑𝟐
= 𝐦𝐠
Or acceleration dye to gravity
𝐆𝐌
𝐠= 𝐑𝟐

Free fall
If a body falls from rest freely from height h, under gravity then u=0 and acceleration ‘a’ is replaced
by g, then equation of motion
1
(i)v = gt (ii) h = gt 2 (iii) v 2 = 2gh
2

If the initial velocity of fall of the body is ‘u’, then equations of motion are
1
(i) v = u + gt (ii) h = ut + gt 2 (iii)v 2 = u2 + 2gh
2

If a body is thrown vertically up with an initial velocity ‘u’ to a height h, there will be retardation
(a = −g) , then equations of motion are:
1
(i) v = u − gt (ii) h = ut − gt 2 (iii)v 2 = u2 − 2gh
2
Mass and Weight
Mass
The mass of a body is the quantity of matter is contains.
Weight
The weight of a body is the force of gravity on it.
W = mg
S.I unit of weight is Newton(N)
C.G.S unit of weight is dyne
Gravitational units of force
One kilogram force is the force due to gravity on a mass of 1 kg.
1 kgf = 9.8N
One gram force is the force due to gravity on a mass of 1 kg.
1 gf = 980 dyn𝑒

Page#30
 WORKSHEET-01
1. Answer the following:

(a)What do you understand by the term inertia?

(b)What determines the inertia of a body?

(c) Define two kinds of inertia. Support your answer with one example each.

2. Answer the following:

(a)What do you understand by the term momentum?

(b)State two factors which determine momentum of a body?

3. Show that rate of change of momentum is the product of mass and acceleration.

4. Answer the following:

(a)State Newton’s law of gravitation.

(b)Derive mathematical expression for the gravitational force based on universal law of gravitation.

5. If the distance between two bodies is increased 4 times, by which factor, should the mass of one body

be altered, so that gravitational force between them remains same.

6. Answer the following:

(a) What do you understand by the term "force of gravitation"?

(b) Is the force of gravitation attractive or repulsive force?

(c) Does the force of gravitation exist at all places in the universe? Explain your answer.

7. The rate of change of momentum of a body is 3 kg ms-2. What is the force acting on the body?

8. (i) Why do objects fall towards the earth?

(ii) What do you mean by action?

9. State Newton’s second law of motion.

10. A body starts from rest with a uniform acceleration of 2 ms-2. Find the distance covered

by the body in 2 s.

11. What do you mean by inertia of motion? Give one example each of inertia of rest and inertia of motion.

Page#31
 WORKSHEET-02

1. What do you understand by the statement that gravitational constant is

6.67 × 10–11 Nm2 kg–2?

2. Two bodies A and B are of mass m and 5 m and their velocities are 5v and v respectively. Assuming

bodies are moving with uniform velocities, compare their

(a) Inertia (b)Momentum (b) Force required to stop them.

3. A body having a velocity of 200 ms–1 has a momentum of 5 Ns. Find the mass of body.
1
4. A force of 50 kgf acts on a body of mass 2 t. Find the acceleration produced in the body.

[Take g = 10 N kg–1]

5. A golfer hits a golf ball at rest, such that the contact between the ball and golf club is 0.1 s. If the golf

ball covers a linear distance of 400 m in 2 s. Calculate the magnitude of force applied. The mass of

golf ball is 50 g.

6. A car of mass 800 kg moving with 54 kmh–1 is brought to rest over a distance of 15 m. Calculate the

retarding force developed by the brakes.

7. A bullet of mass 30 g and moving with velocity x, hits a wooden target with a force of 187.5 N. If the

bullet penetrates 80 cm in the target, what is the magnitude of x.

8. A car of 1000 kg develops a force of 500 N, over a distance of 49 m. If initially the car is at rest, find

(i)Velocity (ii) Time for which car accelerates.

9. A force of 0.6 gf acts on a glass ball of mass 200 g for 12 s. If initially the ball is at rest, calculate the

final velocity and distance covered. (Take g = 1000 cm s–2)

10. You are given a body of mass 12 kg. Calculate the:

(i) force exerted by the Earth on the body and

(ii)force exerted by the body on the Earth. Take g = 10 N/kg

Page#32
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS AND ATMOSPHERE PRESSURE
THEORY
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS AND ITS TRANSMISSION
Thrust and pressure
Thrust
Thrust is the force acting normally on a surface.
Thrust exerted by a body on a surface = Weight of the body
Unit of Thrust
S.I. unit of thrust is newton (N)
C.G.S. unit of thrust is dyne
Pressure
Pressure is the thrust per unit area of surface.
𝐅
𝐏=
𝐀
Unit of pressure
S.I. unit of pressure is N m−2
C.G.S unit of pressure is dyne cm−2
One Pascal is the pressure exerted on a surface of area 1 m2 by a force of 1 N acting normally on it.
Factors affecting the pressure
(i)The area on which the thrust is applied
(ii)The thrust
Way of increasing pressure
For the given thrust, the pressure on a surface is increased by reducing the area of surface on which
it is acting.
Way of decreasing pressure
For the given thrust, the pressure on a surface is reduced by increasing the area of surface.
Pressure in fluids
A fluid contained in a vessel exerts pressure at all points and in all direction.
Pressure exerted by a liquid column
Pressure = depth × density of liquid × acceleration due to gravity
P=hρg
Factors affecting the pressure at a point in a liquid
(i)Depth of the point below the free surface (h)
(ii)Density of liquid (ρ)
(iii)Acceleration due to gravity (g)

Page#33
➢ Laws of liquid pressure
(i) Inside the liquid, pressure increases with the increase in depth from its free surface.
(ii) In a stationary liquid, pressure is same at all points on a horizontal plane.
(iii) Pressure is same in all directions about a point inside the liquid.
(iv) Pressure increases with the increase in density of liquid.
(v) A liquid seeks its own level.
➢ Some consequences of liquid pressure
(i) The pressure at a certain depth in sea water is more than that at the same depth in river.
(ii) The wall of a dam is made thicker at the bottom.
(iii) Water supply tank is placed high.
(iv) The pressure inside the Diver’s suit maintained at one atmosphere.
(v) Size of gas bubble inside the water.
➢ Transmission of pressure in liquids; Pascal’s law
Pascal’s law states that the pressure exerted anywhere in a confined liquid is transmitted equally and
undiminished in all directions throughout the liquid.
➢ Application of Pascal’s law
Hydraulic machines such as hydraulic press, hydraulic jack and hydraulic brakes are based on
Pascal’s law of transmission of pressure in liquids.
Principle of hydraulic machine
The principle of each hydraulic machine is that a small force applied on a smaller piston is transmitted
to produce a large force on the bigger piston.

Principle of a hydraulic machine

When a weight is placed on the piston A, it exerts a force F1 on the piston A.

F
∴ The pressure applied on the piston A is P1 = A1 … . (i)
1

According to Pascal’s law, the pressure exerted on piston A is transmitted through the liquid to the
piston B. This exerts an upward pressure P2 on the piston B which is equal to P1. Thus
P2 = P1 ….. (ii)
If the upward force exerted on piston B is F2. Then
F2 = P2A2 ….. (iii)
From eqns. (i),(ii),(iii),
F2 A2
=
F1 A1

Page#34
 Since A2 > A1, therefore F2 > F1
Hydraulic machine which acts as a force multiplier.
Examples of hydraulic machines
(i) Hydraulic press (or Bramah press)
• A hydraulic press works on the principle of Pascal’s law.
• Uses of hydraulic press
1. For pressing cotton bales and goods like quilts, books etc.
2. For extracting the juice from sugarcane, sugar beet etc.
3. For squeezing oil out of linseed and cotton seeds.
4. For engraving monograms on goods.
(ii) Hydraulic jack (or Hydraulic lift)
A hydraulic jack is used for lifting heavy vehicles such as cars, truck etc., in service stations for their
repairing.
It works on the Pascal’s principle
(iii) Hydraulic brakes
The hydraulic brakes used in cars etc., are also based on Pascal’s principle.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND ITS MEASURMENT
➢ Atmospheric pressure
The thrust exerted per unit area on the earth surface due to column of air, is called the atmospheric
pressure on the surface of earth.
➢ Common consequences of the atmospheric pressure
(i) Sucking a drink with a straw
(ii) Fitting a syringe with a liquid
(iii) Filling of ink into a fountain pen
(iv) Action of rubber suckers
(v) Action of a siphon system
(vi) Taking out oil from a sealed oil can
Measurement of atmospheric pressure
A barometer is an instrument which is used to measure the atmospheric pressure.
The following three types of barometers are used commonly:
(i) Simple barometer (ii) Fortin's barometer (iii) Aneroid barometer
(i) Simple barometer
In fig, the atmospheric pressure acts at all points outside the tube (such as C)
on the surface of mercury in the trough.
The pressure at point A is due to the weight (or thrust) of the mercury column
AB above it.
The vertical height of mercury column in it (i.e., AB=h) is a measure of
atmospheric pressure and is called the barometric height.

Page#35
 The space left empty above the mercury column in the tube is called the torricellian vacuum.
Working
If the atmospheric pressure increases, the pressure at point C increases and mercury from trough
flows into the tube thereby increasing the vertical height of mercury column in the tube so as to
equalise pressures at the points A and C.
On the other hand , when the atmospheric pressure decreases, the vertical height of the column in
tube decreases to balance it.
The barometric height at normal temperature and pressure at sea level is 0.76 m of mercury.
The barometric height at a place changes only when the atmospheric pressure at that place changes.
Advantages of using mercury as a Barometric Liquid
- Its density is the highest among liquids
- It is readily available in pure and dry form
At normal temperatures, its vapour pressure is negligible. Hence, there are no mercury vapours above
the mercury column.
- It is easy to note mercury readings because it is a shining and an opaque metal, and
- It does not stick to the sides of the glass tube.
Demerits of a Simple Barometer
- There is no protection for the glass tube.
- It is inconvenient to move the barometer from one place to the other (not portable.
- A scale cannot be fixed with the tube to measure the atmospheric pressure.
- The surface of the mercury in trough is open therefore there are chances that the impurities may fall
in and get mixed with the mercury of the trough.
(ii) Fortin barometer
The Fortin barometer is a modified form of a simple barometer.
Fortin’s barometer is widely used in laboratories and in meteorological departments. The main
advantages of Fortin’s barometer are :
- It is portable.
- It allows the mercury level in the cistern to be set to zero. This makes the reading more accurate.
(iii)Aneroid barometer
- An aneroid barometer is light and portable, and can be fixed in any plane.
- It is calibrated to read atmospheric pressure directly. No prior adjustments are necessary.
- An aneroid barometer does not contain any liquid, and hence, there is no fear of the liquid spilling
over.

Page#36
 Uses of barometer
1. To measure the atmospheric pressure at a place.
2. For weather forecasting.
3. As an altimeter to measure the height.
Variation of atmospheric pressure with altitude
The atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude mainly due to the following two factors:
Decrease in height of air column which causes a linear decrease in the atmosphere pressure.
Decrease in density of air which causes a non-linear decrease in atmospheric pressure.
➢ Weather forecast by the use of barometer
By seeing the barometric height, the weather forecast can be made as follows:
(i) If the barometric height at a place suddenly falls, it means that the pressure at that place has
suddenly decreased which indicates the coming of a storm or cyclone.
(ii) If the barometric height gradually falls, it indicates that the moisture is increasing i.e., there is a
possibility of rain.
(iii) A gradual increase in the barometric height means that the moisture in air is decreasing. This
indicates the coming of a dry weather.
(iv) A sudden rise in the barometric height means the flow of air from that place to other surrounding
low pressure areas. This indicates the coming of an extremely dry weather.
(v) If there is no abrupt change in barometric height, it indicates that the atmospheric pressure is
normal i.e., the weather will remain unchanged.
Altimeter
An altimeter is an aneroid barometer, but it is used in aircraft to measure its altitude.
Its scale is calibrated in terms of height of ascent with height increasing towards left because the
atmospheric pressure decrease with increase of height above the sea level.

