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Scrutiny of variance results for outliers: Cochran's test optimized

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DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2009.11.032 · Source: PubMed

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Preface

February 2010, I published a variance outlier test, which I called the "G test", in Analytica Chimica Acta. This
journal is well appreciated by analytical chemists. However, the G test is relevant to other disciplines as
well. The G test is an extension of Cochran's C test [23, 35] and is of potential interest to anyone who needs
to decide if one or more variance (or standard deviation) estimates are extreme in comparison with a group
with which they are supposed to be comparable. I am aiming for a broader audience by posting a personal
manuscript version of my article. The publisher of the original article [33] allows such practice provided
that the posting includes a link to the article's Digital Object Identifier (DOI) as well as a complete citation of
the original article [34]. Please find the link and the citation immediately below:

doi:10.1016/j.aca.2009.11.032 R.U.E. 't Lam, Analytica Chimica Acta 659 (2010) 68–84.

On the next pages you will find my manuscript. In the manuscript I have corrected some errata and
inconsistencies. I also have extended the appendices of the original article to supply critical values for a
broader selection of designs.
Alternatively, you may visit my blog at rtlam.blogspot.com. The blog includes explanatory notes on
performing a G test, and links to suitable software.
R.U.E. ‘t Lam, November 18, 2019

1
Manuscript
Original Publication: R.U.E. 't Lam, Analytica Chimica Acta 659 (2010) 68–84. doi:10.1016/j.aca.2009.11.032

Scrutiny of variance results for outliers: Cochran's test optimized

Ruben U.E. ‘t Lam*

The Dow Chemical Company, P.O. Box 48, 4530 AA Terneuzen, The Netherlands

* Tel.: +31 115 673746; fax: +31 115 673729; E-mail: rutlam@dow.com.

ABSTRACT
ISO Standard 5725 “Accuracy (trueness and precision) of measurement methods and results” recommends
Cochran’s C test to numerically verify if three or more normally distributed data sets show “homogeneity of variances”
or “homoscedasticity”. The C test is a one-sided outlier test that will identify deviant standard deviations. It can be run
on summary data using a pocket calculator. However, the C test has limitations. It only applies to data sets of equal
size. It uses critical values that are only available for the upper tail of the variance distribution, at selected numbers of
data sets, selected numbers of replicates per set and only at two significance levels. Cochran’s C test will not identify
an outlying low variance, but may mistake a high variance for an outlier instead. We transform the C test into a more
general “G test”.
Expressions are derived to calculate upper limit as well as lower limit critical values for data sets of equal and unequal
size at any significance level. The expressions are validated against literature values and through simulations in Excel.
Representative critical values are tabulated for those who prefer to work from tables. The power of the G test is verified
for data sets of equal and unequal size. The G test appears superior to the C test in detecting effects from low variances.
The G test allows positive identification of exceptionally low variances. The application of the G test is illustrated with
a numerical example.

Keywords:
Variance outliers; unbalanced designs; two-sided test; Cochran's C test; homogeneity of variances; heteroscedasticity.

2
1. Introduction

1.1. Method validation requirements

Routine analyses should be performed using validated methods. These methods may be publicly available or
may have been validated in-house. Validation requirements vary with application area, type of analysis and source of
the requirements.
Most types of methods require the determination of precision [1– 4]. For internal laboratory validation this
will be the repeatability precision and/or the intermediate precision. If a method is to become a public standard, its
reproducibility precision must also be determined [4]. Following ICH [5], repeatability is the precision under the same
operating conditions over a short interval of time. Intermediate precision includes within-laboratory variations:
different days, different analysts, different equipment, etc. Reproducibility is the precision between laboratories. The
standard deviation and the variance are common measures of precision [1,2].
If a method will run in-house at one concentration in one specific matrix, a single series of ten repeat
analyses [3] should be sufficient for estimating repeatability precision. More complex situations require more elaborate
validation designs: several series of repeat analyses at different concentrations, in different matrices and/or different
laboratories. Ideally, the design is balanced: Each lab analyzes each sample the same number of times on the same
number of occasions. In practice, designs are often unbalanced, e.g. some measurement results appear unsatisfactory,
some participants deviate from the original design, or independent (historic) data is appended to the study.
Whether the design is balanced or not, each separate data series typically generates a different estimate for
the repeatability standard deviation. If the differences are small, and if real differences are not anticipated, one often
assumes “homogeneity of variances”. In that case, one may construct an overall estimate for the repeatability standard
deviation by pooling the individual variances [6]. Homogeneity of variances is also called “homoscedasticity”. Its
complement is called “heterogeneity of variances” or “heteroscedasticity”.

1.2. Homoscedasticity tests

How does one decide if variances are homogeneous? If two data sets are considered, and if each set is normally
distributed, one may do an F test [1,2,6–8]. If more data sets are involved, there is no universal answer. A commercial
statistics package such as JMP [9] offers four tests: O’Brien’s test [10], Brown–Forsythe’s test [11], Levene’s test
[8,12] and Bartlett’s test [1,2,7,8,13]. Other tests are Scheffé–Box’s log-ANOVA test [7,14], Box’s M test [15,16] and
Kullback’s test [17]. Public standards [18,19] on determining the precision of tests methods, i.e. ASTM E 691 and ISO
5725, propose Mandel’s k test [1,2] to graphically evaluate homogeneity of variances. On top of that, various min–
max tests and outlier tests have been promoted for verifying homoscedasticity: range tests [20] summarized by Youden
and Steiner [21], Hartley’s Fmax test [1,2,7,22] and Cochran’s C test [1,2,6,23]. ISO 5725 presents the C test as
numerical alternative for Mandel’s k test. The use of the C test was established in 1986 by a team led by
Horwitz [24] on behalf of IUPAC and ISO.
At The Dow Chemical Company we frequently evaluate precision data from both balanced and unbalanced
designs. To meet ASTM and ISO standards, we used to rely on Mandel’s k test to evaluate the consistency among
variances. The original k test requires data sets of equal size, but we generalized the k test to data sets of unequal size.
However, we observed another drawback with the k test: the chance to fail this test increases with increasing numbers
of data sets (§ 6.1).

3
1.3. Cochran’s C test
The complications with the k test lead us to examine the numerical alternative from ISO 5725:
Cochran’s C test. The C test focuses on the highest observed variance. If this variance classifies as an outlier, it is
omitted from the range and the test is repeated on the remaining values [19]. The C test has several advantages:

• The C test is easily performed. It runs on a pocket calculator.

• The C test takes summary data, i.e. variances or standard deviations. Knowledge of the individual data points
is not a prerequisite.
• The C test flags the variance value(s) that is (are) supposed to be causing variance heterogeneity.
• As the C test is an outlier test, it responds to extreme variance values rather than to gradual variance changes.
While this property may be a drawback in some applications (e.g. in data screening prior to ANOVA), it is
advantageous if individual outliers are actionable or may be eliminated.

Still, the C test is not ideal: it is only defined for data sets of equal size; it relies on critical values that are only
available for selected numbers of data sets, selected numbers of replicates per set and at two significance
levels [1,2,6,19,25,27]; its power to detect heteroscedasticity due to high variances is acceptable, but its power to detect
heteroscedasticity due to low variances is minor [28]; a high variance may be mistaken for an outlier, while the actual
outlier resides at low variance values (§ 3.7); and – last but not the least – its critical values must be read from tables.

1.4. G test
We report an improved, general version of Cochran’s C test – the “G test” – which allows statistical
evaluations of method precision data from balanced and unbalanced designs. Expressions are derived (and validated
against literature values and through simulations in Excel) to calculate upper- and lower limit critical values at any
significance level for data sets of either equal or unequal size. The critical values for the G test encompass the critical
values for the original Cochran’s C test. Eq. (28) reproduces the critical values of Cochran’s original C test.
The G test is primarily intended to substitute Cochran’s C test in evaluating the internal consistency of
variances from precision studies. Mandel’s k test is the most common alternative in this application [1,2,18,19].
Therefore we limit our discussion of the G test to a comparison with the k and the C test (§ 6.1 – § 6.2).
The G, C and k test are variance outlier tests that should be differentiated from “true” homoscedasticity tests such as
O’Brien’s test, Brown–Forsythe’s test, Levene’s test and Bartlett’s test. An in-depth comparison with a variety of
main-stream homoscedasticity tests would require an ample study beyond the scope of this paper.

2. Background
2.1. Determining the repeatability standard deviation
Consider an interlaboratory study (ILS) to determine repeatability precision, with L participating labs. Each
lab i (1 ≤ i ≤ L) performs a number of replicate tests. Each lab reports the number of tests ni it has performed and the
standard deviation Si it has obtained. The present treatment allows ni to vary between labs, i.e. the treatment covers
both balanced and unbalanced designs. For the pooled repeatability standard deviation Spool over all participating labs
we may then write [6]:

and

4
where Spool the pooled repeatability standard deviation, i any participating lab (1 ≤ i ≤ L), L the total number of
participating labs, ni the number of replicates at lab i, νi the (ni − 1) number of degrees of freedom at lab i, Si the
repeatability standard deviation at lab i, νpool the number of degrees of freedom of Spool.
For convenience, we identify i with a lab and L with the total number of labs. However, our treatment also
applies if we identify i and L with products, analytes or concentrations.
Imagine we suspect that the standard deviation at lab j is “deviant”, i.e. Sj is significantly different from the
standard deviations at the other labs. We may then decide to exclude Sj, pooling the standard deviations over the
remaining labs:

and

where S(pool−j) the pooled repeatability standard deviation over all labs but lab j, j the lab that is suspected to be
deviant, νj the (nj − 1) number of degrees of freedom at lab j, Sj the repeatability standard deviation at lab j, ν(pool−j) the
number of degrees of freedom of S(pool−j).
Before excluding Sj from the calculation of the pooled repeatability standard deviation Eq. (3), we must
decide if Sj is really deviant. We can base such a decision on hypothesis testing [1,2,7,8,29].

2.2. Simple null hypothesis

Occasionally, we may want to focus on one specific lab j, e.g. we may have an a-priori reason to suspect that
the particular lab could show a deviant standard deviation and we are not concerned if any other lab could show a
deviant standard deviation as well. In that case, we may test the following simple null hypothesis:
H0(j): σj = σpool
Our alternative hypothesis depends on the details of the problem under consideration. If we believe that lab j could
have suffered from detector instability, we want to test if its standard deviation could be exceptionally large. In that
case our alternative hypothesis reads:
H1(j): σj > σ(pool-j) (variance too large)
If we suspect that lab j has been reporting averages from duplicate runs instead of single runs, we want to test if its
standard deviation could be unusually small. Our alternative hypothesis then becomes:
H1(j): σj < σ(pool-j) (variance too small)
If either deviation from H0(j) could occur, we need a two-sided alternative hypothesis:
H1(j): σj ≠ σ(pool-j) (variance either too large or too small)

5
2.3. Composite null hypothesis
In the field of method validation, we often want to verify if any of the observed standard deviations could be
deviant. In that case, we need a composite null hypothesis:
H0: σj = σpool; 1 ≤ j ≤ L (the variances are equal)
In practice, H0 is examined by examining L simple null hypotheses:
H0(1): σ1 = σpool; … ; H0(j): σj = σpool ; …; H0(L): σL = σpool
If H0 is rejected, we want to identify the labs j that have produced the outliers. We label these labs f1, f2,.., fm, where m is the
total number of identified outliers, and define Φ ≡ {f1, f2, …, fm}. For the three possible alternative hypotheses we write:

H1: σj < σ(pool-Φ); j ϵ Φ (variances from labs f1 to fm are too small)

H1: σj > σ(pool-Φ); j ϵ Φ (variances from labs f1 to fm are too large)

H1: σj ≠ σ(pool-Φ); j ϵ Φ (variances from labs f1 to fm are deviant)

2.4. Significance level

If we test a simple null hypothesis H0(j) at significance level α, we accept a probability α to obtain a so called
“false positive”. This is the probability to reject H0(j) even if H0(j) is actually true. Such a decision is called a Type I
error. To minimize the risk for Type I errors we must minimize α.
If we want to test a composite null hypothesis H0 at significance level α, we effectively must test L simple
null hypotheses H0(i). If the significance level of each separate test is ζ, i.e. if each H0(i) has a probability ζ to be
rejected even when it is true, then the overall probability α to incorrectly reject at least one simple H0(i) will exceed ζ.
The exact relationship between α and ζ may be unknown, but the following inequality should hold [30]:

α/L ≤ ζ ≤ 1− (1−α)1/L (5)

where α the significance level of the overall test, ζ the significance level of a separate test j.
For small α, 1− (1−α)1/L ≈ α/L, and we may safely estimate ζ using the so called Bonferroni adjustment:

ζ = α/L (6)
For large α, Eq. 6 actually provides an upper limit value for ζ. However, our validation results in § 4.1 indicate that in
case of the G test, Eq. 6 is satisfactory for all possible α.