Page#37
 WORKSHEET-01
1. Briefly describe an experiment to prove:

(i) Pressure in fluids is directly proportional to depth.

(ii) Pressure in fluids is directly proportional to the density of fluid.

(iii) Fluids exert same pressure in all directions.

2. State three factors which determine the pressure of a fluid at a given point within the fluid.

3. How does the fluid pressure on a balloon changes when:

(a) balloon rises up from a height of 200 m to a height of 500 m?

(b) balloon moves horizontally at a height 200 m?

(c) balloon is brought down on the surface of earth?

4. The diagram alongside is a simplified version of hydraulic press.

Answer the following questions?

Name and state the principle of hydraulic press.

(i) What is the pressure exerted on the piston P?

(ii) What is the pressure throughout the fluid?

(iii) What is the pressure exerted by the fluid on piston Q?

(iv) What is the thrust on the piston Q?

(v) Calculate the mechanical advantage of pressure from the above data.

5. (a) What do you understand by the term atmospheric pressure?

(b) What is the cause of atmospheric pressure?

(c) State the numerical value of atmospheric pressure at sea level in

(i) cm of mercury (ii) pascals (iii) bars.

6. Explain the following:

(a) Why is water not a suitable barometric liquid?

(b) Why is mercury used as a barometric liquid?

(c) Name two factors which do not affect barometric height at a given place.

(d) Name four factors which affect barometric height at a given place.

Page#38
7. (a) Draw a neat fully labelled diagram of aneroid barometer.

(b) Explain how aneroid barometer is used for

(i) Forecasting weather

(ii) As an altimeter.

8. (i) State whether the pressure acting at a point in a liquid is a scalar quantity or vector quantity.

(ii) A glass container contains a liquid of density ρ, when the height of liquid is ‘h’ and acceleration

due to gravity is ‘g’. If PA is the atmospheric pressure, calculate:

(1) The pressure the free surface of the liquid.

(2) The total pressure at the base of container.

(3) What is the magnitude of lateral pressure the base of liquid on the inner side of

container?

9. (a) What does Fig. I tell about pressure in liquids?

(b) What does Fig. II tell about pressure in liquids?

10. State the laws of liquid pressure.

11. Deduce an expression for the pressure at a depth inside a liquid.

Page#39
 WORKSHEET-02
1. How will you forecast the gradual and sudden rise in the atmospheric pressure with the help of a
barometer?
2. How do weather changes affect atmospheric pressure?

3. State the laws of liquid pressure.

4. Deduce an expression for the pressure at a depth inside a liquid.

5. Why one cannot suck lemonade on the surface of the moon with a soda straw?

6. Explain

(i)What do you mean by diving suit? Give the two categories in which modern diving suits are divided.

(ii)Why is blood pressure in humans greater at the feet than at the brain?

7. What is the difference between thrust and pressure? Write their SI units.

8. A cube of side 5 cm is placed inside a liquid. The pressure at the centre of one face of cube is 10Pa.

Calculate the thrust exerted by the liquid on this face.

9. A glass jar contains a liquid of density ‘d’ up to a height ‘h’ at a place where acceleration due to gravity

is ‘g’. The atmospheric pressure is PA.

(i)What is the pressure at the free surface of the liquid?

(ii)Write an expression for the total pressure at the bottom of the jar.

(iii)What will be the lateral pressure at this depth on the inner side of the jar.

10. State the law of transmission of pressure in liquids.

11. A cube of height 10cm is immersed in a water of density 1000kg/m3. The length of the liquid column

is 40cm and the upper surface of the cube is 15cm below the water surface. Calculate the pressure

at the top and bottom of the cube; also calculate the resultant pressure on the cube.

12. Draw a labeled diagram of a common hydrometer and state the principle used in its working.

Page#40
 UPTHRUST IN FLUIDS, ARCHIMEDES
PRINCIPLE & FLOATATION
THEORY
UPTHRUST AND ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
➢ Buoyancy and upthrust:
When a body is partially or whole immersed in a liquid, an upward force
acts on it known as upthrust or buoyant force.
The property of liquid to exert an upward force on a body immersed in it,
is called buoyancy.
The two forces acting on the body immersed in liquid:

Unit of Upthrust
Upthrust is a force, it is measured in newton (N) or kgf.
➢ Characteristics properties of Upthrust
(i) Larger the volume of body submerged in a fluid, greater is the upthrust.
(ii) For same volume inside the fluid more the density of fluid, greater is the upthrust.
(iii) The upthrust acts on the body in upward direction at the centre of buoyancy i.e., the centre of
gravity of the displaced fluid.
➢ Upthrust is equal to the weight of displaced liquid
When a body is immersed in a liquid, upthrust on it due to liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid
displayed by the submerged part of the body.
𝐔𝐩𝐭𝐡𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐭 𝐅𝐁 = 𝐕 𝛒 𝐠
V ρ g= Volume of liquid displaced × density of liquid × acceleration due to gravity.
Factors affecting the Upthrust
(i)Volume of the body submerged in liquid (or fluids)
(ii)Density of the liquid (or fluid) in which the body is submerged.
Effect of Upthrust
The effect of upthrust is that weight of the body
immersed in liquid appears to be less than its actual
weight.
➢ Archimedes principle
Archimedes principle states that when a body is
immersed partially or completely in a liquid, it
experiences an upthrust, which is equal to the weight
of the liquid displaced by it.

Page#41
Apparent weight of an object = True weight of object in air – upthrust (weight of water displaced)
Buoyant force = weight of water displaced
Solid bodies with density (𝛒) greater than density of liquid (𝛒𝐋 ) sink while with density (𝛒) less
than density of liquid (𝛒𝐋 ) float.
Let a body of volume V and density ρ be immersed completely in a liquid of density ρL .
The weight of the body acting downwards will be W = Vρg and the maximum upthrust on the body
acting upwards will be FB′ = VρL g,
Following three cases may arise:
(i) W > FB′ or Vρg > VρL g or ρ > ρL , the body will sink due to net force (W − FB′ ) acting downwards.
(ii) If W = FB′ or Vρg = VρL g or ρ = ρL , the body will float and the net force on the body is zero.
(iii) If W < FB′ or Vρg < VρL g or ρ < ρL , the body will float due to net force (FB′ − W) acting upwards
and only that much volume v of the body will submerge inside the liquid due to which upthrust
FB (= vρL g) balances the weight W. The net force on the body is zero in this situation also.
RELATIVE DENSITY AND ITS MEASUREMENT BY ARCHEMEDES PRINCIPLE
Density
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. i.e.,
𝐌
𝛒=
𝐕
Units of density
SI unit of density is kg m−3
C.G.S. unit of density is g cm−3
Effect of temperature on density
Density of most of the substances decreases with the increase in temperature and increases with the
decrease in temperature.
The density of water is maximum at 4°C, equal to 1 g cm−3 or 1000 kg m−3
Relative density
The relative density (R.D) of a substance is the ratio of the density of that substance to the density of
water at 4°C.
Density of substance (ρS )
R. D =
Density of water at 4°C (ρw )
Relative density of a substance is also defined as the ratio of the mass of a certain volume of a
substance to that mass of an equal volume of water at 4°C
Mass of a certain volume ofa substance (mS )
R. D =
Mass of an equal volume of water at 4°C (mw )
Unit of relative density
In C.G.S system, density of water at 4°C is 1 g cm−3
In S.I system, density of water at 4°C is 1000 g m−3

Page#42
Determination of relative density of a solid substance by Archimedes principle
Weight of body in air
R. D. =
Weight of body in air − Weight of body in water
W1
R. D. =
W1 − W2
(i) R.D. of a solid denser than water and insoluble in it.
Weight of solid in air
R. D. =
Loss in weight of solid in water

(ii) R.D. of a solid denser than water and soluble in it.

Weight of solid in air

R. D. = × R. D. of liquid
Loss in weight of solid in liquid

➢ Determination of relative density of a liquid by Archimedes’ principle

Weight of body in air − Weight of body in liquid

R. D. =
Weight of body in air − Weight of body in water

W1 − W2
R. D. of liquid =
W1 − W2

FLOATATION
➢ Principle of floatation
(i)The weight W of body acting vertically downwards, through the centre of gravity G of the body. This
force has a tendency to sink the body.
(ii)The upthrust FB of the liquid acting vertically upwards,
through the centre of buoyancy B i.e., the centre of gravity of the
displaced liquid. The upthrust is equal in magnitude to the weight
of the liquid displaced.
This force has a tendency to make the body float.
In magnitude,
W = volume of body × density of body × g
FB = Volume of submerged part of body × density of liquid × g
Case (i)
When W > FB′ i.e., the weight of the body is greater
than the weight of the displaced liquid, body will sink.
ρ > ρL

Page#43
 Case (ii)
When W = FB′ i.e., the weight of the body is equal to the weight of the
displaced liquid, the body will float just inside the surface of the liquid.
ρ = ρL

Case (iii)
When W < FB′ i.e., the weight of the body is less than buoyant
force, the body will float partially above the surface of the liquid.
ρ < ρL

W = FB
∴ Apparent weight of a floating body = 0 (zero)
The weight of a floating body is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by its submerged
part.
Relation between volume of submerged part of a floating body, the densities of liquid and the
body
Volume of immersed part of body Density of body
=
Total volume of body Density of body
v ρS
=
V ρL
➢ Application of the principle of floatation
(i) Floatation of iron ship
- An iron nail sinks in water while a ship floats
- A loaded ship is submerged more while an unloaded ship is less submerged.
- A ship begins to submerge more as it sails from sea water to river water
- An unloaded ship is filled with sand at its bottom
(ii) Floatation of human body
- It is easier for a man to swim in sea water than in fresh (or river) water.
(iii) Floatation of submarines
(iv) Floatation of iceberg
- Volume of iceberg above the water surface while floating.
v ρice
=
V ρwater
- Icebergs are dangerous for ships
- No change in level of water on melting a floating piece of ice.
(v) Floatation of fish
(vi) Rising of balloons
- The balloon does not rise indefinitely.

Page#44
 WORKSHEET-01
1. A solid body weights 2.10 N in air. Its relative density is 8.4. How much will the body weigh if placed

(i)In water

(ii)In a liquid of relative density 1.2?

2. Answer the following:

(i)State Archimedes’ principle.

(ii)A cargo ship is loaded in sea water to maximum capacity. What will happen if this ship is moved

river water? Give a reason for your answer.

(iii)A body of mass 100gm is floating in water. What will be its apparent weight? Justify your answer.

3. A jeweler claims that he makes ornament of pure gold that has a R.D of 19.3. He sells a bangle

weighting 25.25gm to a person. The clever customer weights the bangle when immersed in water and

finds that it weighs 23.075gm in water. With the help of suitable calculations, find out if the ornament

is made of pure gold or not.

4. A rubber ball floats in water with one third of its volume above the water surface. Calculate its average

relative density.

5. Describe an experiment to verify the Archimedes’ principle.

6. A body of volume 100 cm3 weighs 5 kgf in air. It is completely immersed in a liquid of density

1.8 × 103 kg m−3. Find

(i)The upthrust due to liquid and

(ii)The weight of the body in liquid.