2.5. Power
If we test at significance level α, we accept a probability α to obtain a false positive. However, we can also
obtain false negatives: we may accept H0 even if H0 is actually wrong. Such a decision is called a Type II error. The
risk for Type II errors increases with decreasing α. To minimize the risk for Type II errors we must maximize α. In
practice one often takes α = 0.05, to balance the risk for false positives (§ 2.4) against the risk for false negatives.
The probability to make a type II error is called β. The power η of a statistical test is defined as the probability
that the test will not make a Type II error, so we may write:

η ≡ 1− β (7)
The ideal test for evaluating H0 would show a very narrow “power curve” with a minimum η = 0 if H0 is met, and
with η = 1 if H0 is not met.

6
2.6. Existing variance outlier tests
We need a suitable outlier test for verifying the composite null hypothesis H0: σj = σpool. Public standards
[18,19] offer two options in case the alternative hypothesis is H1: σj > σ(pool-Φ): Mandel’s k test and
Cochran’s C test. Mandel’s k test [1,2] evaluates the ratio:

kj ≡ Sj / Spool (8)
ASTM E 691 [18] provides a formula to calculate critical values for the k test:

where kc(α) the critical value for within-laboratory consistency statistic kj at significance level α, Fc the critical F ratio at
significance level α for n and (npool − n) degrees of freedom; Fc is available from Excel [31]: Fc = FINV(α,n, (npool − n)).
The critical values kc are upper limit values, i.e. when evaluating the k statistic, we demand kj ≤ kc. If all
kj ≤ kc, we accept H0: σj = σpool (the variances are equal). If any kj >kc, we reject H0 and accept H1:
σj > σ(pool− Φ); j ϵ Φ (variances from labs f1 to fm are too large)

An issue with the k test is that it disregards the Bonferroni adjustment Eq. (6). The α parameter in Eq. (9) does
not represent the overall significance level of the k test: the actual risk to obtain at least one false positive will increase
with the number of labs L. The matter is discussed quantitatively in § 6.1. ASTM E 691 reduces the probability of
obtaining false positives by selecting α = 0.005 rather than α = 0.05 (§ 2.4). Still the problem remains that the overall
probability of false positives will depend on the number of participating labs. For numerical purposes, ISO 5725 [19]
relies on Cochran’s C test [1-2,6,23] rather than on the k test. The C test evaluates the ratio:

where Cj is Cochran’s C at lab j.

Selections of upper limit critical values CUL have been tabulated [1,2,6,19,25–27] at overall significance
levels α = 0.01 and α = 0.05. If all Cj ≤ CUL, we accept H0: σj = σpool. If any Cj > CUL, we reject H0, label the lab with
the largest variance as “f1”, and remove its variance from the data. The C test is then repeated on the remaining variance
data. The process continues until all remaining outliers (from labs f2 to fm) have been identified and removed. Once all
outliers have been omitted, we accept the alternative hypothesis

H1: σj > σ(pool−Φ); j ϵ Φ (variances from labs f1 to fm are too large).

Neither the k test nor the C test defines lower limit critical values. Consequently, these outlier tests do not
apply if H1: σj < σ(pool−Φ) or if H1: σj ≠ σ(pool−Φ).

2.7. Limitations of Cochran’s C test

While we would use the C test rather than the k test for identifying variance outliers, we recognize that
the C test does have limitations and drawbacks:

1. By definition, Cj Eq. (10) gives equal weight to all standard deviations Si. This is realistic for
balanced designs, but not for unbalanced designs. Balanced designs are preferred, but unbalanced
designs do occur in practice.
2. There are tables with upper limit critical values CUL to decide if Sj is exceptionally large, but there
are no tables with lower limit critical values CLL to decide if Sj is exceptionally small.
3. As there are no tables on CLL, one cannot perform two-sided tests.
4. A high Sj value may be marked as outlier, while the actual outlier is at low standard deviations. See
also § 3.8.
5. Tables on CUL are available only for α = 0.01 and α = 0.05.

7
 6. For balanced designs, the tables on CUL are complete [19] for 2 ≤ n ≤ 6 and 2 ≤ L≤ 40. For n > 6
and/or L > 41, only selected values are available.
7. Lengthy look-up tables discourage the incorporation of the C test in dedicated software.
8. Published tables contain transcription errors. For α = 0.05: Taylor [6] at (n = 2, L = 3) and
(n = 10, L = 5); Van Belle [25] at (n = 11, L = 8); ISO 5725 [19] at (n = 6, L = 13). For CUL at
(n = 11, L = 8) we calculate 0.2829. Appendix C presents the other corrected values.

3. Theoretical development
3.1. G ratio
To handle the limitations in § 2.7 we generalize Eq. (10):

where Gj is the generalized test statistic for lab j.

3.2. Relation to F ratio

We divide the numerator and denominator by Σνi and substitute Eqs. (1) and (2):

We invert Eq. (12) and separate Sj from Spool:

We identify the term (S(pool−j)/Sj)² with the inverse of Fisher’s F ratio according to Kreyszig [29]:

Fj has νj degrees of freedom in the numerator and ν(pool−j) = (νpool − νj) degrees of freedom in the denominator. We invert
Eq. (13) and substitute Eqs. (14) and (4), to relate the G ratio to Fisher’s F ratio:

Critical F values are available from Excel [31]:

Fc = FINV(ζ, νj, νpool − νj) (16)
When calculating F ratios it is common practice [1,2,6–8] to require that the larger of the two variance values is placed
in the numerator: F = (Smax)²/(Smin)². This convention has the advantage that Fc only needs to be tabulated at
significance levels < 0.5. However, following this usage would complicate our treatment in § 3.3 – § 3.7, so we prefer
to adhere to the definition from Kreyszig [29]. Here we note that the Excel function FINV [31] will accept any
significance level 0 ≤ ζ ≤ 1.

8
3.3. One-sided critical values
For estimating the critical values for one-sided G tests at an overall significance level α1, we apply the Bonferroni
adjustment Eq. (6) and set:
upper limit: ζUL(1) = α1/L (17)
lower limit: ζLL(1) = 1 − ζUL(1) = 1 − α1/L (18)
We combine Eqs. (15) – (18) to calculate critical values for G:

When performing the G test, we check if the following inequalities are met:

upper limit GUL test : Gj < GUL (α1, νj, vpool, L) (21)
lower limit GLL test : GLL (α1, νj, νpool, L) < Gj (22)

3.4. Two-sided critical values

For estimating the critical values for two-sided G tests at an overall significance level α2, we again apply Eq. (6) and set:

upper limit: ζUL(2) = α2/2L (23)

lower limit: ζLL(2) = 1 − ζUL(2)= 1 − α2/2L (24)

We combine Eqs. (15) and (16) and Eqs. (23) and (24) to calculate critical G values:

When performing the G test, we check if the following inequality is met:

two-sided test : GLL (α2, νj, νpool, L) < Gj < GUL (α2, νj, νpool, L) (27)

3.5. Balanced designs

For balanced designs Eqs. (19)-(20) and (25)-(26) reduce to:

9
3.6. Multiple outliers
ISO 5725-2 reads [19]: “7.3.3.6 If the highest standard deviation is classed as an outlier, then the value should
be omitted and Cochran’s test repeated on the remaining values. (. . .)”. So if several potential outliers are identified,
only the highest value should be eliminated in the first round.
For the G test, we generalize this to:
If several standard deviations are classed as outliers, omit the value that is most likely to be a true positive, and repeat
the G test on the remaining values.
Our generalization allows for coexisting outliers at high and/or low variances and recognizes that – for
unbalanced designs – the probability that a given standard deviation is an outlier will not only depend on its value, but
also on its number of degrees of freedom Inequality (27). A particular numerical value may pass the G test at one
degree of freedom, while failing the G test at two degrees of freedom. To develop a criterion for deciding which
standard deviation is most likely to be an outlier, we rearrange Eq. (15):

The probability to obtain an F ratio ≥ Fj by coincidence is available from Excel [31]:

pF(j) = FDIST(Fj, νj, (νpool − νj)) (33)
pF(j) has the potentially confusing property that it decreases with increasing standard deviation. We therefore define:
γj = 1 − pF(j) = 1 − FDIST(Fj, νj, (νpool − νj)) (34)

This criterion may also be written as:

At exceptionally small standard deviations, γj is close to zero, while at exceptionally large standard
deviations, γj approaches one. Eqs. (34) and (35) are equivalent [7,29]. However, Eq. (34) is sensitive to rounding
errors when evaluating small standard deviations, while Eq. (35) is sensitive to rounding errors when evaluating large
standard deviations.
When conducting a two-sided G test, it is convenient to use a decision parameter that is either equal to γj, or
equal to 1− γj, whichever value is smallest. For this purpose we define:

δj ≡ minimum (γj, (1 − γj)) (36)

3.7. Conducting a G test
To conduct a one-sided upper limit GUL test at the α1 significance level, we proceed as follows:

10
We determine γj Eq. (34) for each data series 1 ≤ j ≤ L. If all γj ≤ (1− α1/L), we accept H0: σj = σpool; 1 ≤ j ≤ L. If
any γj > (1− α1/L), we reject H0, we label the data series with the largest γ as “f1”, and we omit its variance from the
data. The test is then repeated on the remainder of the data. The process continues until all remaining variance outliers
(from data series f2 to fm) have been identified and removed. Once all outliers have been removed, we accept the
alternative hypothesis H1: σj > σ(pool−Φ); j ϵ Φ (variances from data series f1 to fm are too large).
To conduct a one-sided lower limit GLL test at the α1 significance level, we proceed as follows:
We determine γj Eq. (35) for each data series 1 ≤ j ≤ L. If all γj ≥ α1/L, we accept H0: σj = σpool; 1 ≤ j ≤ L. If any γj < α1/L,
we reject H0, we label the data series with the smallest γ as “f1”, and we omit its variance from the data. The test is then
repeated on the remainder of the data. The process continues until all remaining variance outliers (from data
series f2 to fm) have been identified and removed. Once all outliers have been removed, we accept the alternative
hypothesis H1: σj < σ(pool−Φ); j ϵ Φ (variances from data series f1 to fm are too small).
To conduct a two-sided G test at the α2 significance level, we proceed as follows:
We determine δj Eq. (36) for each data series 1 ≤ j ≤ L. If all δj ≥ α2/2L, we accept H0: σj = σpool; 1 ≤ j ≤ L. If
any δj < α2/2L, we reject H0, we label the data series with the smallest δ as “f1”, and we omit its variance from the data.
The test is then repeated on the remainder of the data. The process continues until all remaining variance outliers (from
data series f2 to fm) have been identified and removed. Once all outliers have been removed, we accept the alternative
hypothesis H1: σj ≠ σ(pool−Φ); j ϵ Φ (variances from data series f1 to fm are deviant).

3.8. Artificial outliers

An extreme standard deviation Sj will induce
an extreme G ratio Gj Eq. (12). However, as an extreme
standard deviation will also influence the pooled
standard deviation Spool Eq. (1), the G ratios Gi≠j of the
other standard deviations are affected too. Fig. 1
illustrates the effect for a balanced design with four
labs. Each lab runs ten replicates. The standard
deviation of lab 1 is allowed to vary between 0.1 and
10; the standard deviations at labs 2 – 4 remain
constant at S2 = 0.68, S3 = 1.00 and S4 = 1.24. The G
ratios are compared to the critical values (GLL and GUL)
for one-sided lower limit and upper limit G tests at a
significance level α1 = 0.05.

In the center of the plot, at 0.50 < S1 < 1.69,

all G ratios range between GLL and GUL. Here, when
we conduct a one-sided G test (to either side), we will
find that we can accept the null hypothesis
H0: σj = σpool. This result is satisfactory: in this part of Fig. 1 Effect of a varying standard deviation S1
the plot the four labs have similar standard deviations, on the position of G1, G2, G3 and G4.
so H0 should not be rejected.

If we allow S1 to decrease, to 0.39 < S1 < 0.50, G1 will drop below GLL, while the other G ratios remain
between GLL and GUL. When conducting a GUL test,wewill accept H0 as before, but when we conduct a GLL test we
will reject H0 in favor of the alternative hypothesis H1: σ1 < σ(pool−1). This outcome is satisfactory too: apparently S1 has
become sufficiently small to be considered an outlier.