7. You are provided with a hollow iron ball A of volume 15 cm3 and mass 12 g and a solid iron ball B of

mass 12 g. Both are placed on the surface of water contained in a large tub.

(a)Find upthrust on each ball

(b)Which ball will sink ? Give reason for your answer. (Density of iron = 8.0 g cm−3)

8. A sphere of iron and another of wood, both of same radius are placed on the surface of water. State

which of the two will sink ? Give reason to your answer.

Page#45
9. A body held completely immersed inside a liquid experiences two forces :

(i)F1 , the force due to gravity

(ii)F2 , the buoyant force.

Draw a diagram showing the direction of these forces acting on the body and state condition when

the body will float or sink

10. Describe an experiment, using Archimedes’ principle, to find relative density of a liquid.

11. Calculate the mass of air in a room of dimensions 4.5 m × 3.5 m × 2.5 m if the density of air at N.T.P

is 1.3 kg m−3

12. A solid weighs 32 gf in air and 28.8 gf in water.

Find :

(i) The volume of solid

(ii) R.D. of solid

(iii)The weight of solid in a liquid od density 0.9 g cm−3

13. A body is held immersed in a liquid

(i) Name the two forces acting on body and draw a diagram to show these forces.

(ii) State how do the magnitudes of two forces mentioned in part (i) determine whether the body will

float or sink in liquid when it is released.

(iii) What is the net force on body if it.

(a)Sinks (b)Floats?

14. What is centre of buoyancy? State its position for a floating body with respect to the centre of gravity

of body.

15. A body of volume V and density ρs , floats with volume v inside a liquid of density ρL . Show that

v ρs
=
V ρL

Page#46
 WORKSHEET-02
1. A block of mass 7 kg and volume 0.07 m3 floats in a liquid of density 140 kg m-3. Calculate the volume

of the block above the surface of the liquid.

2. A piece of brass (an alloy of copper and zinc) weighs 12.9 g in air. When completely immersed in

water, it weighs 11.3 g. What is the volume of copper contained in the alloy? R.D. of copper and zinc

are 8.9 and 7.1 respectively.

3. (i) What do you mean by a graph? Mention two necessary

rules to plot a graph?

(ii)Two tanks A and B are filled with water to the same height

as shown in the figure given below.

In which of the two tanks, will the pressure at the bottom be greater?

4. State Archimedes’ principle. Describe an experiment to verify Archimedes’ principle.

5. A body weighs 450 g f in air and 310 g f when completely immersed in water. Find:

(i)The loss in weight of the body in water,

(ii)The up thrust on the body.

6. What is the difference between thrust and pressure? Give their SI units.

7. A weather forecasting plastic balloon of volume 15 m3 contains hydrogen of density 0.09 kg/m3. The

volume of equipment carried by the balloon is negligible compared to its own volume. The mass of

the empty balloon alone is 7.15 kg. The balloon is floating in the air of density 1.3 kg/m3. Calculate:

(i) Mass of hydrogen in the balloon.

(ii) Mass of hydrogen and balloon.

(iii) If mass of equipment is x kg, write down the total mass of hydrogen, the balloon and the

equipment.

(iv) Mass of air displaced by balloon.

Using law of floatation, calculate the mass of equipment.

Page#47
8. Define the term volume. Mass of a sphere of radius 1.4 m is 500 kg. Calculate the density of the

material of the sphere.

9. A block of wood floats in brine solution of density 1.15 g cm-3 such that three-fifth of its volume is

immersed into the brine. Calculate the density of wood.

10. The mass of a block is 1.35 kg and its volume is 1.5  10-3 m3. Find the density of the block.

Will this block float in water? Give reason.

11. Ram throws a stone in the pond. It displaced 1.5 kg of water. Calculate the buoyant force acting on

the stone. (g = 9.8 m/s2).

12. A body, whose volume is 100 cm3, weighs 1 kg in the air. Find its weight in water.

(Density of water = 103 kg m3, g= 10 m/s2)

13. Explain

(i)How does the density of water change with temperature?

(ii)The density of iron is 7.8 x 103 kg m-3. What is its relative density?

Page#48
 HEAT AND ENERGY
THEORY
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE: ANOMALOUS EXPANSION
➢ Concept of heat (heat as energy)
Heat is the internal energy of molecules constituting the body. It flows from a hot body to a cold body.
Units of heat
1 J = 107 erg
1 kilocalorie = 1000 calories
1 cal = 4.186 J ≈ 4.2 J
Concept of temperature
Temperature is a quantity which tells the thermal state of a body (i.e., the degree of hotness or
coldness of the body). It determines the direction of flow of heat when two bodies at different
temperatures are placed in contact.
Units of temperature:
The S.I unit of temperature is kelvin (K).
The other units of temperature are degree Celsius (°C) and degree Fahrenheit (°F)
➢ Thermal expansion
The expansion of a substance on heating is called the thermal expansion of that substance.
➢ Anomalous expansion of water
The expansion of water when it is cooled from 4°C to 0°C, is known as anomalous expansion of water.
➢ Hope’s experiment to demonstrate the anomalous expansion of water
Hope’s apparatus consists of a tall metallic cylinder provided with
two side openings P and Q, P near the top and Q near the bottom,
fitted with thermometers T1 and T2 in them. The central part of the
cylinder is surrounded with a cylindrical through containing a
freezing mixture of ice and salt. The cylinder is fitted with pure
water at room temperature.

Observations:
(i)Initially, both thermometers T1 and T2 are at the same temperature.
(ii)First, the temperature recorded by the lower thermometer
T2 starts decreasing and finally it becomes steady at 4°C, while the temperature recorded in the upper
thermometer T1 remains almost unchanged during this time.
(iii)Then, the temperature recorded by the lower thermometer T2 remains constant at 4°C and upper
thermometer T1 records a continuous fall in temperature up to 0°C and then it becomes steady.
Thus, finally, the temperature recorded by the upper thermometer is 0°C and that by lower
thermometer is 4°C.

Page#49
Working:
As the freezing mixture cools water in the central portion of the cylinder, water contracts and its density
increases, consequently it sinks to the bottom, thereby causing the reading of the lower thermometer
T2 to fall rapidly.
The reading of the upper thermometer T1 does not change as the temperature of water in the upper
part does not change.
This continues till the entire water below the central portion reaches 4°C.
On cooling further below 4°C, due to anomalous expansion, water of the central portion expands, so
its denity decreases and hence it rises up.
As a result, reading of the upper thermometer T1 falls rapidly to 0°C and water freezes to form ice at
0°C near the top. This proves that water has maximum density at 4°C.
➢ Consequences of anomalous expansion of water
(i)The anomalous expansion of water helps in preserving the aquatic life during very cold weather.
(ii)The anomalous expansion of water is responsible for the burst of water pipe lines, and destruction
of crop during the very cold nights.
ENERGY FLOW AND ITS IMPORTANCE
➢ Energy flow in an ecosystem:
A unit composed of biotic components (i.e.,
Producers, consumers and decomposers) and
abiotic components (i.e. light, heat, rain, humidity,
inorganic and organic substances) is called an
ecosystem.
Food chain
In ecosystem
Photosynthetic plants and bacteria act as
producers
The food synthesized by producers is utilized by
Primary consumers (Such as krill)
The primary consumers are eaten by the
secondary consumers (Such as small fish)
- In turn they are consumed by the tertiary consumers (Such as large fish)
- The tertiary consumers may be eaten by man.
- The man nay be the last consumer in this chain of energy transfer when he eats the fish.

Page#50
Energy flow

Energy flow in ecosystem

➢ Application of laws of thermodynamics in energy flow
According to the first law of thermodynamics, the energy can be transformed from one form to the
other form, but it can neither be created nor destroyed.
According to the second law of thermodynamics, when energy is put to work, a part of it is always
converted to heat mainly, due to friction and radiation.
ENERGY SOURCES
➢ Sources of energy
Characteristics of a source of energy
A source of energy should be such that it can provide an adequate amount of useful energy at a
steady rate over a long period of time.
It should be safe and convenient to use, economical and easy to store and transport.
Classification of sources of energy:
(i)Renewable or non-conventional sources of energy
(ii)Non-renewable or conventional sources of energy
➢ Renewable or non-conventional sources of energy
A natural source providing us energy continuously is called a renewable (or non-conventional) source
of energy.
The main sources of renewable energy are:
(i)Sun as source of energy
- The energy obtained from the sun is called the solar energy.
- The average solar energy reaching the upper atmosphere of earth per second on area of 1 metre2 is
called solar constant & it is estimated to be nearly 1.34 kW m−2

Page#51
(ii)Wind as source of energy
- The kinetic energy of wind is called the wind energy.
- Indirectly wind energy comes from solar energy.
- The sun rays falling on earth heat different areas of the earth unequally
- Wind energy is generated due to
(i) Unequal heating of different areas of the earth
(ii) Rotation of the earth
(iii) Local convection currents,
(iii)Flowing water (Hydro) as source of energy
The kinetic energy possessed by the flowing water is called the hydro energy.
(i) Bio mass and bio fuels from waste
- The wastes and dead parts of living beings like plants, trees and animals is called bio mass.
- The chemical energy stored in the bio mass is called the bio energy.
- In India , we use two types of bio gas plants
(1) The floating gas holder type
(2) The fixed dome type (Gobar gas plants).
(iv)Tides
- The rise of ocean water near the coast is called high tide and fall of ocean water is called low tide.
- The energy possessed by rising and falling water in tides is known as tidal energy.
- This is not a major source of energy because
(1)The rise and fall of sea water during tides is not enough to generate electricity on a large scale.
(2)There are very few sites which are suitable for building the tidal dams.
(v)Oceans
Water in oceans possesses energy in two forms:
(a)Ocean thermal energy
The energy available due to the difference in temperature of water at the surface and at deeper levels
of ocean is called the ocean thermal energy (OTE).
(b)Oceanic (or sea) waves energy
The kinetic energy possessed by such fast moving oceanic (or sea) waves is called the oceanic (or
sea) waves energy.
Geo-thermal spots
The heat energy possessed by rocks inside the earth is called the geo thermal energy.
Nuclear fuel
When uranium nucleus is bombarded with a slow neutron, it splits into two nearly equal light nuclei
and a large amount of energy is released. This phenomenon is called nuclear fission.
When two light nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus at a very high temperature (≈ 107 ) and high
pressure, a tremendous amount of energy is released. This phenomenon is called nuclear fusion.

Page#52
 To utilize the energy produced in the process of fission for constructive use (such as to produce
electricity), the chain reaction is controlled by absorbing some neutrons with the help of cadmium rod.
This is done in a nuclear reactor.
➢ Non-renewable or the conventional sources of energy
The sources of energy which have accumulated in nature over a very long period and cannot be
quickly replaced when exhausted, are called the non-renewable or conventional sources of energy.
The non-renewable sources of energy
Coal
Coal is a non-renewable source made up of complex compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
along with some free carbon and compounds of nitrogen and sulphur.
Petroleum
It is a complex of many hydrocarbons with water, salt, earth particles and other compounds of carbon,
oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
The process of separating useful components from crude petroleum is called refining which is done
by fractional distillation in big oil refineries set up for this purpose.
The petroleum gas liquefied under pressure is called the liquefied petroleum gas
Natural gas
Natural gas is also a non-renewable source of energy which is found deep under the earth’s crust
either alone or above the petroleum reservoirs.
➢ Judicious use of energy
(1)The fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, etc. should be used only for limited purposes when no
other alternative source of energy is available.
(2)Wastage of energy should be avoided.
(3)Cutting of trees must be banned and more and more trees should be planted.
(4)Efforts must be made to make use of energy in community (or groups).
(5)In rural areas, the use of renewable sources of energy is easier than in urban areas.
In rural areas, we can use bio gas, wind energy, hydro energy for running lights and tube wells.
➢ Production of electricity from solar energy
The device which converts solar energy directly into the electricity is called a solar cell.
A solar heating device used to generate electricity from solar energy is called a solar power plant.
Solar cell
The solar cells are usually made from semiconductors like
silicon and gallium.
To increase the efficiency, a large amount of such cells are
arranged over a large area so that they could collect a large
number of solar energy to produce sufficient electricity.
Such an arrangement of solar cells is called a solar panel.
Solar panels are used to supply electricity.