If we let S1 decrease further, below 0.39, we still find G1 < GLL, so the outcome of a GLL test will remain
unchanged H1: σ1 < σ(pool−1). However, for S1 < 0.39 we now find G4 > GUL. Consequently, when we perform a GUL test,
we must reject H0 and accept the alternative hypothesis H1: σ4 > σ(pool−4). Apparently, the net effect of S1 being
extremely small is that S4 may be identified as a high extreme in the GUL test! We conclude that if a data set contains

11
an extremely low variance value, the GUL test may generate an “artificial outlier”: the observation of an outlier at high
standard deviations may be caused by the presence of a more extreme value at low standard deviations. The opposite
problem can occur as well: A GLL test may mark a low standard deviation as an outlier, due to the presence of a more
extreme value at high standard deviations.
The occurrence of artificial outliers can be avoided by using a two-sided test: in the first round only the
variance with the lowest δ value Eq. (36) will be considered for omission. Therefore we recommend the two-
sided G test – even if one is primarily interested in identifying extremely high (low) variances, unless the existence of
extremely low (high) variances can be ruled out beforehand (§ 2.2). In the latter case, we would use a one-sided G test
because one-sided tests are more powerful than two-sided tests (at the same overall significance level) [1,7,8].

4. Validation
4.1. Validation of critical values for the G test
If we test at an overall significance level α, we run a risk α to obtain a “false positive”; this is the risk to
conclude that any of the participating labs is showing a deviant repeatability even if the true repeatability at all labs is
the same (§ 2.4). Put differently, if the true repeatability standard deviations at all labs would be identical, and if we
could run an infinite number of interlaboratory studies to determine these standard deviations, 1% of the studies should
fail the G test at the 0.01 significance level, 5% of the studies should fail the G test at the 0.05 significance level, etc.
We used this notion to validate Eqs. (19) – (20), (25) – (26) and (28) – (31) by simulations in Excel.
Five labs were supposed to participate in an ILS to determine the repeatability precision of a test method.
Both a balanced design and a severely unbalanced design were conducted, as outlined in Table 1.
Table 1 Outline of two ILS designs.

Replicates were randomly drawn from a normal distribution with μ = 0 and σ = 1 using ZNORMAL (mean, SD) [32].
We calculated the standard deviation Si for each separate lab i, the pooled standard deviation over all labs Eq. (1), and
the test statistic Gi for each separate lab Eq. (11). For each Gi value we then checked inequality (27) at selected overall
significance levels α2. The used limit values for design 1 (Eqs. (28) – (31)) and design 2 (Eqs. (19), (20), (25) and
(26)) are supplied in Table 2. The limit values for 0.01 ≤ α2 ≤ 0.10 are practically relevant; the other limit values are
considered for validation purposes.

12
Table 2 Lower limit and upper limit critical G values for designs 1 and 2.

Each design was run 106 times, counting how often Gi failed inequality (27). The observed percentages of
false negatives closely matched prediction, at any overall significance level. Table 3 shows the validation results for
design 2 as an example. We conclude that the Bonferroni adjustment Eq. (6) holds for any 0 ≤ α2 ≤ 1 and that
Eqs. (19), (20), (25), (26) and (28) – (31) are satisfactory.

4.2. Validation of upper limit values for the C test

For validating Eq. (28), we are not restricted to simulation experiments (§ 4.1), as there is literature data
on CUL at α1 = 0.01 and α1 = 0.05. We define:

• CUL(ℓ) = CUL (α1, n, L) from literature

• CUL(F) = CUL(α1, n, L) from Eq. (28)

• ΔCUL = CUL(F) − CUL(ℓ)

We copied the CUL(ℓ) data from Van Belle [25] at α1 = 0.01 and α1 = 0.05. We replaced the erroneous value
at α1 = 0.05, n = 11, and L = 8 by the correct value from Zwillinger [26]. We then calculated CUL(F) at α1 = 0.01
and α1 = 0.05 from inequality (27) and the corresponding difference values ΔCUL. Both at α1 = 0.01 and α1 = 0.05 we
observed that for all CUL(F) values, |ΔCUL| ≤ 8×10−4. This observation confirmed that Eq. (28) is satisfactory.

13
Table 3 Validation results for design 2 (unbalanced design).

Lab 1 Lab 2 Lab 3 Lab 4 Lab 5 False Positives

α1 α2 Limit Range G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 ΣGi Observed Expected
0.001 0.002 LL 0 - 0.1% 185 173 194 191 211 954 0.095% 0.1%
0.005 0.01 LL 0 - 0.5% 939 1011 957 1009 1027 4943 0.494% 0.5%
0.01 0.02 LL 0-1% 1925 2022 1933 2028 2033 9941 0.994% 1.0%
0.025 0.05 LL 0 - 2.5 % 4929 4975 4957 5070 5062 24993 2.499% 2.5%
0.05 0.1 LL 0-5% 9986 10053 9947 10111 10152 50249 5.025% 5%
0.1 0.2 LL 0 - 10 % 19939 20146 19834 20359 20218 100496 10.050% 10%
0.25 0.5 LL 0 - 25 % 50245 50120 49786 50320 49754 250225 25.023% 25%
0.5 1 LL 0 -50 % 100351 100078 99817 99754 99758 499758 49.976% 50%
0.5 1 UL 50 - 100 % 100326 99836 100175 99902 99982 500221 50.022% 50%
0.25 0.5 UL 75 - 100 % 50232 49809 49785 50095 49952 249873 24.987% 25%
0.1 0.2 UL 90 - 100 % 20116 20065 20175 20116 19763 100235 10.024% 10%
0.05 0.1 UL 95 - 100 % 9994 10125 10059 10077 9860 50115 5.012% 5%
0.025 0.05 UL 97.5 - 100 % 4940 5056 5142 5036 5018 25192 2.519% 2.5%
0.01 0.02 UL 99 - 100 % 1911 2001 2045 2019 2067 10043 1.004% 1%
0.005 0.01 UL 99.5 - 100 % 944 988 1011 1008 1037 4988 0.499% 0.5%
0.001 0.002 UL 99.9 - 100 % 194 188 194 190 174 940 0.094% 0.1%

5. Results
5.1. Reference tables
Limit values for Cochran’s C test are usually read from tables. For this purpose Appendices A–C supply
reference values for CUL(α1, n, L) at α1 = 0.01, 0.025 and 0.05, while Appendices D-F supply reference values for
CLL(α1, n, L) at α1 = 0.01, 0.025 and 0.05. CUL and CLL were calculated with Eqs. (28) and (29). The limit values also
apply to two-sided tests at α2 = 0.02, 0.05 and 0.10 Eqs. (30) and (31).

5.2. Power of the G test

The power of the G test ηG Eq. (7) depends on α, as well as the effect size (σj /σ0), the numbers of degrees of
freedom νj and νpool, and the number of labs L. To get an impression of ηG we simulated four interlaboratory studies
according to designs 1 and 2 of Table 1. Details on the set-up of the studies are presented in Table 4.
Table 4 Set-up of four simulated interlaboratory studies.

Simulation Simulation
1 2 3 4
Lab (i) νi σi νi σi σi σi
1 9 0 to 6 1 10-3 to 103 1 1
2 9 1 2 1 1 1
3 9 1 9 1 10-3 to 103 1
4 9 1 14 1 1 1
5 9 1 19 1 1 10-3 to 103

Σ 45 45

Except for σi = 0, replicates were randomly drawn from a normal distribution with μ = 0, using ZNORMAL
(mean, SD) [32]. We calculated the standard deviation for each separate lab, the pooled standard deviation over all labs
Eq. (1), and test statistic Gj for each separate lab Eq. (11).
We ran simulation 1 at selected σ1 values between 0 and 6. For each σ1 value we completed 2 × 105 runs.
Each run we checked if G1 met inequality (27) at α2 = 0.002, α2 = 0.1 and α2 =1 (Table 2, ν = 9). For each series of
2×105 runs value we calculated the fraction of runs that met inequality (27). This fraction was identified with the

14
overall probability β to obtain a “false negative”. The corresponding power was estimated from Eq. (7): η ≡ 1 − β. If
the effect size (σ1/σ0) ≠ 1, only “false negatives” and “true positives” may occur. Consequently, if (σ1/σ0) ≠ 1, η may
also be identified with the fraction of “true positives”, i.e. the fraction of runs that fails inequality (27). The results are
shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Power curves for regular outliers in simulation 1.

As expected, the power of the G test is greatest for α2 = 1. However, at any overall significance level α2 > 0,
the G test will identify standard deviations that are sufficiently deviant, since ηG tends to 1 both for (σ1/σ0) approaching
0 and for (σ1/σ0) approaching ∞. For low effect size this favorable behavior comes as a bonus. According to Legendre
and Borcard [28] the power of Cochran’s C test at α = 0.05 is 0.3 at best for (σ1/σ0) approaching 0. Here we must realize
that although the C test is a one-sided upper limit test, it will occasionally detect heteroscedasticity due to extremely
low variances, through the occurrence of “artificial outliers” at high variance values (§ 3.8).

We refer to the corresponding points of the power curve as “upper limit artifacts” AUL. The power data
on AUL are shown in Fig. 3 (solid lines). Note that while the AUL data are observed at high standard deviations, they are
caused by extremely low standard deviations. Therefore the AUL data pose a separate branch of the power curve at
small (σ1/σ0). Using Eq. (29) we can also define “lower limit artifacts” ALL at high (σ1/σ0), by checking if Gj (j = 2, 3,
4 or 5) fails inequality (27). The obtained power data are again included in Fig. 3 (dashed lines).

Fig. 4 compares ηA and ηG at α2 = 0.1. The artificial branches are denoted AUL and ALL, while the regular
branches are denoted GLL and GUL. Fig. 4 shows that AUL indeed has low power but that the regular
branch GLL resolves this issue.

15
 Simulations 2 – 4 were run (at α2 = 0.1) to verify the performance of the G test for unbalanced designs. The
obtained power data are shown in Figs. 5 and 6. Fig. 5 again shows the poor power of AUL for identifying small
standard deviations, especially at low degrees of freedom, while Fig. 6 confirms that the G test resolves the issue.

6. Discussion
6.1. Comparison with Mandel’s k test
Although different in appearance, Mandel’s k test is related to Cochran’s C test and the G test, as all three
tests are outlier tests. Besides, both ASTM E 691 and ISO 5725 offer Mandel’s k test as a graphical way to evaluate
homogeneity of variances. We therefore pay special attention to this test. Mandel’s k test evaluates kj:

kj ≡ Sj / Spool (8a)
When we rewrite Eq. (8a) and then substitute Eqs. (1) and (11) we obtain:

Combining Eqs. (37) and (19) we derive for the upper limit critical values of k:

For balanced designs Eq. (38) reduces to:

Eq. (39) generates upper limit critical values for k, and is identical to the original formula Eq. (9) except that
Eq. (9) evaluates Fc at α1 rather than at α1/L. Apparently, Mandel’s k test does not apply a Bonferroni adjustment
Eq. (6). One should be aware of this complication when performing the k test. The k test should only be used for a
visual comparison of variances. For quantitative purposes we recommend the G test.

16
6.2. Comparison with Cochran’s C test
ISO 5725-2 presents a concise discussion of Cochran’s C test, from which we quote in italics [19]:
7.3.3.3 Cochran’s criterion applies strictly only when all the standard deviations are derived from the same
number (n) of test results obtained under repeatability conditions. In actual cases, this number may vary (. . .). This
part of ISO 5725 assumes, however, that in a properly organized experiment such variations (. . .) will be limited and
can be ignored, and therefore Cochran’s criterion is applied using for n the number of test results occurring in the
majority of cells.
The G test handles variations in the number of test results accurately Eqs. (19) and (34).

7.3.3.4 Cochran’s criterion tests only the highest value in a set of standard deviations and is therefore a one-
sided outlier test. Variance heterogeneity may also, of course, manifest itself in some of the standard deviations being
comparatively too low. However, small values of standard deviation may be very strongly influenced by the degree of
rounding of the original data and are for that reason not very reliable. In addition it seems unreasonable to reject data
from a laboratory because it has accomplished a higher precision in its test results than the other laboratories. Hence
Cochran’s criterion is considered adequate.
Here we have concerns. In § 3.8 we argue that the C test may identify an artificial outlier at high variances,
while the actual outlier is at low variances. This issue is resolved by the two-sided G test. Only if we would have a-
priori reasons to assume that outliers could only occur at a given side of the variance range, we would prefer a one-
sided G test.

7.3.3.5 A critical examination (. . .) may sometimes reveal that the standard deviations from a particular
laboratory are at all or at most levels lower than those of other laboratories. This may indicate that the laboratory
works with a lower repeatability standard deviation than the other laboratories (. . .). If this occurs it should be
reported to the panel, which should then decide whether the point is worthy of a more detailed investigation.
The two-sided G test will confirm if the low standard deviations indeed differ significantly from the other
standard deviations. If there are a-priori reasons to suspect the occurrence of extremely low variances only, a one-
sided G test should be performed (Eqs. 20 and 35).

7.3.3.6 If the highest standard deviation is classed as an outlier, then the value should be omitted and
Cochran’s test repeated on the remaining values. This process can be repeated but it may lead to excessive rejections
when (. . .) the underlying assumption of normality is not sufficiently well approximated to. Repeated application of
Cochran’s test is here proposed only as a helpful tool in view of the lack of a statistical test designed for testing several
outliers together. Cochran’s test is not designed for this purpose and great caution should be exercised in drawing
conclusions.
Similar considerations apply to the G tests, although the two-sided G test is less likely to produce erroneous
outliers than the one-sided G tests. Still, caution is also recommended in drawing conclusions from repeated
application of the two-sided G test, as any G test will assume that the evaluated standard deviations are derived from
normally distributed data sets.

7. Example case
We illustrate a practical application of the two-sided G test. Table 5 is supposed to summarize historical
repeatability data for a given test method on eight different samples. Each sample is from a different product (1 ≤ i ≤ 8).
The data sets have unequal size. There is no a-priori reason to assume superior or inferior method precision for any
product.

17
Table 5 Assumed historical repeatability data.

We want to determine with 95% confidence (α2 = 0.05) if any product(s) could show a standard deviation that
is significantly different from the other products. We therefore perform a two-sided G test according to § 3.7 as
outlined in Table 6:

Table 6 Two-sided G test; cycle 1.

Both δ2 and δ8 are < (α2/2L = 0.05/16 ≈) 0.0031; therefore S2 and S8 both qualify as potential outliers.
However, δ2 < δ8, so we postpone judging S8. For the time being, we conclude that Sample 2 has a significantly lower
standard deviation than the other samples. We omit S2, and repeat the test on the other standard deviations (Table 7).

18
Table 7 Two-sided G test; cycle 2.

Now δ1 < (α2/2L = 0.05/14≈) 0.0036, so S1 qualifies as a potential outlier. As there are no other potential
outliers identified, we decide that Sample 1 has a significantly lower standard deviation than Samples 3 to 8. We
omit S1, and repeat the test on the standard deviations from Samples 3 to 8 (Table 8).

Table 8 Two-sided G test; cycle 3.

No additional outliers are observed. We decide to accept the standard deviations from Samples 3 to 8.

8. Conclusion
Cochran’s C test has been successfully extended:
• To cover unbalanced designs.
• To identify variances that are significantly smaller than other variances.
• To avoid artificial outliers.
• To perform two-sided tests.
Expressions have been developed to calculate lower limit and upper limit critical values at any significance
level and for any (either balanced or unbalanced) design.

19
 Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to The Dow Chemical Company for kind permission to publish this study. Special thanks
are due to Erik Jan van den Heuvel for guidance in generating random data and in developing dedicated software, to
Enric Comas for help in evaluating existing software, to Alison Delmage, Jill Doiron, Phil Gaarenstroom, Karen Pell
and the Chemometrics Group for critically reading the manuscript, to Swee-Teng Chin and Randy Pell for technical
review, to Norman Deck for customer support and to Leslie Fan and Lloyd Colegrove for faith and managerial support.

References

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[18] ASTM Standard E 691-92, Standard Practice for Conducting an Interlaboratory Study to Determine the Precision of a
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Method for the Determination of Repeatability and Reproducibility of a Standard Measurement Method, International
Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1994.
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Additional references

[33] Ways to Use Journal Articles Published by Elsevier: A Practical Guide, Pamphlet 4, 2 nd edition, Library Connect
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[35] Cochran's C test, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochran%27s_C_test

21
Appendices

Appendices A–F supply upper limit values CUL (α1, n, L) and lower limit values CLL (α1, n, L) for one-sided tests
at α1 = 0.01, 0.025 and 0.05. The limit values also apply to two-sided tests at α2 = 0.02, 0.05 and 0.10.

Appendix A Upper limit values CUL at significance levels α1 = 0.01 (one-sided test, Eq. 28) and
α2 = 0.02 (two-sided test, Eq. 30)
n = number of observations per data set
ν = (n-1) = number of degrees of freedom per data set
L = number of data sets

Appendix A-1 Upper limit critical values for G tests on balanced designs; 1 ≤ ν ≤ 29;
ζ = 0.01: significance level α₁ = 0.01 for one-sided test and α₂ = 0.02 for two-sided test

Number of degrees of freedom per data set (ν)

L
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 13 16 19 24 29
2 0.9999 0.9950 0.9794 0.9586 0.9373 0.9172 0.8988 0.8823 0.8674 0.8418 0.8206 0.7949 0.7744 0.7479 0.7278
3 0.9933 0.9423 0.8832 0.8335 0.7933 0.7606 0.7335 0.7107 0.6912 0.6595 0.6346 0.6058 0.5838 0.5563 0.5361
4 0.9676 0.8643 0.7814 0.7212 0.6761 0.6410 0.6129 0.5897 0.5702 0.5392 0.5154 0.4882 0.4678 0.4426 0.4243
5 0.9279 0.7885 0.6957 0.6329 0.5875 0.5531 0.5259 0.5038 0.4853 0.4563 0.4342 0.4094 0.3907 0.3680 0.3517
6 0.8828 0.7218 0.6258 0.5635 0.5195 0.4866 0.4609 0.4401 0.4229 0.3960 0.3757 0.3529 0.3360 0.3154 0.3007
7 0.8376 0.6644 0.5685 0.5080 0.4659 0.4347 0.4105 0.3911 0.3751 0.3501 0.3314 0.3105 0.2950 0.2763 0.2629
8 0.7945 0.6152 0.5210 0.4627 0.4227 0.3932 0.3705 0.3523 0.3373 0.3141 0.2968 0.2774 0.2632 0.2460 0.2337
9 0.7544 0.5727 0.4810 0.4251 0.3870 0.3592 0.3378 0.3207 0.3067 0.2850 0.2689 0.2509 0.2377 0.2218 0.2105
10 0.7175 0.5358 0.4469 0.3934 0.3572 0.3308 0.3106 0.2945 0.2814 0.2611 0.2459 0.2292 0.2169 0.2021 0.1916
11 0.6837 0.5036 0.4175 0.3663 0.3318 0.3068 0.2876 0.2725 0.2601 0.2409 0.2267 0.2110 0.1995 0.1857 0.1759
12 0.6528 0.4751 0.3919 0.3428 0.3099 0.2861 0.2680 0.2536 0.2419 0.2238 0.2104 0.1956 0.1848 0.1718 0.1626
13 0.6245 0.4498 0.3695 0.3223 0.2909 0.2682 0.2509 0.2373 0.2261 0.2090 0.1963 0.1824 0.1721 0.1599 0.1512
14 0.5985 0.4272 0.3495 0.3042 0.2741 0.2525 0.2360 0.2230 0.2124 0.1961 0.1841 0.1709 0.1612 0.1496 0.1414
15 0.5747 0.4069 0.3318 0.2882 0.2593 0.2386 0.2228 0.2104 0.2003 0.1848 0.1734 0.1608 0.1516 0.1406 0.1328
16 0.5527 0.3885 0.3158 0.2738 0.2461 0.2262 0.2111 0.1992 0.1896 0.1748 0.1638 0.1518 0.1431 0.1326 0.1252
17 0.5324 0.3718 0.3014 0.2609 0.2342 0.2151 0.2006 0.1892 0.1800 0.1658 0.1553 0.1439 0.1355 0.1255 0.1184
18 0.5136 0.3566 0.2883 0.2492 0.2234 0.2051 0.1911 0.1802 0.1713 0.1577 0.1477 0.1367 0.1287 0.1191 0.1124
19 0.4961 0.3426 0.2763 0.2385 0.2137 0.1960 0.1826 0.1720 0.1635 0.1504 0.1408 0.1303 0.1226 0.1134 0.1070
20 0.4799 0.3297 0.2654 0.2288 0.2048 0.1877 0.1748 0.1646 0.1564 0.1438 0.1346 0.1244 0.1170 0.1082 0.1020
21 0.4647 0.3178 0.2553 0.2199 0.1966 0.1801 0.1676 0.1578 0.1499 0.1378 0.1289 0.1191 0.1120 0.1035 0.0976
22 0.4505 0.3068 0.2461 0.2116 0.1891 0.1731 0.1611 0.1516 0.1439 0.1322 0.1236 0.1142 0.1074 0.0992 0.0935
23 0.4372 0.2966 0.2375 0.2040 0.1822 0.1667 0.1550 0.1459 0.1385 0.1271 0.1188 0.1097 0.1031 0.0952 0.0897
24 0.4247 0.2871 0.2295 0.1970 0.1758 0.1608 0.1495 0.1406 0.1334 0.1224 0.1144 0.1056 0.0992 0.0916 0.0862
25 0.4130 0.2782 0.2220 0.1904 0.1699 0.1553 0.1443 0.1357 0.1287 0.1181 0.1103 0.1018 0.0956 0.0882 0.0831
26 0.4019 0.2699 0.2151 0.1843 0.1643 0.1501 0.1395 0.1311 0.1244 0.1140 0.1065 0.0982 0.0922 0.0851 0.0801
27 0.3914 0.2621 0.2086 0.1786 0.1591 0.1453 0.1350 0.1268 0.1203 0.1103 0.1029 0.0949 0.0891 0.0822 0.0773
28 0.3815 0.2547 0.2025 0.1733 0.1543 0.1409 0.1308 0.1229 0.1165 0.1068 0.0996 0.0919 0.0862 0.0795 0.0748
29 0.3721 0.2478 0.1968 0.1682 0.1498 0.1367 0.1268 0.1191 0.1129 0.1035 0.0965 0.0890 0.0835 0.0770 0.0724
30 0.3632 0.2412 0.1914 0.1635 0.1455 0.1327 0.1231 0.1156 0.1096 0.1004 0.0936 0.0863 0.0809 0.0746 0.0701
31 0.3548 0.2351 0.1863 0.1591 0.1415 0.1290 0.1197 0.1124 0.1065 0.0975 0.0909 0.0837 0.0785 0.0724 0.0680
32 0.3467 0.2292 0.1815 0.1549 0.1377 0.1255 0.1164 0.1093 0.1035 0.0948 0.0883 0.0814 0.0763 0.0703 0.0661
33 0.3390 0.2237 0.1769 0.1509 0.1341 0.1222 0.1133 0.1063 0.1007 0.0922 0.0859 0.0791 0.0742 0.0683 0.0642