Page#53
 Advantages of using solar panels
1. They do not require any maintenance.
2. They last over a long period of time.
3. Their running cost is almost nil.
4. They are most suitable for the remote, inaccessible and isolated places where electric power lines
cannot be laid.
5. They do not cause any pollution in the environment and are thus the cleanest sources of electricity.
Disadvantage of using solar panels
1. The initial cost of a solar panel is sufficiently high.
2. The efficiency of conversion of solar energy to electricity is low.
3. A solar panel produces d.c. electricity which cannot be directly used for many household purposes.
Solar power plant
A solar power plant is a device in which heat energy of the sun is used to generate electricity.
The sun rays after reflection from a large concave reflector get concentrated at its focus.
Rays have sufficient energy which can boil water, if it is placed at the focus of the reflector.
This principle is used in a solar power plant.
➢ Production of electricity from wind energy
Wind energy is used in a wind generator to produce
electricity by making use of a windmill (or wind turbine) to
drive a wind generator.
Fig. shows the arrangement of a wind generator in which a
small electric generator is placed at the top of a pillar.

When the blowing wind strikes the blades of the wind mill (or turbine), the kinetic energy of the blades.
The rotation of blades of the turbine rotates the armature of the dynamo in the magnetic field between
the pole pieces N and S of a strong magnet, thus an alternating e.m.f. is produced between the
terminals T1 and T2.
To generate a sufficient amount of electric power, a large number of such wind generators are
arranged over a big area called a wind farm.
Advantages of using the wind energy
(i)It does not cause any kind of pollution.
(ii)It is an everlasting (i.e. renewable) source.
Limitations of using the wind energy
(i) The wind farms can be established only at places near the coastal areas where wind blows around
the year steadily with a speed not less than 15 km h−1
(ii) A large area of land is needed for the establishment of a wind farm.
(iii) The establishment of a wind farm is expensive.

Page#54
➢ Production of electricity from water (or hydro) energy
The most important use of hydro energy is to convert it into the electrical energy by using a turbine.
The electricity so obtained is called the hydroelectric power.

Working:
When water from dam falls on the water turbine, the potential energy of the water stored in dam
changes into its kinetic energy and this kinetic energy of water is transferred to the blades of turbine
as the rotational kinetic energy.
As the turbine rotates, it rotates the armature of the generator in the magnetic field between the pole
pieces N and S of a strong magnet, due to which an alternating e.m.f. is produced between the
terminals T1 and T2.
Advantages of using the hydro energy
(i) It does not produce any environmental pollution.
(ii) It is a renewable source of energy.
(iii) The dams constructed over rivers help us in irrigation and control of floods in rivers.
Limitations of using hydro energy
(i) The flowing water is not available everywhere.
(ii) Due to the construction of dams over the rivers, plants and animals of that place get destroyed or
killed.
(iii) The ecological balance in the downstream areas of rivers gets disturbed.
➢ Production of electricity from nuclear energy
It is possible to produce electricity from the nuclear energy by the controlled chain reaction of nuclear
fission of a radioactive substance like uranium-235 (or plutonium-239). The set up used is called the
nuclear power plant.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

Page#55
Working:
In a nuclear reactor, the chain reaction of nuclear fission of uranium-235 (orplutonium-239) is
controlled by a cadmium rods.
The heat energy released in the process, is absorbed by the coolant which then passes through the
coils of a heat exchanger containing water
The water in heat exchanger gets heated and converts into steam.
The steam is used to rotate the turbine which in turn rotates the armature of a generator in a magnetic
field and thus electricity is produced.
• Advantages of using the nuclear energy:
(i) A very small amount of nuclear fuel (such as uranium-235) can produce a tremendous amount of
energy.
(ii)Once the nuclear fuel is loaded into a nuclear power plant, it continuous to release energy over a
long period.

• Limitation of use of nuclear energy

(i)It is not a clean source of energy because very harmful nuclear radiations are produced in the
process which are highly energetic and penetrating. These radiations cause ionization and
penetrating. These radiations cause ionization and are very harmful to the human body, so a high
standard of protection is needed for the persons working in the power plant and also for the
environment.
(ii)The waste obtained from the nuclear power plants causes a high degree of environmental pollution.
➢ Energy degradation
The gradual decrease of useful energy due to radiation loss, friction etc. is called the degradation of
energy.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING
Greenhouse effect
It is the process of warming of planet’s surface and its lower atmosphere by absorption of infrared
radiation of long wavelength emitted out from the surface of planet.
The gases (like carbon dioxide, water vapours, methane, chlorofluorocarbons) which are the good
absorber of long wavelength infrared radiation are called the green house gases.
The naturally occurring green house gases have an average warming effect of nearly 33°C so that the
average temperature on earth’s surface is about 15.5°C (or 60°F)

Page#56
 The main human activities responsible for increase of the carbon dioxide gas are given below:
(i) The burning of fuels, deforestation transportation and industrial production.
(ii) Increase of population (human beings emit nearly 32 giga tonnes of carbon dioxide each year)
(iii) Imbalance of carbon dioxide cycle.
➢ Global warming
Global warming means the increase in average effective temperature near the earth’s surface due to
an increase in the amount of green house in its atmosphere.
• Causes of global warming
The cause of global warming is the increase in concentration of green house gases present in the
atmosphere of the earth due to human activities.
(i) The concentration of carbon dioxide has increased up to 25% due to industrial growth, combustion
of fossils fuels, clearing of forests etc.
(ii) The concentration of methane has doubled due to agriculture sources.
(iii) The concentration of chlorofluorocarbons has increased at a rate of 5% per year.
Impacts of global warming on life on the earth
(i) The variable changes in the climate in different parts of the world which has created difficulties
and forced the people and animals to migrate from one place to other.
(ii) The change in blooming season of different plants.
(iii) The change in regional climate which has an immediate effect on simple organisms and plants.
(iv) The change in the world’s ecology.
(v) The increase in the heat stroke deaths.
Future prediction:
Looking at the changes in some natural phenomenon which we are facing now, following prediction
can be made:

Page#57
(1) Dislocation and disappearance of plant and animal species.
(2) Warming of ocean
(3) Melting of glacier
(4) Shift in farming region
(5) Increase in new disease and heat related deaths
(6) Change in regional climate
(7) Variable changes in the climate
(8) Increase in cost of air conditioning
(9) Change in sea level
➢ Ways to minimize the impact of global warming
(1) Technologies measures
(i) Use of renewable sources of energy to generate electricity in place of generating electricity in
place of generating electricity from the fossil fuels based power plants.
(ii) Change of transportation vehicles
(iii) Use of bio-char stoves cooking
(2) Economic measures
(i)Reforestation and sustainable use of land
(ii)Industries to pay carbon tax
(3) Policy measures
(i)Educating children to live sustainable life style
(ii)Controlling population through family planning, welfare reforms and the empowerment of women

Page#58
 WORKSHEET-01
1. State three differences between heat and temperature.

2. State two advantages of alcohol thermometer over mercury thermometer.

3. Answer the following:

(a) Draw a neat labelled diagram for clinical thermometer.

(b) Answer the following questions regarding clinical thermometer.

(i) Why is its stem thin and short?

(ii) Why its stem is made triangular?

(iii) Why is the scale on it marked from 95°F to 110°F?

(iv) Why is its capillary tube provided with constriction?

(v) Why its bulb is made fairly large?

(vi) Why this thermometer is washed with water and jerked before use?

(vii) What does it indicate when temperature recorded by it

(a) Below 98.4°F (b) Above 98.4 °F.

4. The mercury thread rises by 3/5 parts between the standard points on Celsius scale when the bulb

of thermometer is placed in hot water. Calculate the temperature

(a) In Celsius scale

(b) Fahrenheit scale.

5. Describe an experiment to prove that solids expand on heating.

6. The diagram shows a bimetallic strip as used in a simple fire alarm.

(a) Name suitable materials for A and B.

(b) What adjustments would you make to the arrangement shown, to make the alarm operate at lower

temperature?

Give reasons for your answer.

Page#59
7. The adjacent figure shows Hope’s apparatus, used to study anomalous expansion of water. Answer

the following questions:

(a) Amongst A and B, which thermometer will register fall in temperature first and why?

(b) Which thermometer will stop registering fall in temperature after some time? State the magnitude

of lowest temperature recorded by this thermometer.

(c) Give an explanation of your answer in (b).

(d) Why the second thermometer does goes on recording fall in temperature?

(e) What conclusions can be drawn about the nature of water from the above experiment?

(f) State one natural consequence of the above property of water.

8. Why are exposed water pipes lagged with straw in hilly regions during winter?

9. Draw a graph between volume and temperature when 5 cm3 of ice at –10 °C is heated to form water

at 10 °C.

10. What do you understand by the term anomalous expansion of water?

11. Diagram alongside shows a steel washer. Explain how the following are affected

when washer is heated to 100 °C.

(i) Internal diameter (ii) External diameter

(iii) Mass (iv) Density

(v) Volume.

12. How bimetallic strip is used in the construction of thermostat? Illustrate your answer by diagram.

13. Answer the following:

(a) What is a bimetallic strip?

(b) Name two devices which use bimetallic strip?

14. The mercury thread rises by 11/16 parts between two standard points on Fahrenheit scale when

placed in hot milk. What is the correct temperature in.

(a) Fahrenheit scale (b) Celsius scale.

15. State four characteristics of an ideal thermometric liquid.

Page#60
 WORKSHEET-02
1. Mention three disadvantages of construction of large dams for generating hydroelectric power.

2. Explain the effect of ozone depletion.

3. Explain the following:

(i) What is the use of thermos flask?

(ii) Draw a labeled diagram of thermos flask.

(iii) What contribution does the vacuum between the two walls give to the functioning of a thermos

flask?

(iv) What is the function of the two shining walls of the glass vessel in the thermos flask?

4. A test tube made of ordinary glass cracks on plunging into boiling water whereas a red hot test tube

made of fused silica can be safely plunged into normal water, why?

5. An iron cork is fitted in a hole on the brass plate. What will be happen to the cork if

(a)only the cork is heated?

(b)only the iron plate is heated?

(c) both, the cork and the plate are heated equally?

6. A metal bar measures 50 cm at 0°C and 50.048 cm at 353 K. Find the coefficient of linear expansion

of the metal.

7. Mention a few consequences accompanied with the transfer of heat.

8. What is sea breeze? Explain its causes of origin and direction of motion?

9. Mention three characteristics of heat radiations.

10. The area of a copper plate at 0°C is 3 m2. Calculate the area of the plate when it is heated through

40°C.Take coefficient of linear expansion of copper = 0.000016°C-1.

11. Given figure shows a hard glass test tube containing coloured

water such that the level of water is up

to point A. The test tube is placed in a large beaker containing

boiling hot water. It is observed that the level of coloured water first

drops to B and then rises up to C. Answer the following questions.

(i) Why is there a drop in the level of water?

Page#61
 (ii) Why does the level of water start rising after sometime?

(iii) State the two important deductions which can be made regarding

the action of heat on liquids from the above observations.

(iv) If the test tube is placed in ice cold water instead of boiling hot water, state your observations with

reasons.

12. (i) Write the relation between coefficient of volume expansion and coefficient of linear expansion.

(ii)A metallic ball is heated through a certain temperature. Out of radius, surface area and volume,

which will undergo the least percentage increase and which will undergo largest percentage increase?

Why?

13. The coefficient of cubical expansion of copper is 5.1 × 10-5 per °C. Calculate its coefficient of linear

expansion.

Page#62
 REFLECTION OF LIGHT
THEORY
LAWS OF REFLECTION & FORMATIO N OF IMAGE BY A PLANE MIRROR
Reflection of light:
The return of light into the same medium after striking a surface is called reflection.
A highly polished and smooth surface, such as a plane mirror, reflects
almost the entire light falling on it.
Representation of a plane mirror.
Light enters from the side of polished surface (being smooth does not
diffuse light) and is strongly reflected from the silvered surface. Coating
serves as an opaque surface and it does not reflect light
➢ Kinds of reflection
(i) Regular reflection (ii) Irregular reflection
(ii) Regular reflection:
If the parallel incident rays are reflected such that all the reflected rays are also parallel to each other,
such a reflection is known as regular reflection.
It occurs only if the rays are falling on a highly smooth polished surface like plane mirror.
(iii) Irregular (Diffused) reflection:
If the parallel rays fall on an irregular surface. Then the reflected rays scatter in all directions. Such a
reflection is called Irregular reflection.
It occurs if the rays are falling on a rough surface. This type of reflection enables us to see the objects
around us.

➢ Some terms related with reflection:

Page#63
Incident ray
The light ray striking a reflecting surface is called the incident ray.
Point of incidence (P)
The point of the mirror surface, where incident ray strikes and reflected ray bounces off.
Reflected ray
The incident ray bouncing back into the same medium after striking the reflecting surface.
Normal ray
It is the line drawn perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence.
Angle of incidence (i)
The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence, is called the angle
of incidence.
Angle of reflection (r)
The angle which the reflected ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence is called the angle
of reflection.
Plane of incidence
The plane containing the incident ray and the normal, is called the plane of incidence.
Plane of reflection
The plane containing the reflected ray and the normal, is called the plane of reflection.
Laws of reflection
The angle of incidence i is equal to the angle of reflection r (i. e ∠i = ∠r)
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, lie in the same plane.
Formation of image by reflection
Types of image
Real image
Virtual image
Real image
- It is formed when light rays after reflection actually intersect.
- The image which can be obtained on a screen, is called a real image.
- It is inverted
Virtual image
- It is formed when the reflected rays meet if they are produced backwards.
- The image which cannot obtain on a screen, is called a virtual image.
- A virtual image is erect with respect to the object.

Page#64
 Real image Virtual image
1. A real image is formed when the reflected rays 1.A virtual image is formed when the reflected
actually meet at a point. rays meet on producing them backward.

2.It is inverted. 2.It is erect

3.It can be obtained on the screen. 3.It cannot be obtained on the screen.

➢ Image of a point object formed by a plane mirror:

➢ Image of an extended object formed by a plane mirror:

Position of image
The image I is as far behind the mirror as the object O is in front
of it i.e., the perpendicular distance of image from the mirror is
equal to the perpendicular distance of object from the mirror.
The image is situated on the normal drawn from the object on
the mirror and it is as far behind the mirror as the object is in
front of it.
Lateral inversion
The interchange of the left and right sides in the image of an
object in a plane mirror is called lateral inversion.
➢ Characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror:
(i) Upright (or erect)
(ii) Virtual
(iii) Of same size as the object
(iv) Laterally inverted

Page#65
 IMAGES FORMED IN A PAIR OF MIRRORS
➢ Images formed in two inclined mirrors
The object and the images formed by the two inclined mirrors lie on the circumference of a circle
whose centre lies at the point of intersection of the two mirrors and radius is equal to the distance of
object from the point of intersection.
The number of images formed depends on the angle θ° between the two mirrors.
CASE I:
𝟑𝟔𝟎°
If angle θ° between the mirrors is such that 𝐧 = 𝐢𝐬 𝐨𝐝𝐝.
𝛉°

(i)The number of images is n, when the object is placed asymmetrically between the mirrors.
(ii)The number of images is n − 1, when the object is placed symmetrically (i.e., on the bisector of
the angle) between the mirrors.
CASE II:
𝟑𝟔𝟎°
If 𝐧 = 𝛉°
𝐢𝐬 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧, the number of images is always n − 1 for all position of object

in between the mirrors.

Image formation in two special cases:
(i) When the two mirrors are parallel to each other.
(ii) When the two mirrors are perpendicular to each other.
➢ Images formed in a pair of mirrors placed:
• When two mirrors are kept parallel to each other i. e. , θ = 0°, then
360° 360°
n= = =∞
θ° 0°
For two mirrors kept parallel to each other, an infinite number of images are formed for an object kept
in between them.

Use
In a showroom and in a barber’s shop, mirrors are arranged in this manner.
Images formed by two mirrors placed perpendicular to each other:
When two mirrors are kept perpendicular to each other i. e. , θ = 90°, then
360° 360°
n= = =4
θ° 90°

Page#66
 ∴ For an object placed in between the two perpendicular mirrors, the
number of images formed will be n − 1 = 3.
For two mirrors kept perpendicular to each other, three images are
formed are formed for an object kept in between them.

➢ Uses of plane mirror

1. The most common and wide use as a looking glass.
2. Plane mirrors are placed on the inside walls of the shops like jewelry shops.
3. Plane mirrors are placed at the blind turns of some busy roads so that the drivers can see the vehicles
coming from the other side to prevent from the accidents.
4. Plane mirrors are used to construct periscopes and kaleidoscopes.
SPHERICAL MIRRORS, IMAGE FORMATION AND THEIR USES
➢ Spherical mirrors
A reflecting surface which is a part of a sphere is called a spherical mirror.
Types of spherical mirrors:
(i) Concave mirror
(ii)Convex mirror
(i) Concave mirror
Concave mirror is made by silvering the outer (or bulging) surface of the piece of a hollow sphere
such that the reflection takes place from the hollow (or concave) surface.
(ii)Convex mirror
A convex mirror is made by silvering the inner surface of the piece of a
hollow sphere such that the reflection takes place from the outer (or
bulging) surface.

➢ Brief introduction of terms related to a spherical mirror

(i) Centre of curvature
The centre of curvature of a mirror is the centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part.
(ii)Radius of curvature
The radius of sphere of which the spherical mirror is a part, is called the radius of curvature of the
mirror.
(iii) Pole
The geometric centre of the spherical surface of mirror is called the pole of mirror.
(iv) Aperture
The plane surface area of the mirror through which the light rays enter and fall on the mirror is called
its aperture.

Page#67
 (v)Principle axis
It is the straight line joining the pole of the mirror to its centre of curvature.

➢ Reflection of light ray from a spherical mirror:

From a spherical mirror, reflection of light follows the same laws of reflection as for the plane surface
(i.e. angle if incidence i = angle of reflection r and the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal lie in
same plane)
➢ Focus and focal length
For concave mirror
The focus of a concave mirror is a point on the principle axis through which the light rays incident
parallel to the principle axis, pass after reflection from the mirror.
For convex mirror
The focus of a convex mirror is a point on the principle axis from which, the light rays incident parallel
to the principle axis, appear to come, after reflection from the nature.

• Focal plane
A plane passing through the focus and normal to the principle axis of the mirror is called focal plane.

Page#68
➢ Convenient rays for the construction of image by ray diagram
(i) A ray passing through the centre of curvature:
A ray passing through the centre of curvature of a spherical mirror is reflected back along its own
path.

(ii) A ray parallel to the principle axis

A rays incident parallel to the principle axis, after reflection from a spherical mirror either passes or
appears to be coming from focus.

(iii) A ray passing through the focus

A ray either incident from the focus (or converging at the focus), after reflection from a spherical mirror
becomes parallel to the principle axis.

Page#69
(iv) A ray incident at the pole
For a ray incident at the pole of a spherical mirror, the reflected ray is at an angle of reflection equal
to the angle of incidence with principle axis as normal.

➢ Ray diagram for formation of images in a concave mirror

▪ When an object is placed at infinity, a real image is formed at
the focus. The size of the image is much smaller as compared to
that of the object.

• When an object is placed behind the center of curvature, a

real image is formed between the center of curvature and
focus. The size of the image is smaller as compared to that
of the object.

▪ When an object is placed at the center of curvature, the real image

is formed at the center of curvature. The size of the image is same
as compared to that of the object.

▪ When an object is placed in between the center of curvature and

focus, the real image is formed behind the center of curvature.
The size of the image is smaller as compared to that of the object.

Page#70
▪ When an object is placed at the focus, the real image is formed at
infinity. The size of the image is much larger as compared to that
of the object.

▪ When an object is placed in between focus and pole, a virtual image is formed. The size of
the image is larger as compared to that of the object.

Image formed by a concave mirror for different position of the object

No. Position of the object Position of the image Nature of the image

1. At infinity At focus (F) Real, inverted and diminished

2. Beyond the center of Between focus and center Real, inverted and smaller
curvature (C) of curvature than the object.

3. At the center of curvature At the center of Real, inverted and of same

(C) curvature(C) size.

4. Between the center of Beyond the center of Real, inverted and bigger than
curvature and focus curvature(C) the object.

5. At the focus (F) Infinity Real, inverted and highly

magnified

6 Between the focus (F) Behind the mirror Virtual, erect and enlarged
and pole (P)

Page#71
 Image formation by Convex Mirrors:
▪ When an object is placed at infinity, a virtual image is formed at
the focus. The size of the image is much smaller as compared
to that of the object.

▪ When an object is placed at a finite distance from the mirror, a virtual image is formed between pole
and focus of the convex mirror. The size of the image is smaller as compared to that of the object.

Image formed by a convex mirror for different position of the object.

No Position of the Position of the image Size of the image Nature of the
object image

1 At infinity At focus Diminished to a point Virtual and upright

2 At any other point Between focus and Diminished Virtual and upright
pole

➢ Relation between the focal length and radius of curvature

The focal length of a spherical mirror (both concave and convex) is equal to half of its radius of
curvature. i.e.
𝟏
𝐟= 𝐑
𝟐
➢ Sign convention for the measurement of distances

Page#72
 (i) All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror taken as origin.
(ii) The distances measured along the principal axis in the direction of incident light, are positive while
those opposite to the incident light, are negative.
(iii) The distances above the principle axis are taken positive and those below the principal axis
are taken negative.