22
 34 0.3317 0.2184 0.1726 0.1471 0.1307 0.1191 0.1104 0.1036 0.0981 0.0897 0.0836 0.0770 0.0722 0.0664 0.0624
35 0.3247 0.2134 0.1685 0.1435 0.1274 0.1161 0.1076 0.1009 0.0956 0.0874 0.0815 0.0750 0.0703 0.0647 0.0608
36 0.3181 0.2086 0.1646 0.1401 0.1244 0.1133 0.1050 0.0985 0.0932 0.0852 0.0794 0.0731 0.0685 0.0630 0.0592
37 0.3117 0.2041 0.1608 0.1369 0.1215 0.1106 0.1025 0.0961 0.0910 0.0832 0.0775 0.0713 0.0668 0.0614 0.0577
38 0.3055 0.1997 0.1573 0.1338 0.1187 0.1080 0.1001 0.0938 0.0888 0.0812 0.0756 0.0695 0.0651 0.0599 0.0563
39 0.2997 0.1956 0.1539 0.1309 0.1161 0.1056 0.0978 0.0917 0.0868 0.0793 0.0739 0.0679 0.0636 0.0585 0.0549
40 0.2940 0.1916 0.1507 0.1281 0.1135 0.1033 0.0956 0.0897 0.0848 0.0775 0.0722 0.0664 0.0621 0.0571 0.0536
45 0.2690 0.1740 0.1364 0.1158 0.1025 0.0931 0.0862 0.0807 0.0763 0.0697 0.0648 0.0596 0.0557 0.0512 0.0481
50 0.2481 0.1596 0.1248 0.1057 0.0935 0.0849 0.0785 0.0735 0.0694 0.0633 0.0589 0.0541 0.0506 0.0464 0.0435
55 0.2303 0.1474 0.1150 0.0973 0.0860 0.0780 0.0721 0.0674 0.0637 0.0581 0.0540 0.0495 0.0463 0.0425 0.0398
60 0.2151 0.1371 0.1068 0.0902 0.0796 0.0722 0.0667 0.0624 0.0589 0.0537 0.0498 0.0457 0.0427 0.0392 0.0367
65 0.2019 0.1282 0.0996 0.0841 0.0742 0.0672 0.0620 0.0580 0.0548 0.0499 0.0463 0.0424 0.0396 0.0363 0.0340
70 0.1903 0.1204 0.0935 0.0788 0.0695 0.0629 0.0580 0.0543 0.0512 0.0466 0.0433 0.0396 0.0370 0.0339 0.0317
75 0.1801 0.1136 0.0880 0.0742 0.0653 0.0591 0.0545 0.0510 0.0481 0.0438 0.0406 0.0372 0.0347 0.0318 0.0297
80 0.1709 0.1075 0.0832 0.0701 0.0617 0.0558 0.0515 0.0481 0.0454 0.0412 0.0383 0.0350 0.0327 0.0299 0.0280
90 0.1553 0.0972 0.0751 0.0631 0.0555 0.0502 0.0463 0.0432 0.0407 0.0370 0.0343 0.0314 0.0293 0.0268 0.0250
100 0.1424 0.0888 0.0685 0.0575 0.0505 0.0457 0.0420 0.0392 0.0370 0.0336 0.0311 0.0285 0.0265 0.0243 0.0227
120 0.1225 0.0759 0.0583 0.0489 0.0429 0.0387 0.0356 0.0332 0.0313 0.0284 0.0263 0.0240 0.0224 0.0204 0.0191
140 0.1076 0.0664 0.0509 0.0426 0.0373 0.0337 0.0310 0.0289 0.0272 0.0246 0.0228 0.0208 0.0194 0.0177 0.0165
160 0.0962 0.0591 0.0452 0.0378 0.0331 0.0298 0.0274 0.0255 0.0240 0.0218 0.0201 0.0183 0.0171 0.0156 0.0145
180 0.0870 0.0533 0.0407 0.0340 0.0297 0.0268 0.0246 0.0229 0.0215 0.0195 0.0180 0.0164 0.0153 0.0139 0.0130
200 0.0795 0.0485 0.0370 0.0309 0.0270 0.0243 0.0223 0.0208 0.0196 0.0177 0.0163 0.0149 0.0138 0.0126 0.0118
225 0.0719 0.0438 0.0333 0.0278 0.0243 0.0218 0.0200 0.0186 0.0175 0.0159 0.0146 0.0133 0.0124 0.0113 0.0105
250 0.0656 0.0399 0.0303 0.0252 0.0220 0.0198 0.0182 0.0169 0.0159 0.0144 0.0133 0.0121 0.0112 0.0102 0.0095
275 0.0604 0.0366 0.0278 0.0232 0.0202 0.0182 0.0167 0.0155 0.0146 0.0132 0.0121 0.0110 0.0103 0.0093 0.0087
300 0.0560 0.0339 0.0257 0.0214 0.0187 0.0168 0.0154 0.0143 0.0134 0.0121 0.0112 0.0102 0.0094 0.0086 0.0080
350 0.0490 0.0295 0.0224 0.0186 0.0162 0.0146 0.0133 0.0124 0.0116 0.0105 0.0097 0.0088 0.0082 0.0074 0.0069
400 0.0436 0.0262 0.0198 0.0165 0.0143 0.0129 0.0118 0.0109 0.0103 0.0093 0.0085 0.0078 0.0072 0.0065 0.0061
450 0.0393 0.0236 0.0178 0.0148 0.0129 0.0115 0.0106 0.0098 0.0092 0.0083 0.0076 0.0069 0.0064 0.0058 0.0054
500 0.0358 0.0214 0.0162 0.0134 0.0117 0.0105 0.0096 0.0089 0.0083 0.0075 0.0069 0.0063 0.0058 0.0053 0.0049
600 0.0305 0.0182 0.0137 0.0114 0.0099 0.0088 0.0081 0.0075 0.0070 0.0063 0.0058 0.0053 0.0049 0.0044 0.0041
700 0.0266 0.0158 0.0119 0.0099 0.0086 0.0077 0.0070 0.0065 0.0061 0.0055 0.0050 0.0046 0.0042 0.0038 0.0036
800 0.0236 0.0140 0.0106 0.0087 0.0076 0.0068 0.0062 0.0057 0.0054 0.0048 0.0044 0.0040 0.0037 0.0034 0.0031
900 0.0213 0.0126 0.0095 0.0078 0.0068 0.0061 0.0055 0.0051 0.0048 0.0043 0.0040 0.0036 0.0033 0.0030 0.0028
1000 0.0194 0.0115 0.0086 0.0071 0.0062 0.0055 0.0050 0.0047 0.0044 0.0039 0.0036 0.0033 0.0030 0.0027 0.0025
1500 0.0134 0.0079 0.0059 0.0049 0.0042 0.0038 0.0034 0.0032 0.0030 0.0027 0.0025 0.0022 0.0021 0.0019 0.0017
2000 0.0104 0.0061 0.0045 0.0037 0.0032 0.0029 0.0026 0.0024 0.0023 0.0020 0.0019 0.0017 0.0016 0.0014 0.0013
2500 0.0085 0.0050 0.0037 0.0030 0.0026 0.0023 0.0021 0.0020 0.0018 0.0017 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0011 0.0011
3000 0.0072 0.0042 0.0031 0.0026 0.0022 0.0020 0.0018 0.0017 0.0016 0.0014 0.0013 0.0011 0.0011 0.0010 8.8E-04
4000 0.0055 0.0032 0.0024 0.0020 0.0017 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012 0.0011 0.0010 8.7E-04 8.0E-04 7.2E-04 6.7E-04
5000 0.0045 0.0026 0.0019 0.0016 0.0014 0.0012 0.0011 0.0010 0.0010 8.6E-04 7.8E-04 7.1E-04 6.5E-04 5.9E-04 5.4E-04
7500 0.0031 0.0018 0.0013 0.0011 9.4E-04 8.4E-04 7.6E-04 7.0E-04 6.5E-04 5.8E-04 5.3E-04 4.8E-04 4.4E-04 4.0E-04 3.7E-04
10⁴ 0.0024 0.0014 0.0010 8.3E-04 7.2E-04 6.4E-04 5.8E-04 5.3E-04 5.0E-04 4.4E-04 4.1E-04 3.6E-04 3.4E-04 3.0E-04 2.8E-04
∞ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

23
Appendix A-2 Upper limit critical values for G tests on balanced designs; 34 ≤ ν ≤ ∞;
ζ = 0.01: significance level α₁ = 0.01 for one-sided test and α₂ = 0.02 for two-sided test

Number of degrees of freedom per data set (ν)

L
34 39 49 59 79 99 119 149 199 299 499 999 2499 9999 ∞
2 0.7119 0.6989 0.6788 0.6637 0.6423 0.6276 0.6167 0.6045 0.5907 0.5741 0.5575 0.5407 0.5257 0.5129 0.5000
3 0.5205 0.5079 0.4888 0.4748 0.4552 0.4419 0.4321 0.4214 0.4093 0.3951 0.3809 0.3668 0.3544 0.3438 0.3333
4 0.4103 0.3991 0.3822 0.3699 0.3529 0.3414 0.3330 0.3238 0.3135 0.3015 0.2896 0.2777 0.2674 0.2587 0.2500
5 0.3392 0.3292 0.3143 0.3035 0.2885 0.2785 0.2712 0.2633 0.2544 0.2440 0.2337 0.2236 0.2148 0.2073 0.2000
6 0.2894 0.2805 0.2672 0.2575 0.2443 0.2354 0.2290 0.2220 0.2141 0.2050 0.1960 0.1872 0.1795 0.1730 0.1667
7 0.2527 0.2446 0.2326 0.2239 0.2120 0.2040 0.1983 0.1920 0.1850 0.1769 0.1689 0.1610 0.1542 0.1485 0.1429
8 0.2244 0.2170 0.2061 0.1982 0.1873 0.1801 0.1749 0.1692 0.1629 0.1556 0.1484 0.1413 0.1352 0.1301 0.1250
9 0.2019 0.1952 0.1851 0.1778 0.1679 0.1613 0.1565 0.1514 0.1456 0.1389 0.1323 0.1259 0.1204 0.1157 0.1111
10 0.1836 0.1774 0.1680 0.1613 0.1522 0.1461 0.1417 0.1369 0.1316 0.1255 0.1195 0.1136 0.1085 0.1042 0.1000
11 0.1685 0.1626 0.1539 0.1477 0.1392 0.1336 0.1295 0.1251 0.1201 0.1144 0.1089 0.1034 0.0987 0.0948 0.0909
12 0.1557 0.1502 0.1421 0.1362 0.1283 0.1230 0.1192 0.1151 0.1105 0.1052 0.1000 0.0950 0.0906 0.0869 0.0833
13 0.1447 0.1396 0.1319 0.1265 0.1190 0.1141 0.1105 0.1066 0.1023 0.0974 0.0925 0.0878 0.0837 0.0803 0.0769
14 0.1352 0.1304 0.1232 0.1180 0.1110 0.1063 0.1030 0.0993 0.0953 0.0906 0.0861 0.0816 0.0778 0.0746 0.0714
15 0.1269 0.1223 0.1155 0.1106 0.1040 0.0996 0.0964 0.0930 0.0892 0.0848 0.0805 0.0763 0.0727 0.0696 0.0667
16 0.1196 0.1153 0.1088 0.1041 0.0978 0.0937 0.0907 0.0874 0.0838 0.0796 0.0755 0.0716 0.0682 0.0653 0.0625
17 0.1131 0.1090 0.1028 0.0984 0.0924 0.0884 0.0856 0.0825 0.0790 0.0751 0.0712 0.0674 0.0642 0.0615 0.0588
18 0.1073 0.1034 0.0975 0.0932 0.0875 0.0837 0.0810 0.0781 0.0748 0.0710 0.0673 0.0637 0.0607 0.0581 0.0556
19 0.1021 0.0983 0.0927 0.0886 0.0832 0.0795 0.0769 0.0741 0.0710 0.0674 0.0639 0.0604 0.0575 0.0550 0.0526
20 0.0974 0.0937 0.0883 0.0845 0.0792 0.0757 0.0732 0.0705 0.0675 0.0641 0.0607 0.0575 0.0547 0.0523 0.0500
21 0.0931 0.0896 0.0844 0.0807 0.0756 0.0723 0.0699 0.0673 0.0644 0.0611 0.0579 0.0548 0.0521 0.0498 0.0476
22 0.0892 0.0858 0.0808 0.0772 0.0724 0.0692 0.0669 0.0644 0.0616 0.0584 0.0553 0.0523 0.0497 0.0476 0.0455
23 0.0855 0.0823 0.0775 0.0740 0.0694 0.0663 0.0641 0.0617 0.0590 0.0559 0.0530 0.0501 0.0476 0.0455 0.0435
24 0.0822 0.0791 0.0744 0.0711 0.0666 0.0636 0.0615 0.0592 0.0566 0.0537 0.0508 0.0480 0.0456 0.0436 0.0417
25 0.0792 0.0761 0.0716 0.0684 0.0641 0.0612 0.0591 0.0569 0.0544 0.0516 0.0488 0.0461 0.0438 0.0419 0.0400
26 0.0763 0.0734 0.0690 0.0659 0.0617 0.0589 0.0570 0.0548 0.0524 0.0497 0.0470 0.0444 0.0421 0.0403 0.0385
27 0.0737 0.0708 0.0666 0.0636 0.0595 0.0569 0.0549 0.0528 0.0505 0.0479 0.0453 0.0428 0.0406 0.0388 0.0370
28 0.0712 0.0685 0.0644 0.0615 0.0575 0.0549 0.0530 0.0510 0.0488 0.0462 0.0437 0.0413 0.0392 0.0374 0.0357
29 0.0689 0.0663 0.0623 0.0595 0.0556 0.0531 0.0513 0.0493 0.0471 0.0446 0.0422 0.0399 0.0378 0.0361 0.0345
30 0.0668 0.0642 0.0603 0.0576 0.0539 0.0514 0.0496 0.0477 0.0456 0.0432 0.0408 0.0385 0.0366 0.0349 0.0333
31 0.0648 0.0622 0.0585 0.0558 0.0522 0.0498 0.0481 0.0462 0.0442 0.0418 0.0395 0.0373 0.0354 0.0338 0.0323
32 0.0629 0.0604 0.0568 0.0542 0.0506 0.0483 0.0466 0.0448 0.0428 0.0406 0.0383 0.0362 0.0343 0.0328 0.0313
33 0.0611 0.0587 0.0551 0.0526 0.0492 0.0469 0.0453 0.0435 0.0416 0.0394 0.0372 0.0351 0.0333 0.0318 0.0303
34 0.0594 0.0571 0.0536 0.0511 0.0478 0.0456 0.0440 0.0423 0.0404 0.0382 0.0361 0.0341 0.0323 0.0308 0.0294
35 0.0578 0.0555 0.0522 0.0497 0.0465 0.0443 0.0428 0.0411 0.0393 0.0372 0.0351 0.0331 0.0314 0.0300 0.0286
36 0.0563 0.0541 0.0508 0.0484 0.0452 0.0432 0.0416 0.0400 0.0382 0.0362 0.0341 0.0322 0.0305 0.0291 0.0278
37 0.0549 0.0527 0.0495 0.0472 0.0441 0.0420 0.0406 0.0390 0.0372 0.0352 0.0332 0.0313 0.0297 0.0284 0.0270
38 0.0535 0.0514 0.0483 0.0460 0.0430 0.0410 0.0395 0.0380 0.0363 0.0343 0.0324 0.0305 0.0289 0.0276 0.0263
39 0.0523 0.0502 0.0471 0.0449 0.0419 0.0400 0.0386 0.0370 0.0354 0.0334 0.0316 0.0298 0.0282 0.0269 0.0256
40 0.0510 0.0490 0.0460 0.0438 0.0409 0.0390 0.0376 0.0361 0.0345 0.0326 0.0308 0.0290 0.0275 0.0262 0.0250
45 0.0457 0.0438 0.0411 0.0392 0.0365 0.0348 0.0336 0.0322 0.0308 0.0291 0.0274 0.0258 0.0245 0.0233 0.0222
50 0.0414 0.0397 0.0372 0.0354 0.0330 0.0315 0.0303 0.0291 0.0278 0.0262 0.0247 0.0233 0.0220 0.0210 0.0200
55 0.0378 0.0363 0.0340 0.0323 0.0301 0.0287 0.0277 0.0265 0.0253 0.0239 0.0225 0.0212 0.0201 0.0191 0.0182
60 0.0348 0.0334 0.0313 0.0298 0.0277 0.0264 0.0254 0.0244 0.0233 0.0219 0.0207 0.0194 0.0184 0.0175 0.0167

24
 65 0.0323 0.0310 0.0290 0.0276 0.0257 0.0244 0.0235 0.0226 0.0215 0.0203 0.0191 0.0180 0.0170 0.0162 0.0154
70 0.0301 0.0289 0.0270 0.0257 0.0239 0.0227 0.0219 0.0210 0.0200 0.0189 0.0178 0.0167 0.0158 0.0150 0.0143
75 0.0282 0.0270 0.0253 0.0241 0.0224 0.0213 0.0205 0.0196 0.0187 0.0176 0.0166 0.0156 0.0147 0.0140 0.0133
80 0.0266 0.0254 0.0238 0.0226 0.0210 0.0200 0.0193 0.0185 0.0176 0.0166 0.0156 0.0146 0.0138 0.0132 0.0125
90 0.0238 0.0227 0.0213 0.0202 0.0188 0.0178 0.0172 0.0165 0.0157 0.0148 0.0139 0.0130 0.0123 0.0117 0.0111
100 0.0215 0.0206 0.0192 0.0183 0.0170 0.0161 0.0155 0.0149 0.0141 0.0133 0.0125 0.0117 0.0111 0.0105 0.0100
120 0.0181 0.0173 0.0161 0.0153 0.0142 0.0135 0.0130 0.0124 0.0118 0.0111 0.0105 0.0098 0.0092 0.0088 0.0083
140 0.0156 0.0149 0.0139 0.0132 0.0123 0.0116 0.0112 0.0107 0.0102 0.0096 0.0090 0.0084 0.0079 0.0075 0.0071
160 0.0138 0.0131 0.0123 0.0116 0.0108 0.0102 0.0098 0.0094 0.0089 0.0084 0.0079 0.0074 0.0069 0.0066 0.0063
180 0.0123 0.0117 0.0109 0.0104 0.0096 0.0091 0.0088 0.0084 0.0080 0.0075 0.0070 0.0066 0.0062 0.0059 0.0056
200 0.0111 0.0106 0.0099 0.0094 0.0087 0.0082 0.0079 0.0076 0.0072 0.0067 0.0063 0.0059 0.0056 0.0053 0.0050
225 0.0099 0.0095 0.0088 0.0084 0.0078 0.0073 0.0071 0.0067 0.0064 0.0060 0.0056 0.0053 0.0050 0.0047 0.0044
250 0.0090 0.0086 0.0080 0.0076 0.0070 0.0066 0.0064 0.0061 0.0058 0.0054 0.0051 0.0047 0.0045 0.0042 0.0040
275 0.0082 0.0078 0.0073 0.0069 0.0064 0.0060 0.0058 0.0055 0.0053 0.0049 0.0046 0.0043 0.0041 0.0038 0.0036
300 0.0076 0.0072 0.0067 0.0063 0.0059 0.0056 0.0053 0.0051 0.0048 0.0045 0.0042 0.0040 0.0037 0.0035 0.0033
350 0.0065 0.0062 0.0058 0.0055 0.0051 0.0048 0.0046 0.0044 0.0042 0.0039 0.0036 0.0034 0.0032 0.0030 0.0029
400 0.0057 0.0055 0.0051 0.0048 0.0044 0.0042 0.0040 0.0038 0.0036 0.0034 0.0032 0.0030 0.0028 0.0026 0.0025
450 0.0051 0.0049 0.0045 0.0043 0.0040 0.0037 0.0036 0.0034 0.0032 0.0030 0.0028 0.0027 0.0025 0.0024 0.0022
500 0.0046 0.0044 0.0041 0.0039 0.0036 0.0034 0.0032 0.0031 0.0029 0.0027 0.0026 0.0024 0.0022 0.0021 0.0020
600 0.0039 0.0037 0.0034 0.0033 0.0030 0.0028 0.0027 0.0026 0.0025 0.0023 0.0021 0.0020 0.0019 0.0018 0.0017
700 0.0034 0.0032 0.0030 0.0028 0.0026 0.0024 0.0023 0.0022 0.0021 0.0020 0.0018 0.0017 0.0016 0.0015 0.0014
800 0.0030 0.0028 0.0026 0.0025 0.0023 0.0021 0.0021 0.0020 0.0018 0.0017 0.0016 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0013
900 0.0026 0.0025 0.0023 0.0022 0.0020 0.0019 0.0018 0.0017 0.0016 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012 0.0012 0.0011
1000 0.0024 0.0023 0.0021 0.0020 0.0018 0.0017 0.0017 0.0016 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012 0.0011 0.0011 0.0010
1500 0.0016 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012 0.0012 0.0011 0.0011 0.0010 9.3E-04 8.7E-04 8.0E-04 7.5E-04 7.1E-04 6.7E-04
2000 0.0012 0.0012 0.0011 0.0010 9.3E-04 8.8E-04 8.4E-04 8.0E-04 7.5E-04 7.0E-04 6.5E-04 6.1E-04 5.6E-04 5.3E-04 5.0E-04
2500 0.0010 9.4E-04 8.7E-04 8.2E-04 7.5E-04 7.1E-04 6.8E-04 6.4E-04 6.0E-04 5.6E-04 5.2E-04 4.9E-04 4.5E-04 4.3E-04 4.0E-04
3000 8.3E-04 7.9E-04 7.3E-04 6.9E-04 6.3E-04 5.9E-04 5.6E-04 5.4E-04 5.1E-04 4.7E-04 4.4E-04 4.0E-04 3.8E-04 3.5E-04 3.3E-04
4000 6.3E-04 6.0E-04 5.5E-04 5.2E-04 4.7E-04 4.5E-04 4.3E-04 4.0E-04 3.8E-04 3.5E-04 3.3E-04 3.0E-04 2.8E-04 2.7E-04 2.5E-04
5000 5.1E-04 4.8E-04 4.4E-04 4.2E-04 3.8E-04 3.6E-04 3.4E-04 3.3E-04 3.1E-04 2.8E-04 2.6E-04 2.4E-04 2.3E-04 2.1E-04 2.0E-04
7500 3.4E-04 3.3E-04 3.0E-04 2.8E-04 2.6E-04 2.4E-04 2.3E-04 2.2E-04 2.1E-04 1.9E-04 1.8E-04 1.6E-04 1.5E-04 1.4E-04 1.3E-04
10⁴ 2.6E-04 2.5E-04 2.3E-04 2.1E-04 1.9E-04 1.8E-04 1.7E-04 1.7E-04 1.6E-04 1.4E-04 1.3E-04 1.2E-04 1.1E-04 1.1E-04 1.0E-04
∞ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

25
Appendix B Upper limit values CUL at significance levels α1 = 0.025 (one-sided test, Eq. 28) and
α2 = 0.05 (two-sided test, Eq. 30)
n = number of observations per data set
ν = (n-1) = number of degrees of freedom per data set
L = number of data sets

Appendix B-1 Upper limit critical values for G tests on balanced designs; 1 ≤ ν ≤ 29;
ζ = 0.025: significance level α₁ = 0.025 for one-sided test and α₂ = 0.05 for two-sided test

Number of degrees of freedom per data set (ν)

L
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 13 16 19 24 29
2 0.9996 0.9875 0.9619 0.9340 0.9083 0.8857 0.8659 0.8486 0.8335 0.8080 0.7874 0.7629 0.7437 0.7193 0.7010
3 0.9834 0.9087 0.8405 0.7884 0.7483 0.7166 0.6909 0.6695 0.6514 0.6222 0.5997 0.5738 0.5540 0.5296 0.5117
4 0.9406 0.8158 0.7305 0.6721 0.6297 0.5973 0.5716 0.5506 0.5330 0.5052 0.4840 0.4600 0.4419 0.4197 0.4036
5 0.8868 0.7341 0.6437 0.5850 0.5435 0.5123 0.4879 0.4682 0.4518 0.4261 0.4066 0.3847 0.3683 0.3483 0.3340
6 0.8324 0.6658 0.5752 0.5182 0.4786 0.4492 0.4263 0.4079 0.3927 0.3690 0.3512 0.3312 0.3163 0.2983 0.2853
7 0.7814 0.6090 0.5203 0.4656 0.4281 0.4004 0.3791 0.3619 0.3479 0.3259 0.3095 0.2911 0.2775 0.2611 0.2493
8 0.7352 0.5613 0.4753 0.4232 0.3877 0.3617 0.3417 0.3257 0.3126 0.2922 0.2770 0.2600 0.2475 0.2324 0.2216
9 0.6936 0.5209 0.4379 0.3882 0.3546 0.3301 0.3113 0.2963 0.2840 0.2650 0.2509 0.2352 0.2235 0.2096 0.1996
10 0.6563 0.4861 0.4062 0.3589 0.3270 0.3038 0.2861 0.2720 0.2605 0.2427 0.2294 0.2148 0.2039 0.1909 0.1817
11 0.6228 0.4559 0.3791 0.3339 0.3036 0.2816 0.2649 0.2516 0.2407 0.2240 0.2115 0.1977 0.1876 0.1754 0.1668
12 0.5927 0.4295 0.3556 0.3123 0.2834 0.2626 0.2467 0.2341 0.2239 0.2080 0.1963 0.1833 0.1738 0.1623 0.1542
13 0.5654 0.4062 0.3350 0.2935 0.2660 0.2461 0.2310 0.2190 0.2093 0.1943 0.1832 0.1709 0.1619 0.1511 0.1435
14 0.5407 0.3854 0.3167 0.2770 0.2506 0.2317 0.2172 0.2059 0.1966 0.1823 0.1718 0.1601 0.1516 0.1414 0.1341
15 0.5181 0.3668 0.3005 0.2623 0.2370 0.2189 0.2051 0.1942 0.1854 0.1718 0.1618 0.1507 0.1426 0.1329 0.1260
16 0.4975 0.3500 0.2860 0.2492 0.2249 0.2075 0.1943 0.1839 0.1755 0.1625 0.1529 0.1423 0.1346 0.1253 0.1188
17 0.4785 0.3348 0.2729 0.2374 0.2141 0.1974 0.1847 0.1747 0.1666 0.1542 0.1450 0.1349 0.1275 0.1187 0.1124
18 0.4611 0.3209 0.2610 0.2268 0.2043 0.1882 0.1760 0.1664 0.1586 0.1467 0.1379 0.1282 0.1211 0.1127 0.1067
19 0.4449 0.3082 0.2501 0.2171 0.1954 0.1799 0.1681 0.1589 0.1514 0.1399 0.1315 0.1222 0.1154 0.1073 0.1015
20 0.4300 0.2966 0.2402 0.2082 0.1872 0.1723 0.1610 0.1521 0.1448 0.1338 0.1256 0.1167 0.1102 0.1024 0.0969
21 0.4160 0.2859 0.2311 0.2001 0.1798 0.1653 0.1544 0.1458 0.1389 0.1282 0.1203 0.1117 0.1054 0.0979 0.0926
22 0.4031 0.2759 0.2227 0.1926 0.1730 0.1590 0.1484 0.1401 0.1334 0.1231 0.1155 0.1072 0.1011 0.0939 0.0888
23 0.3909 0.2667 0.2149 0.1857 0.1667 0.1531 0.1428 0.1348 0.1283 0.1183 0.1110 0.1030 0.0971 0.0901 0.0852
24 0.3796 0.2581 0.2077 0.1793 0.1608 0.1476 0.1377 0.1299 0.1236 0.1140 0.1069 0.0991 0.0934 0.0867 0.0819
25 0.3689 0.2501 0.2010 0.1734 0.1554 0.1426 0.1330 0.1254 0.1193 0.1099 0.1031 0.0955 0.0900 0.0835 0.0789
26 0.3588 0.2426 0.1947 0.1678 0.1503 0.1379 0.1286 0.1212 0.1153 0.1062 0.0995 0.0922 0.0869 0.0806 0.0761
27 0.3494 0.2356 0.1889 0.1627 0.1456 0.1335 0.1244 0.1173 0.1115 0.1027 0.0962 0.0891 0.0840 0.0778 0.0735
28 0.3404 0.2290 0.1834 0.1578 0.1412 0.1294 0.1206 0.1136 0.1080 0.0994 0.0931 0.0863 0.0812 0.0753 0.0711
29 0.3320 0.2228 0.1782 0.1533 0.1371 0.1256 0.1170 0.1102 0.1047 0.0964 0.0903 0.0836 0.0787 0.0729 0.0688
30 0.3239 0.2169 0.1733 0.1490 0.1332 0.1220 0.1136 0.1070 0.1017 0.0935 0.0876 0.0810 0.0763 0.0706 0.0667
31 0.3163 0.2113 0.1687 0.1449 0.1295 0.1186 0.1104 0.1040 0.0988 0.0908 0.0850 0.0787 0.0740 0.0685 0.0647
32 0.3091 0.2061 0.1644 0.1411 0.1261 0.1154 0.1074 0.1011 0.0960 0.0883 0.0826 0.0764 0.0719 0.0666 0.0628
33 0.3022 0.2011 0.1603 0.1375 0.1228 0.1124 0.1045 0.0984 0.0935 0.0859 0.0804 0.0743 0.0699 0.0647 0.0610
34 0.2957 0.1964 0.1564 0.1341 0.1197 0.1095 0.1018 0.0959 0.0910 0.0836 0.0782 0.0723 0.0680 0.0630 0.0594
35 0.2894 0.1919 0.1527 0.1309 0.1168 0.1068 0.0993 0.0934 0.0887 0.0815 0.0762 0.0705 0.0663 0.0613 0.0578
36 0.2834 0.1876 0.1491 0.1278 0.1140 0.1042 0.0969 0.0912 0.0865 0.0795 0.0743 0.0687 0.0646 0.0597 0.0563
37 0.2777 0.1835 0.1458 0.1248 0.1113 0.1018 0.0946 0.0890 0.0845 0.0776 0.0725 0.0670 0.0630 0.0582 0.0549