➢ Formulae for the spherical mirror

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐟
=𝐮+𝐯
𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 (𝐈) 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 (𝐯)
𝐌𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐦 = 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 (𝐎) = 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 (𝐮)

➢ Uses of spherical mirrors

Uses of a concave mirror
1. Shaving mirror: A concave mirror is used as a shaving or make-up mirror because it forms erect
and enlarged image of the face when it is held closer to the face.
2. In headlights: Concave mirrors are used as reflectors in headlights of motor vehicles, railway
engines, torch lights, etc. The source is placed at the focus of the concave mirror. The light rays after
reflection travel over a large distance as a parallel beam of high intensity.
3. In astronomical telescopes: A concave mirror of large diameter (5 m or more) is used as objective
in an astronomical telescope.
4. In solar furnaces: Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar
furnace.
• Uses of convex mirror
1. Drivers use convex mirror as a rear-view mirror in automobiles because of the following two
reasons:
(i) A convex mirror always forms an erect, virtual and diminished image of an object placed anywhere
in front of it.
(ii) A convex mirror has a wider field of view than a plane mirror of the same size Thus convex mirrors
enables the driver to view much larger traffic behind him than would be possible with a plane mirror.
2. As a reflector in street lamps.
3. As a vigilance mirror.
➢ Distinction between a plane mirror, concave mirror and convex mirror
CASE I:
If image is upright, of same size and it does not change in size by moving the
mirror towards or away from the face, the mirror is plane.

Page#73
CASE II:
If the image is upright, magnified, and increases in size on small movement of
the mirror away, the mirror is concave.

CASE III:
If image is upright, diminished and decreases in size on small movement of the
mirror away, the mirror is convex.

➢ Difference between a concave and convex mirror

Concave mirror Convex mirror

1. It is made by silvering the outer surface of • It is made by silvering the inner surface of
a part of the hollow sphere, so reflection a part of the hollow sphere, so reflection
takes place from the inner surface. takes place from the bulging surfaces.

2. The light ray’s incident on it converge • The light ray’s incident on it diverge after
after reflection. reflection.

3. The image formed by it is real as well as • The image formed by it is always virtual
virtual. For all positions of the object at or for all positions of the object in front of it.
beyond the focus, the image is real, while
for positions of the object between the
focus and pole, the image is virtual.

4. For object away from the centre of • The image is always diminished for all
curvature, the image is diminished, for positions of the object in front of it.
object at centre of curvature, image is of
same size and for object within the centre
of curvature, image is magnified.

Page#74
 WORKSHEET-01
1. An object is placed 2 cm from a plane mirror. If the object is moved by 1 cm towards the mirror, what

will be the new distance between object and image?

2. (a) On what factors does the size of an image formed by a pin hole camera depend?

(b) Copy the above diagram and complete it by drawing two rays to show the formation of the image

of the object AB. State the size, position and nature of image formed.

3. (a) Write down the letters of the word ‘POLEX’ as seen in a plane mirror, held parallel to the plane of

this paper.

(b) Name a mirror which always produces an erect and virtual image.

(c) Distinguish between real and virtual image.

4. Give two uses of (i) convex mirrors (ii) concave mirrors.

5. (a) Define the term principal focus in case of convex mirror. Draw a convex mirror and show its

principal focus and focal length clearly.

(b) What is the relation between focal length and radius of curvature of concave mirror?

6. (a) Draw a neat diagram of reflecting periscope.

(b) State two advantages and two disadvantages of reflecting periscope.

7. A boy stands 4 m away from plane mirror. If the boy moves ½ m towards mirror, what is the distance

between the boy and his image? Give a reason for your answer.

8. (a) State five characteristics of image formed in plane mirror.

(b)State three ways, in which image formed in plane mirror differs from image formed in pin

hole camera.

9. (a) What do you understand by the term lateral inversion?

(b) A printed card has letters PHYSICS. Show how it would appear in a mirror without showing ray

diagram.

Page#75
10. (a) State the mirror formula for the formation of total number of images formed in two plane mirrors,

held at an angle θ.

(b) Calculate the number of images formed in two plane mirrors, when they are held at angle of

(i) 72° (ii) 36°.

11. A ray of light strikes a plane mirror, such that angle with the mirror is 20°. What is the value of angle

of reflection? What is the angle between incident ray and reflected ray?

12. State the laws of reflection.

13. Draw a neat two ray diagram for the formation of images in two plane mirrors, when mirrors are (i) at

right angles to each other (ii) facing each other.

14. Why are infinite images not seen when two plane mirrors are facing each other?

15. State four uses of plane mirror

Page#76
 WORKSHEET-02
1. (i) The angle between the incident ray and the mirror is 30°.

(a)What is the angle of incidence?

(b)What is the angle of reflection?

(c) What is the total angle turned by the ray of light?

(ii) Where will the image form if the object is placed at the centre of curvature in front of the concave

mirror? Also, state the nature of the image.

2. A ray of light is incident on a plane mirror at an angle of incidence of 50o. What is the angle

(i) of reflection

(ii) between the incident ray and the mirror

(iii) between the reflected ray and the mirror

(iv) of deviation (angle between the directions of the incident ray and the reflected ray)?

3. An object is placed between two mirrors inclined at 30o to each other. How many images will you see?

4. Focal length of a convex lens obtained by six students are 38.3 cm, 37.8 cm, 38.0 cm, 37.9 cm, 38.1

cm, 37.2 cm. Express mean focal length of the convex lens up to one place of the decimal.

5. Focal length of a convex lens recorded by three students are 10.1 cm, 10.2 cm and 10.0 cm. Find the

mean focal length of the convex lens.

6. Two plane mirrors are inclined to each other at an angle of 70o. A ray of light is incident on one mirror

at an angle θ . The ray reflected from this mirror falls on the second mirror from where it is reflected

parallel to the first mirror. Determine the value of θ .

7. The wavelength of yellow light is 589 nm. What is its order of magnitude in meter?

8. A test card of an optician is situated 1.5 m behind the eyes of a patient who is looking through a plane

mirror 2 m away from him. What is the distance between him and the image of the test card?

9. A ray of light AB is inclined on a plane mirror M1M2 at an angle of 70° from the mirror. The mirror turns

through an angle of 10o in the clockwise direction. Draw the ray diagram showing the new reflected

ray and determine the angle between the incident ray and the final reflected ray.

10. What is the focal length of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 16.0 cm?

Page#77
 PROPAGATION OF SOUND WAVES
THEORY
SOUND PRODUCTION AND PROPAGATION OF SOUND WAVE
Sound is a form of energy that produces the sensation of hearing in our ears.
Necessary condition to produce sound = vibration of a particle
Vibration:
To and fro motion of a particle about its mean position.
A vibrating body is a source of sound.
Sound is form of energy
Mechanical energy is required to start vibrations in a body producing sound.
The vibration of body are transmitted in medium in form of waves from that point to the next and so
on.
These waves on reaching our ears, produce vibrations in the ear drum which are perceived as sound
by us. Thus sound is a form of energy.
Sound propagation requires a material medium
A material medium is necessary for the propagation of sound from one place to another.
Requisites of the medium
(i) The medium must be elastic so that its particles may come back to their initial positions after
displacement on either side.
(ii) The medium must have inertia so that particles may store mechanical energy.
(iii) The medium should be frictionless so that there is no loss of energy in propagation of sound
through it.
Sound cannot travel in vacuum.
Propagation of sound in medium
When a source of sound vibrates, it creates a periodic disturbance in the medium near it (i.e., the
state of particles of medium changes). The disturbance then travels in the medium in form of waves.
Characteristics of wave motion:
(i)A wave is produced by the periodic disturbance at a point in the medium.
(ii)Due to propagation of wave in a medium, the particles of medium vibrate about their mean positions
(without leaving their positions) and energy is transferred with a constant speed from one place of
medium to the other place.
Some terms related to wave motion

Page#78
(i) Amplitude
The maximum displacement of a wave on either side of its mean position.
From fig. XY is the amplitude of the wave.
(ii) Time period
The time taken by a wave to complete one oscillation. It is denoted by ‘T’
(iii) Frequency
The number of oscillations made by wave in one second.
It is denoted by ‘n’ or ‘f’. Its unit is hertz (Hz).
1
f=
T
(iv) Wavelength
Length of a wave along x-axis, represented by ‘λ’.
From fig. AC is the wave length.
It is measured in Angstrom unit (A°)
1 A° = 10−10 m
(v) Wave velocity
The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called its wave velocity or wave speed.
(vi) Oscillation
One complete to and fro motion, where one full wave is constituted.
From fig. If a wave starts from ‘A', it completes full wave at ‘C’ making one oscillation.

➢ Relationship between the wavelength , wave velocity and frequency

VT = λ
V = fλ
Wave velocity = Frequency × Wavelegth
➢ Speed of sound in different media
The speed of sound in a medium depends on the following factors:
(i) The elasticity E of the medium
(ii) The density ρ of the medium
The speed of sound in a medium is given by the relation

E
V=√
ρ

Where E is the modulus of elasticity.

ρ is the density of the medium.
For isothermal change,
E=P

Page#79
 The speed of sound in a gas is given as

P
V=√
ρ

For adiabatic change,

C
E = γP (γ = Cp )
v

The speed of sound in a gas is given as

γP
V=√
ρ

The value of γ depends on the nature of the medium.

The speed of sound is different in different media.
The speed of sound is more in solids, less in liquids and least in gases(since solids are much more
elastic than the liquids and gases)

➢ Factors affecting the speed of sound in a gas

(i) Effect of density

γP 1
From relation V = √ ,V ∝
ρ √ρ
i.e. The speed of sound is inversely proportional to the square root of density of the gas.
(ii) Effect of temperature
The speed of sound in a gas increases with increase in temperature of the gas. The reason is that
with the increase in temperature, there is decrease in density and consequently the speed of sound
increases. The speed of sound in air increases by about 0.61 m/s for each °C rise in temperature.
Vt = V0 + 0.61t
(iii) Effect of humidity
The speed of sound in air increases with the increase in humidity in air. The sound travels faster in
humid air than in dry air.
(iv) Effect of direction of wind
- The speed of sound increases or decreases according to the direction of travel of wind.
- If wind is blowing in the direction of propagation of the sound, the speed of sound increases, while if
it is blowing in a direction opposite to that of the direction of propagation of sound, the speed of sound
decreases.
(v) The speed of sound does not depend on the wavelength, frequency, amplitude of a wave
and pressure.

Page#80
➢ Comparison of speed of sound with speed of light:

Speed of sound Speed of light

The sound waves cannot travel in vacuum. The light waves can travel in vacuum.

The speed of sound waves in air
330 m s−1 at 0°C
The speed of sound waves is more in solids,
less in liquids & still less in gases.
The sound waves in air are the longitudinal
mechanical waves.
The speed of light waves is 3 × 108 ms −1
The speed of light waves decrease in an
optically denser medium.
The light waves are transverse electromagnetic
waves

INFRASONIC , SONIC AND ULTRASONIC FREQUENCIES

The sound of frequencies in the range 20 Hz to 20 kHz is called the sonic or audible sound; the
sound of frequency less than 20 Hz is known as infrasonic sound (or simply infrasonic), while the
sound of frequency greater than 20 kHz is known as ultrasound (or ultrasonic).
➢ Ultrasound and its applications
Properties of ultrasound
(i) The energy carried by ultrasound is very high.
(ii) The ultrasound can travel along a well defined straight path.
It does not bend appreciably at the edges of an obstacle because of its small wavelength (i.e., it has
high directivity).
Applications of ultrasound
(i) Bats avoid obstacles in their path by producing and hearing the ultrasound.
(ii) Ultrasound is used for drilling holes or making cuts of desired shape in materials like glass.
(iii) For detection of defects in metals, ultrasound is used.
(iv) For imaging the human organs, ultrasound is widely used.
(v) Ultrasound is used in surgery to remove cataract and in kidneys to break the small stones into fine
grains.
(vi) In SONAR to detect and find the distance of objects under water, ultrasound is used.

Page#81
 WORKSHEET-01
1. What is Galton’s whistle? To what use it can be put?

2. (a) What do you understand by the term ultra-sonic vibrations?

(b) Name three animals which can hear ultra-sonic vibrations necessary for the propagation of sound.