26
 38 0.2722 0.1796 0.1426 0.1220 0.1088 0.0994 0.0924 0.0869 0.0825 0.0757 0.0708 0.0654 0.0615 0.0568 0.0535
39 0.2670 0.1759 0.1395 0.1194 0.1064 0.0972 0.0903 0.0849 0.0806 0.0740 0.0691 0.0639 0.0600 0.0555 0.0523
40 0.2620 0.1724 0.1366 0.1168 0.1041 0.0951 0.0883 0.0831 0.0788 0.0723 0.0676 0.0624 0.0586 0.0542 0.0510
45 0.2396 0.1566 0.1238 0.1057 0.0940 0.0858 0.0796 0.0748 0.0709 0.0650 0.0607 0.0560 0.0526 0.0486 0.0457
50 0.2210 0.1437 0.1133 0.0965 0.0858 0.0782 0.0725 0.0681 0.0646 0.0592 0.0552 0.0509 0.0478 0.0441 0.0415
55 0.2053 0.1328 0.1045 0.0889 0.0789 0.0719 0.0667 0.0626 0.0593 0.0543 0.0506 0.0466 0.0437 0.0403 0.0379
60 0.1917 0.1236 0.0970 0.0825 0.0731 0.0666 0.0617 0.0579 0.0548 0.0502 0.0467 0.0430 0.0404 0.0372 0.0350
65 0.1800 0.1156 0.0906 0.0769 0.0682 0.0620 0.0575 0.0539 0.0510 0.0466 0.0435 0.0400 0.0375 0.0345 0.0324
70 0.1697 0.1087 0.0850 0.0721 0.0639 0.0581 0.0538 0.0504 0.0477 0.0436 0.0406 0.0374 0.0350 0.0322 0.0303
75 0.1606 0.1025 0.0801 0.0679 0.0601 0.0546 0.0506 0.0474 0.0448 0.0409 0.0381 0.0350 0.0328 0.0302 0.0284
80 0.1525 0.0971 0.0758 0.0642 0.0568 0.0516 0.0477 0.0447 0.0423 0.0386 0.0359 0.0330 0.0309 0.0284 0.0267
90 0.1387 0.0879 0.0684 0.0579 0.0511 0.0464 0.0429 0.0402 0.0380 0.0347 0.0322 0.0296 0.0277 0.0255 0.0239
100 0.1273 0.0804 0.0625 0.0528 0.0466 0.0423 0.0390 0.0365 0.0345 0.0315 0.0293 0.0269 0.0251 0.0231 0.0216
120 0.1096 0.0688 0.0533 0.0449 0.0396 0.0359 0.0331 0.0310 0.0292 0.0266 0.0247 0.0227 0.0212 0.0194 0.0182
140 0.0964 0.0602 0.0465 0.0392 0.0345 0.0312 0.0288 0.0269 0.0254 0.0231 0.0215 0.0197 0.0184 0.0168 0.0158
160 0.0862 0.0536 0.0414 0.0348 0.0306 0.0277 0.0255 0.0238 0.0225 0.0204 0.0190 0.0174 0.0162 0.0148 0.0139
180 0.0781 0.0484 0.0373 0.0313 0.0275 0.0249 0.0229 0.0214 0.0202 0.0183 0.0170 0.0156 0.0145 0.0133 0.0124
200 0.0715 0.0442 0.0340 0.0285 0.0250 0.0226 0.0208 0.0194 0.0183 0.0166 0.0154 0.0141 0.0131 0.0120 0.0112
225 0.0647 0.0398 0.0306 0.0256 0.0225 0.0203 0.0187 0.0174 0.0164 0.0149 0.0138 0.0126 0.0118 0.0108 0.0101
250 0.0591 0.0363 0.0278 0.0233 0.0204 0.0184 0.0170 0.0158 0.0149 0.0135 0.0125 0.0114 0.0107 0.0097 0.0091
275 0.0545 0.0334 0.0256 0.0214 0.0187 0.0169 0.0156 0.0145 0.0137 0.0124 0.0115 0.0105 0.0097 0.0089 0.0083
300 0.0505 0.0309 0.0237 0.0198 0.0173 0.0156 0.0144 0.0134 0.0126 0.0114 0.0106 0.0096 0.0090 0.0082 0.0077
350 0.0442 0.0270 0.0206 0.0172 0.0151 0.0136 0.0125 0.0116 0.0109 0.0099 0.0092 0.0083 0.0078 0.0071 0.0066
400 0.0394 0.0240 0.0183 0.0152 0.0133 0.0120 0.0110 0.0103 0.0097 0.0087 0.0081 0.0074 0.0068 0.0062 0.0058
450 0.0356 0.0216 0.0164 0.0137 0.0120 0.0108 0.0099 0.0092 0.0087 0.0078 0.0072 0.0066 0.0061 0.0056 0.0052
500 0.0325 0.0197 0.0149 0.0124 0.0109 0.0098 0.0090 0.0084 0.0079 0.0071 0.0066 0.0060 0.0055 0.0051 0.0047
600 0.0277 0.0167 0.0127 0.0105 0.0092 0.0083 0.0076 0.0071 0.0066 0.0060 0.0055 0.0050 0.0047 0.0043 0.0040
700 0.0242 0.0145 0.0110 0.0092 0.0080 0.0072 0.0066 0.0061 0.0057 0.0052 0.0048 0.0043 0.0040 0.0037 0.0034
800 0.0215 0.0129 0.0098 0.0081 0.0071 0.0063 0.0058 0.0054 0.0051 0.0046 0.0042 0.0038 0.0036 0.0032 0.0030
900 0.0194 0.0116 0.0088 0.0073 0.0063 0.0057 0.0052 0.0048 0.0045 0.0041 0.0038 0.0034 0.0032 0.0029 0.0027
1000 0.0176 0.0106 0.0080 0.0066 0.0058 0.0052 0.0047 0.0044 0.0041 0.0037 0.0034 0.0031 0.0029 0.0026 0.0024
1500 0.0123 0.0073 0.0055 0.0046 0.0040 0.0035 0.0032 0.0030 0.0028 0.0025 0.0023 0.0021 0.0020 0.0018 0.0017
2000 0.0095 0.0056 0.0042 0.0035 0.0030 0.0027 0.0025 0.0023 0.0022 0.0019 0.0018 0.0016 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013
2500 0.0078 0.0046 0.0034 0.0028 0.0025 0.0022 0.0020 0.0019 0.0017 0.0016 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012 0.0011 0.0010
3000 0.0066 0.0039 0.0029 0.0024 0.0021 0.0019 0.0017 0.0016 0.0015 0.0013 0.0012 0.0011 0.0010 9.2E-04 8.5E-04
4000 0.0051 0.0030 0.0022 0.0018 0.0016 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012 0.0011 0.0010 9.3E-04 8.4E-04 7.7E-04 7.0E-04 6.5E-04
5000 0.0042 0.0024 0.0018 0.0015 0.0013 0.0012 0.0011 9.7E-04 9.1E-04 8.2E-04 7.5E-04 6.8E-04 6.2E-04 5.6E-04 5.2E-04
7500 0.0029 0.0017 0.0013 0.0010 8.9E-04 7.9E-04 7.2E-04 6.6E-04 6.2E-04 5.6E-04 5.1E-04 4.6E-04 4.2E-04 3.8E-04 3.5E-04
10⁴ 0.0022 0.0013 9.6E-04 7.9E-04 6.8E-04 6.0E-04 5.5E-04 5.1E-04 4.7E-04 4.2E-04 3.9E-04 3.5E-04 3.2E-04 2.9E-04 2.7E-04
∞ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

27
Appendix B-2 Upper limit critical values for G tests on balanced designs; 34 ≤ ν ≤ ∞;
ζ = 0.025: significance level α₁ = 0.025 for one-sided test and α₂ = 0.05 for two-sided test

Number of degrees of freedom per data set (ν)