3. Describe an experiment to prove that material medium is necessary for the propagation of sound.

4. State any two characteristics of wave motion.

5. Describe briefly an experiment to prove that vibrating bodies produce sound.

6. State four practical uses of ultra-sonic vibrations.

7. The sound of an explosion on the surface of lake is heard by a boatman 100 m away and a diver 100

m below the point of explosion.

(i) Of the two persons mentioned (boatman and diver), who would hear the sound first?

(ii) Give reason for your answer in (i).

(iii) If the sound takes ‘t’ seconds to reach the boatman, approximately how much time it will take to

reach the diver?

8. State three characteristics of medium necessary for the propagation of sound waves.

9. Derive a relation between frequency and time period.

10. State three characteristics of the medium required for the propagation of sound.

11. How does the speed of sound in gas vary with temperature, pressure and humidity?

12. Answer the following:

(i) Why a distant lightning is flash seen before the thunder is heard?

(ii) If you place your ear close to an iron railing which is tapped some distance away, you hear the

sound twice. Explain, why?

13. State three practical uses of ultrasonic vibrations.

14. (i) What causes sound?

(ii) There is no atmosphere on the Moon. Can you hear each other on the Moon’s surface?

15. Compare approximately the speed of sound in air, water and steel.

Page#82
 WORKSHEET-02
1. The diagram shows a snap shot of a wave form of frequency
50 Hz in a string. The numbers in diagram represent distance in
centimeters.
For this wave motion find,
(i) Wavelength (ii) Amplitude (iii) Wave velocity.

2. A sound wave of frequency 640 Hz travels 800 m in 2.5 s. Calculate

(a) speed of sound (b) wavelength of sound wave.
3. A sound wave has a frequency of 2000 Hz and wavelength 17 cm. If the wavelength increases to 51
cm, what is the frequency, the nature of material through which sound is propagating remains same.
4. A thin metal plate is placed against the teeth of a cog wheel. If the cog wheel is rotated at a constant
speed of 360 rotations per minute and has 80 teeth, calculate:
(a)frequency of note produced
(b)speed of sound, if the wavelength is 0.7 m
(c) what will be the effect, if the speed of cog wheel is halved?
5. The distance between one crest and one trough produced on the surface of water is 0.04 m. If the
waves are produced at a rate of 180 per minute. Calculate:
(a) time period (b) wave velocity.
6. The diagram alongside shows a vibrating metal blade clamped at
one end. P and R are the extreme positions occupied by the blade
during its course of vibration, Q, being its position of rest. The
vibrating blade produces a note of 480 Hz.
(i) Mark on the diagram amplitude of vibration.
(ii) If the velocity of sound in air is 320 ms–1, what is the wavelength of sound produced?
7. Compare the frequencies of two waves X and Y while velocity and wavelength of X are 5×103 m/s
and 25 m respectively and for Y, 4×103 m/s and 20 m respectively.
8. In 0.4 m, there are 20 waves and an observer's ear perceives 120 waves in a minute.
Calculate the wavelength, the frequency and the speed of the wave.
9. Ratio of the wavelengths of two sound waves in air is 3:5. Find the ratio of their frequencies.
10. Time period of the particles of a medium is 2 x 10-3s and wavelength of corresponding wave is 3 m.
Find the speed of the wave in the medium.

Page#83
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
THEORY
ELECTRIC CURRENT
➢ Sources of direct current
• Direct current (d.c) is a current of constant magnitude flowing in one direction.
• The cells are the source of direct current.
• In a cell, chemical energy changes into the electrical energy when its sends current in a circuit.
• The cells are of two kinds:
(1) The primary cells
(2) The secondary cells or accumulators

Primary Cell Secondary Cell

• Chemical reaction is irreversible.
• Chemical energy is converted
electrical energy when current is drawn
from it.
• It can not be recharged
• Its internal resistance is high.
• It is capable of giving weak current only.
• It is light and cheap.
• E.g. Simple voltaic cell, Leclanche cell,
Daniel cell, dry cell.
• Chemical reaction is reversible.
into • Electrical energy converts into chemical
energy when current is passed in it, while
chemical energy converts into electrical
energy when current is drawn from it.
• It can be recharged.
• Its internal resistance is low.
• It can provide low as well as high current.
• It is heavy and costly.
• E.g. Lead (or acid) accumulator, Ni-Fe
(or alkali) accumulator, Li-H battery.

➢ Electric current (As rate of flow of electric charge)

Current is the rate of flow of charge across a cross-section normal to the direction of flow of current.
Charge(Q)
Charge (I) = Time (t)

Total charge passed Q = n × e

Q ne
Current in conductor I = t
= t

Units of current
1 coulomb (C)
1 ampere (A) = 1 second (s)

Page#84
➢ Symbols used in circuit diagrams
• Sources of current
(i) Alternating current (a.c)
(ii) Direct current (d.c)

• Key
It is used to put the current on and off in the circuit.

• Resistance wire, resistance box, rheostat or variable resistance

Rheostat – It is used to control the current in the circuit.

• Ammeter
It is used to measure the current passing at a particular point.

• Voltmeter
It is used to measure the voltage between two points in a circuit.

• Galvanometer
It is used to detect the presence of very weak current in an electric circuit.

Page#85
• Load
It is an appliance connected in a circuit. It may just be a resistance
(e.g., bulb) or a combination of different electrical components.

➢ Simple electric circuit

To demonstrate the functions of various components of circuit shown in fig

(i) First take out the plug from key. This makes the circuit open. The bulb does not glow and both the
ammeter and the voltmeter read zero since no current flows in the circuit.
(ii) Now insert the plug in the key. The circuit is completed (or closed). The bulb glows and the
ammeter read current in the circuit, while the voltmeter reads potential difference (or voltage) across
the bulb.
(iii) Then vary the resistance using rheostat. The glow of bulb changes as well as the readings of
ammeter and voltmeter change. On decreasing the resistance, the glow of bulb increases and the
readings of ammeter and voltmeter also increase.
On increasing the resistance, the glow of bulb decreases and the readings of ammeter and voltmeter
also decreases.

➢ Insulators and conductors

• Insulators:
- The substances which do not allow current to flow through them, are called insulators.
- They almost have no free electrons.
- They offer a very high resistance in the path of current.
• Conductors
- The substances which allow the current to flow through them easily, are called the conductor.
- They have a large number of free electrons.
- They offer a very small resistance in the path of current.
➢ Closed and open circuits
For an electric circuit to be complete, each component of it must pass current through it.
i.e. it should be conducting. If there is an insulator in the path (or if the circuit is broken), the circuit is
incomplete (or open) and the current will not flow through it.

Page#86
 (a)Complete circuit (b) Incomplete circuit (c) Incomplete circuit
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE & RESISTANCE
➢ Flow of electrons between the conductors:
When two charged conductors are joined by a metallic wire (or they are placed in contact), free
electrons flow from a conductor having higher concentration of electrons to the conductor having
lower concentration of electrons.

Page#87
➢ Direction of the electric current – Conventional and electronic flow
A conductor having an excess of electrons is said to be at a negative (or lower) potential, while having
a deficit of electrons is said to be at a positive (or higher) potential.

The electric current is said to flow from a body at higher potential to a body at lower potential i.e., in
a direction opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
Thus, the direction of flow of conventional current is opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.

Elementary idea about work done in transferring charge through a conducting wire; Potential
difference (V = W/Q)
The potential difference between two conductors is equal to the work done in transferring a unit
positive charge from one conductor to the other conductor.
W
V1 − V2 =
q
Potential difference is a scalar quantity.
Potential difference between two points is said to be 1 volt if work done in transferring 1 coulomb of
charge from one point to the other point is 1 joule.
➢ Electrical resistance
• The obstruction offered to the flow of current by a conductor is called its electrical resistance.
• Ohm’s law
- According to Ohm’s law,
Potential difference across the wire (V)
Resistance of wire (R) = Current flowing in the wire (I)
V
R= I
or V = I R

Resistance is a scalar quantity.

Unit of resistance
1 volt 1V
1 ohm = 1 ampere or 1 Ω = 1A

The resistance of conductor is said to be 1 ohm if a current of 1 ampere flows through it when the
potential difference across its end is 1 volt.

Page#88
• Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor
(i) The material of wire
The resistance of wire depends on the number of collisions which the electrons moving through it
suffer with the other electrons and fixed positive ions of the wire.
(ii) The length of wire
Resistance of wire ∝ Length of wire
(iii) The area of cross section of wire
1
Resistance of wire ∝
Area of cross section of wire
(iv) The temperature of the wire
The resistance of the wire increases with the increase in its temperature.
EFFICIENT USE OF ENERGY
➢ Efficient use of energy
• The meaning of the efficient use of energy is to reduce the cost and amount of energy to be used to
provide us the various products and services.
• Energy efficiency can be achieved by adopting more efficient ecofriendly technologies and processes.
• This results in reduction of
(i) The cost of energy
(ii) The emission of greenhouse gases

Page#89
 WORKSHEET-01
1. How will you obtain (i) small resistance and (ii) large resistance from a few given resistances?
2. Draw a labelled diagram of Leclanche cell. Why is it not suitable for continuous use?
3. What is the difference between a voltmeter and a voltameter?
4. You are given conducting wires, a cell, a key, a resistor, two different types of meters labeled ‘A’ and
‘V’. You are required to measure the current in the wire and the potential difference across the resistor.
Draw a labeled circuit diagram using appropriate symbols to show how they are connected. Also,
mark the direction of current in each component.
5. Copy the given diagram of bimetallic strip, battery and two bulbs- B1 and B2. Complete the electric
circuit such that B1 glows when temperature falls 20°C below the room temperature and B2 glows
when temperate rises 50°C above the room temperature.

6. Answer the following:

(i) Draw a labeled diagram of a simple voltaic cell.
(ii) Name two major defects in the above cell.
(iii) What is the e.m.f. of the above cell?
7. A primary and a secondary cell are of the same e.m.f. From which one can we draw maximum
current?
8. Is dry cell really dry? Explain.
9. State four factors on which the resistance of a wire depends.
10. ‘The resistance of a wire is 1 ohm. Does this value depend on the circuit in which it is connected?
Explain.
11. State three factors on which the resistance of a wire depends. Explain how the resistance depends
on the factors stated by you.
12. In the given circuit diagram two cells are connected in parallel. Answer the
following:
(i)What is the potential difference between points A and B if e.m.f.
of each cell is 1.5 V?
(ii)How does the effective voltage of the two cells connected in series
compare to their arrangement in parallel?
(iii)Are the cells in a conventional flash light connected in series or in parallel?

Page#90
 WORKSHEET-02

1. What is meant by the efficient use of energy?

2. Describe three ways for the efficient use of energy.

3. Explain the term ‘current’ and write its mathematical expression and S.I unit.

4. Write the name and draw the symbols used in an electric circuit.

5. Draw a simple electrical circuit.

6. Define the following terms, write their mathematical relation and S.I unit – Potential, Potential

difference, Resistance.

7. Name and explain the factors on which resistance of a wire depends.

8. Which type of cell would you like to use if your device requires

(i)a current of 70 A for 20 s and

(ii)a current of 2 mA occasionally?

9. Is the direction of conventional current and that of electronic current the same?

10. Explain:

(i)Define potential difference between two charged bodies.

(ii)Define one ohm.

11. (a) what do you understand by the term parallel circuit?

(b) State two characteristics of resistance in the parallel circuit.

(c) Draw a diagram showing two bulbs connected in parallel to a dry cell.

Page#91
 MAGNETISM
THEORY
INDUCED MAGNETISM AND NEUTRAL POINTS
The word magnet has been derived from magnesia.
It has two properties :
It attracts small pieces of iron.
It sets itself along a definite direction when it is suspended freely.
If a magnet is suspended with a silk thread such that it is free to
rotate in a horizontal plane, it sets itself always pointing in the
geographic north-south direction as shown in Fig. Depending on
the direction in which an end of the magnet rests, its polarity is
named as north or south.
Fig. Setting of freeely suspended magnet

Two like poles (both north poles or both south poles) repel each
other, while two unlike poles (one north pole and other south
pole) attract each other.

INDUCED MAGNETISM (MAGNETISM INDUCED BY A BAR MAGNET ON THE MAGNETIC

MATERIALS)
When an unmagnetised bar AB of magnetic material such as soft iron or steel, is placed near or in
contact with the magnet as shown in fig , the bar AB becomes a magnet i.e., it acquires the property
of attracting iron filling when they are brought near its ends. if the magnet is now removed, it is seen
that nearly all the iron filings which have clung to it fall down i.e., the bar loses its magnetism.

The temporary magnetism acquired by a magnetic material when it is kept near (or a contact with) a
magnet, is called induced magnetism.
A magnetic pole induced an opposite polarity on the near end a similar polarity on the farther end of
the iron bar.

Page#92
LINES OF MAGNETIC FIELD
Magnetic field is a vector quantity.
If we place a magnet below a sheet of stiff paper (or a glass
plate) and spread some iron filling uniformly over the glass plate
gently, the iron filings arrange themselves along the curved lines
as shown in Fig. The reason is that due to magnet, each piece
of iron filling gets magnetized by magnetic induction and
experience a force due to the magnet and arrange itself along
the curved line. These curved lines are called the magnetic field
lines.
Arrangement of iron filing over a magnet showing the magnetic field of the bar magnet.

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

(i) They are closed and continuous curves.
(ii) The tangent at any point on a field line gives the direction of magnetic field at that point.
(iii) They never intersect one another.
(iv) They are crowded near the poles of the magnet where the magnetic field is strong and are far
from the magnet, where the magnetic field is weak.
MAGNETIC FIELD OF EARTH (Evidence of existence of earth’s magnetic field)
Our earth itself has a magnetic field and it behaves like a magnet. The existence of the earth’s
magnetic field is based on the following facts:
(i) A freely suspended magnetic needle always rests in geographic north-south direction.
(ii) An iron rod buried inside the earth along north-south direction becomes a magnet.
(iii) Neutral points are obtained on plotting the field of magnet where the net magnetic field is zero.
(iv) A magnetic needle rests with its geometric axis making different angles with horizontal when
suspended at different places on the earth.

Page#93
➢ Two places where the magnetic needle becomes vertical are called the magnetic poles.
➢ The line joining the places where the magnetic needle becomes horizontal, is called the magnetic
equator.
PLOTTING OF UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD LINES OF EARTH
Earth’s magnetic field is uniform in a limited space. Experimentally we can plot uniform magnetic field
lines of the earth as follows.

It is noticed that these lines do not intersect each other. They are parallel and equidistant. They are
directed from geographic south to geographic north (i.e., the direction in which a magnetic needle,
suspended freely in a horizontal plane, rests)

PLOTTING OF UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD OF A STRONG BAR MAGNET AND NEUTRAL

POINTS
➢ The magnetic field around a bar magnet (or a horse shoe magnet) is non-uniform. The magnetic field
lines in a non-uniform magnetic field are not equispaced and parallel, but they are curved.

Page#94
 NEUTRAL POINTS
Neutral points are the points at which two magnetic fields are equal in magnitude, but opposite in
direction. The net magnetic field at a neutral point is zero. A compass needle if placed at a neutral
point, will rest in any direction.

ELECTROMAGNET AND ITS USES

ELECTROMAGNET
An electromagnet is a temporary strong magnet made from a piece of soft iron when current flows in
the coil wound around it. it is an artificial magnet.
Two shapes of electromagnet are in use:
(a)I-shape (or bar) magnet, and
(b)U-shape (or horse-shoe) magnet.

➢ Ways of increasing the magnetic field of an electromagnet

(i) by increasing the number of turns of winding in the solenoid, and
(ii) by increasing the current through the solenoid.

➢ PERMANENT MAGNET
A permanent magnet is a naturally occurring magnet. Since it is not strong enough and of required
shape for many purposes, so a strong permanent magnet is made like an electromagnet using steel
instead of soft iron.
A coil of insulated copper wire is wound around the steel piece and then current is passed in the coil.
Once magnetised, it does not lose its magnetism easily so it becomes a permanent magnet.
The permanent magnets are used in electric meters (e.g., galvanometer, ammeter, voltmeter) and in
magnetic compass, etc.
• COMPARISON OF AN ELECTROMAGNET WITH A PERMANENT MAGNET
ELECTROMAGNET PERMANENT MAGNET

Electromagnet is temporary as it exhibits Permanent Magnet as the name say it

magnetic force only when current flows through
it.
Electromagnet can produce very strong
magnetic force.
Electromagnet strength can be changed.
produce permanent magnetic field.
Permanent Magnet produces comparatively
much weaker magnetic force.
Permanent Magnet strength cannot be
changed.

Permanent Magnet polarity cannot be

Electromagnet polarity can be changed. changed.

It can easily be demagnetized by switching off It can not be easily demagnetized.

the current.

Page#95
ADVANTAGES OF AN ELECTROMAGNET OVER A PERMANENT MAGNET
(i) An electromagnet can produce a strong magnetic field.
(ii) The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can
be quickly changed by controlling the amount of electric current in the winding. However, unlike a
permanent magnet that needs no power, an electromagnet requires a continuous supply of current to
maintain the magnetic field.
USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS
Electromagnets are mainly used for the following purposes:
(i) For loading the furnaces with iron.
(ii) For separating the iron pieces from debris and ores, where iron exist as impurities (e.g., for
separating iron from the crushed copper ore in copper mines).
(iii) In scientific research, to study the magnetic properties of a substance in a magnetic field.
(iv) In several electrical devices such as electric bell, telegraph, electric tram, microphone, loud
speaker, etc.
Use of electromagnet in an electric bell
An electric bell is one of the most commonly used application of an electromagnet.
Construction and wiring:
An electric bell is shown in fig.
The main parts of bell are:
(i) a horse-shoe electromagnet M, having a soft iron core,
(ii) a soft iron armature A,
(iii) a hammer H,
(iv) a gong G,
(v) a metallic spring strip SS,
(vi) an adjusting screw S’
(vii) a switch or bell push K,
(viii) a battery.
• Working and function:
▪ The switch is pressed and current flows through the circuit.
▪ The electromagnet is powered and generates a magnetic field that attracts the iron strip towards it.
▪ The striker strikes the gong (bell).
▪ When the striking arm strikes the gong, the contact is broken and current stops flowing through the
circuit.
▪ This causes the electromagnet to lose its magnetic field.
▪ The connected spring arm returns the striker to its original rest position.
▪ The contact is restored and current flows through the circuit (provided the main switch is still pressed).
▪ The process is repeated from the beginning.

Page#96
 WORKSHEET-01
1. A small magnet is suspended by a silk thread from a rigid support such that the magnet can freely
swing. How will it rest? Draw a diagram to show it.
2. What do you understand by magnetic induction? What role does it play in attraction of a piece of iron
by a magnet?
3. ‘Induction precedes the attraction’. Explain the statement.
4. State four properties of the magnetic field lines.
5. Explain the method of plotting the magnetic field lines by using a small compass needle.
6. Fig. shows a bar magnet placed on the table top with its north pole pointing towards south. The arrow
shows the north-south direction. There are no other magnets or magnetic materials nearby.

(a)Insert two magnetic field lines on either side of the magnet using arrow head to show the direction
of each field line.
(b)Indicate by crosses, the likely position of the neutral points.
(c) What is the magnitude of the magnetic field at each neutral point? Give reason for your answer.
7. What is a neutral point? How is the position of neutral point located with the use of a compass needle?
8. State the position of neutral points when a magnet is placed with its axis in the magnetic meridian and
with its north pole
(i) Pointing towards the geographic north.
(ii) Pointing towards the geographic south.
9. How is an electromagnet made? Name two factors on which the strength of magnetic field of the
electromagnet depends.
10. Show with the aid of a diagram how a wire is wound on a U – shaped piece of soft iron in order to
make it an electromagnet. Complete the circuit diagram and label the poles of the electromagnet.
11. State two ways through which the strength of an electromagnet can be increased.
12. State two advantages of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet.
13. How is the working of an electric bell affected,if alternating current be used instead of direct current ?
14. You are required to make an electromagnet from a soft iron bar by using a cell, an insulated coil of
copper wire and a switch.
(a)Draw a circuit diagrams to represent the process.
(b)Label the poles of the electromagnet.
15. Why is soft iron used as the core of the electromagnet in an electric bell?

Page#97
 WORKSHEET-01
1. Answer the following:
(i) What is the general law of attraction and repulsion between magnetic poles?
(ii) What defines the direction of the magnetic field?
(iii) The middle region of a bar magnet is:
1. A north pole
2. A north seeking poles.
3. Unmagnetized
4. Magnetized
(iv) Name two magnetic substances.
2. Name the magnetic elements at a place on the surface of the Earth that completely specify the earth's
magnetic field at that point.
3. A horse-shoe magnet, when not in use, is kept with a metal piece ‘A’ that
is held to the north and south poles.
(a) What is the metal piece ‘A’ called?
(b) What is ‘A’ made of?
(c) What is the function of piece A?
(d) Explain how the piece ‘A’ serves the purpose, on the basis of molecular (or domain) theory of
magnetism.
4. It is known that the Earth's core contains iron; yet, it cannot be regarded as the source of Earth's
magnetism. Why?
5. Metal bars are brought near each pole of a compass needle in turn. Complete the following table:
Nature of bar Action on compass needle
North pole South pole
Non-magnetic No action No action
………………. Attracted Attracted
North pole of a bar magnet …………… ……………
……………… Attracted Repelled

6. Can your separate the two magnetic poles?

7. Answer the following:

(i)Two long needles are attached to the poles of a horse-shoe magnet. Show the positions occupied

by the needles on a diagram and name the phenomenon which comes into play.

(ii)State one way in which magnetism can be lost.

Page#98
8. Answer the following:

1. What are the poles of a bar magnet?

2. What are neutral points?

9. A small magnet is suspended through a silk thread from a rigid support such that the magnet can

freely swing. How will it rest?

10. You are given following three bars exactly similar in size and shape:

(i)A permanent magnet

(ii)A bar of soft iron

(iii)A bar of non-magnetic substance.

Describe how you will identify each of the bars if only a piece of thread is supplied to you as the extra

piece of apparatus.

11. Answer the following:

(i) Why will heating the magnet strongly remove its magnetism?

(ii)What are neutral points?

12. Give a short account of the earth's magnetic field.

13. What happens to a bar magnet, if it is cut into two equal pieces:

(i) transverse to the length

(ii) along the length.

14. (i) Is it possible to isolate the poles of a magnet?

(ii) Define lines of force in a magnetic field.

15. A bar of soft iron is placed near a magnet.

(i) State the magnetic properties it acquires.

(ii)The magnet is now removed. What happens to the magnetic property acquired?

16. Answer the following:

(i)In the absence of any other magnet, draw and show field lines of the Earth at a place.

(ii)A bar magnet is placed north-pointing north. Draw and show magnetic field in the region around

the bar magnet. Mark the “neutral point”.

Page#99