L
34 39 49 59 79 99 119 149 199 299 499 999 2499 9999 ∞
2 0.6866 0.6749 0.6568 0.6434 0.6245 0.6115 0.6019 0.5912 0.5790 0.5646 0.5501 0.5354 0.5224 0.5112 0.5000
3 0.4979 0.4868 0.4699 0.4576 0.4404 0.4287 0.4202 0.4108 0.4001 0.3876 0.3752 0.3628 0.3519 0.3426 0.3333
4 0.3913 0.3815 0.3666 0.3558 0.3408 0.3307 0.3234 0.3153 0.3062 0.2956 0.2851 0.2746 0.2655 0.2577 0.2500
5 0.3230 0.3143 0.3011 0.2916 0.2785 0.2696 0.2632 0.2562 0.2483 0.2391 0.2300 0.2211 0.2132 0.2066 0.2000
6 0.2754 0.2676 0.2559 0.2474 0.2357 0.2279 0.2222 0.2160 0.2090 0.2009 0.1929 0.1851 0.1782 0.1724 0.1667
7 0.2404 0.2333 0.2227 0.2150 0.2045 0.1975 0.1924 0.1868 0.1806 0.1733 0.1662 0.1592 0.1531 0.1479 0.1429
8 0.2134 0.2070 0.1973 0.1903 0.1807 0.1743 0.1697 0.1647 0.1590 0.1525 0.1460 0.1397 0.1342 0.1296 0.1250
9 0.1921 0.1861 0.1772 0.1708 0.1620 0.1561 0.1519 0.1473 0.1421 0.1361 0.1303 0.1245 0.1195 0.1153 0.1111
10 0.1747 0.1691 0.1609 0.1550 0.1468 0.1414 0.1375 0.1332 0.1285 0.1230 0.1176 0.1123 0.1077 0.1038 0.1000
11 0.1602 0.1551 0.1474 0.1419 0.1343 0.1293 0.1256 0.1217 0.1173 0.1122 0.1072 0.1023 0.0980 0.0944 0.0909
12 0.1481 0.1432 0.1360 0.1309 0.1238 0.1191 0.1157 0.1120 0.1079 0.1031 0.0985 0.0939 0.0899 0.0866 0.0833
13 0.1377 0.1331 0.1263 0.1215 0.1148 0.1104 0.1072 0.1038 0.0999 0.0954 0.0911 0.0868 0.0831 0.0800 0.0769
14 0.1287 0.1244 0.1180 0.1134 0.1071 0.1030 0.0999 0.0967 0.0930 0.0888 0.0847 0.0807 0.0772 0.0743 0.0714
15 0.1208 0.1167 0.1107 0.1063 0.1004 0.0964 0.0936 0.0905 0.0871 0.0831 0.0792 0.0754 0.0721 0.0694 0.0667
16 0.1139 0.1100 0.1042 0.1001 0.0944 0.0907 0.0880 0.0851 0.0818 0.0781 0.0744 0.0708 0.0677 0.0651 0.0625
17 0.1077 0.1040 0.0985 0.0946 0.0892 0.0856 0.0831 0.0803 0.0772 0.0736 0.0701 0.0667 0.0637 0.0613 0.0588
18 0.1022 0.0987 0.0934 0.0896 0.0845 0.0811 0.0787 0.0760 0.0730 0.0696 0.0663 0.0630 0.0602 0.0579 0.0556
19 0.0972 0.0938 0.0888 0.0852 0.0803 0.0770 0.0747 0.0722 0.0693 0.0661 0.0629 0.0598 0.0571 0.0548 0.0526
20 0.0927 0.0895 0.0847 0.0812 0.0765 0.0734 0.0711 0.0687 0.0660 0.0629 0.0598 0.0568 0.0543 0.0521 0.0500
21 0.0887 0.0855 0.0809 0.0776 0.0730 0.0700 0.0679 0.0655 0.0630 0.0600 0.0570 0.0542 0.0517 0.0496 0.0476
22 0.0849 0.0819 0.0774 0.0742 0.0699 0.0670 0.0649 0.0627 0.0602 0.0573 0.0545 0.0517 0.0494 0.0474 0.0455
23 0.0815 0.0786 0.0743 0.0712 0.0670 0.0642 0.0622 0.0601 0.0577 0.0549 0.0522 0.0495 0.0473 0.0453 0.0435
24 0.0783 0.0755 0.0714 0.0684 0.0643 0.0617 0.0597 0.0577 0.0553 0.0527 0.0500 0.0475 0.0453 0.0435 0.0417
25 0.0754 0.0727 0.0687 0.0658 0.0619 0.0593 0.0575 0.0554 0.0532 0.0506 0.0481 0.0456 0.0435 0.0417 0.0400
26 0.0727 0.0701 0.0662 0.0634 0.0596 0.0571 0.0553 0.0534 0.0512 0.0487 0.0463 0.0439 0.0419 0.0401 0.0385
27 0.0702 0.0677 0.0639 0.0612 0.0575 0.0551 0.0534 0.0515 0.0494 0.0470 0.0446 0.0423 0.0403 0.0387 0.0370
28 0.0679 0.0654 0.0618 0.0591 0.0556 0.0532 0.0515 0.0497 0.0477 0.0453 0.0430 0.0408 0.0389 0.0373 0.0357
29 0.0657 0.0633 0.0598 0.0572 0.0538 0.0515 0.0498 0.0480 0.0461 0.0438 0.0416 0.0394 0.0376 0.0360 0.0345
30 0.0637 0.0613 0.0579 0.0554 0.0520 0.0498 0.0482 0.0465 0.0446 0.0424 0.0402 0.0381 0.0363 0.0348 0.0333
31 0.0618 0.0595 0.0561 0.0537 0.0504 0.0483 0.0467 0.0451 0.0432 0.0410 0.0390 0.0369 0.0352 0.0337 0.0323
32 0.0600 0.0578 0.0545 0.0521 0.0489 0.0468 0.0453 0.0437 0.0419 0.0398 0.0378 0.0358 0.0341 0.0326 0.0313
33 0.0583 0.0561 0.0529 0.0506 0.0475 0.0455 0.0440 0.0424 0.0407 0.0386 0.0366 0.0347 0.0330 0.0317 0.0303
34 0.0567 0.0546 0.0514 0.0492 0.0462 0.0442 0.0428 0.0412 0.0395 0.0375 0.0356 0.0337 0.0321 0.0307 0.0294
35 0.0552 0.0531 0.0501 0.0479 0.0449 0.0430 0.0416 0.0401 0.0384 0.0365 0.0346 0.0328 0.0312 0.0299 0.0286
36 0.0537 0.0517 0.0487 0.0466 0.0437 0.0419 0.0405 0.0390 0.0374 0.0355 0.0336 0.0319 0.0303 0.0290 0.0278
37 0.0524 0.0504 0.0475 0.0454 0.0426 0.0408 0.0394 0.0380 0.0364 0.0345 0.0328 0.0310 0.0295 0.0283 0.0270
38 0.0511 0.0492 0.0463 0.0443 0.0415 0.0397 0.0384 0.0370 0.0355 0.0337 0.0319 0.0302 0.0287 0.0275 0.0263
39 0.0499 0.0480 0.0452 0.0432 0.0405 0.0388 0.0375 0.0361 0.0346 0.0328 0.0311 0.0294 0.0280 0.0268 0.0256
40 0.0487 0.0469 0.0441 0.0422 0.0396 0.0378 0.0366 0.0352 0.0337 0.0320 0.0303 0.0287 0.0273 0.0261 0.0250
45 0.0436 0.0419 0.0395 0.0377 0.0354 0.0338 0.0327 0.0314 0.0301 0.0285 0.0270 0.0256 0.0243 0.0232 0.0222
50 0.0395 0.0380 0.0357 0.0341 0.0320 0.0305 0.0295 0.0284 0.0272 0.0258 0.0244 0.0230 0.0219 0.0209 0.0200
55 0.0361 0.0347 0.0327 0.0312 0.0292 0.0279 0.0269 0.0259 0.0248 0.0235 0.0222 0.0210 0.0199 0.0190 0.0182

28
 60 0.0333 0.0320 0.0301 0.0287 0.0268 0.0256 0.0247 0.0238 0.0228 0.0216 0.0204 0.0192 0.0183 0.0175 0.0167
65 0.0309 0.0297 0.0279 0.0266 0.0249 0.0237 0.0229 0.0220 0.0211 0.0199 0.0188 0.0178 0.0169 0.0161 0.0154
70 0.0288 0.0277 0.0260 0.0248 0.0232 0.0221 0.0213 0.0205 0.0196 0.0185 0.0175 0.0165 0.0157 0.0150 0.0143
75 0.0270 0.0259 0.0243 0.0232 0.0217 0.0207 0.0200 0.0192 0.0183 0.0173 0.0164 0.0154 0.0146 0.0140 0.0133
80 0.0254 0.0244 0.0229 0.0218 0.0204 0.0194 0.0187 0.0180 0.0172 0.0163 0.0154 0.0145 0.0137 0.0131 0.0125
90 0.0227 0.0218 0.0205 0.0195 0.0182 0.0173 0.0167 0.0161 0.0153 0.0145 0.0137 0.0129 0.0122 0.0117 0.0111
100 0.0206 0.0197 0.0185 0.0176 0.0164 0.0157 0.0151 0.0145 0.0138 0.0131 0.0123 0.0116 0.0110 0.0105 0.0100
120 0.0173 0.0166 0.0155 0.0148 0.0138 0.0131 0.0127 0.0122 0.0116 0.0109 0.0103 0.0097 0.0092 0.0088 0.0083
140 0.0150 0.0143 0.0134 0.0128 0.0119 0.0113 0.0109 0.0105 0.0100 0.0094 0.0089 0.0083 0.0079 0.0075 0.0071
160 0.0132 0.0126 0.0118 0.0112 0.0105 0.0099 0.0096 0.0092 0.0088 0.0083 0.0078 0.0073 0.0069 0.0066 0.0063
180 0.0118 0.0113 0.0106 0.0100 0.0093 0.0089 0.0085 0.0082 0.0078 0.0074 0.0069 0.0065 0.0061 0.0058 0.0056
200 0.0107 0.0102 0.0095 0.0091 0.0084 0.0080 0.0077 0.0074 0.0070 0.0066 0.0062 0.0059 0.0055 0.0053 0.0050
225 0.0095 0.0091 0.0085 0.0081 0.0075 0.0072 0.0069 0.0066 0.0063 0.0059 0.0056 0.0052 0.0049 0.0047 0.0044
250 0.0086 0.0083 0.0077 0.0073 0.0068 0.0065 0.0062 0.0060 0.0057 0.0053 0.0050 0.0047 0.0044 0.0042 0.0040
275 0.0079 0.0075 0.0070 0.0067 0.0062 0.0059 0.0057 0.0054 0.0052 0.0049 0.0046 0.0043 0.0040 0.0038 0.0036
300 0.0073 0.0069 0.0065 0.0061 0.0057 0.0054 0.0052 0.0050 0.0047 0.0045 0.0042 0.0039 0.0037 0.0035 0.0033
350 0.0063 0.0060 0.0056 0.0053 0.0049 0.0047 0.0045 0.0043 0.0041 0.0038 0.0036 0.0034 0.0032 0.0030 0.0029
400 0.0055 0.0053 0.0049 0.0047 0.0043 0.0041 0.0039 0.0038 0.0036 0.0034 0.0032 0.0030 0.0028 0.0026 0.0025
450 0.0049 0.0047 0.0044 0.0042 0.0039 0.0037 0.0035 0.0034 0.0032 0.0030 0.0028 0.0026 0.0025 0.0023 0.0022
500 0.0045 0.0043 0.0040 0.0038 0.0035 0.0033 0.0032 0.0030 0.0029 0.0027 0.0025 0.0024 0.0022 0.0021 0.0020
600 0.0037 0.0036 0.0033 0.0032 0.0029 0.0028 0.0027 0.0025 0.0024 0.0023 0.0021 0.0020 0.0019 0.0018 0.0017
700 0.0032 0.0031 0.0029 0.0027 0.0025 0.0024 0.0023 0.0022 0.0021 0.0019 0.0018 0.0017 0.0016 0.0015 0.0014
800 0.0028 0.0027 0.0025 0.0024 0.0022 0.0021 0.0020 0.0019 0.0018 0.0017 0.0016 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0013
900 0.0025 0.0024 0.0023 0.0021 0.0020 0.0019 0.0018 0.0017 0.0016 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012 0.0012 0.0011
1000 0.0023 0.0022 0.0020 0.0019 0.0018 0.0017 0.0016 0.0015 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012 0.0011 0.0011 0.0010
1500 0.0016 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012 0.0011 0.0011 0.0010 0.0010 9.2E-04 8.6E-04 8.0E-04 7.5E-04 7.1E-04 6.7E-04
2000 0.0012 0.0011 0.0010 0.0010 9.1E-04 8.6E-04 8.2E-04 7.8E-04 7.4E-04 6.9E-04 6.4E-04 6.0E-04 5.6E-04 5.3E-04 5.0E-04
2500 9.5E-04 9.1E-04 8.4E-04 7.9E-04 7.3E-04 6.9E-04 6.6E-04 6.3E-04 5.9E-04 5.6E-04 5.2E-04 4.8E-04 4.5E-04 4.2E-04 4.0E-04
3000 8.0E-04 7.6E-04 7.1E-04 6.7E-04 6.1E-04 5.8E-04 5.5E-04 5.3E-04 5.0E-04 4.6E-04 4.3E-04 4.0E-04 3.8E-04 3.5E-04 3.3E-04
4000 6.1E-04 5.8E-04 5.3E-04 5.0E-04 4.6E-04 4.4E-04 4.2E-04 4.0E-04 3.7E-04 3.5E-04 3.3E-04 3.0E-04 2.8E-04 2.7E-04 2.5E-04
5000 4.9E-04 4.7E-04 4.3E-04 4.1E-04 3.7E-04 3.5E-04 3.4E-04 3.2E-04 3.0E-04 2.8E-04 2.6E-04 2.4E-04 2.3E-04 2.1E-04 2.0E-04
7500 3.3E-04 3.2E-04 2.9E-04 2.7E-04 2.5E-04 2.4E-04 2.3E-04 2.1E-04 2.0E-04 1.9E-04 1.7E-04 1.6E-04 1.5E-04 1.4E-04 1.3E-04
10⁴ 2.5E-04 2.4E-04 2.2E-04 2.1E-04 1.9E-04 1.8E-04 1.7E-04 1.6E-04 1.5E-04 1.4E-04 1.3E-04 1.2E-04 1.1E-04 1.1E-04 1.0E-04
∞ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

29
Appendix C Upper limit values CUL at significance levels α1 = 0.05 (one-sided test, Eq. 28) and
α2 = 0.10 (two-sided test, Eq. 30)
n = number of observations per data set
ν = (n-1) = number of degrees of freedom per data set
L = number of data sets

Appendix C-1 Upper limit critical values for G tests on balanced designs; 1 ≤ ν ≤ 29;
ζ = 0.05: significance level α₁ = 0.05 for one-sided test and α₂ = 0.10 for two-sided test

Number of degrees of freedom per data set (ν)

L
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 13 16 19 24 29
2 0.9985 0.9750 0.9392 0.9057 0.8772 0.8534 0.8332 0.8159 0.8010 0.7765 0.7570 0.7341 0.7164 0.6941 0.6775
3 0.9669 0.8709 0.7977 0.7457 0.7070 0.6770 0.6531 0.6333 0.6167 0.5902 0.5698 0.5466 0.5289 0.5071 0.4912
4 0.9065 0.7679 0.6839 0.6287 0.5894 0.5598 0.5365 0.5175 0.5018 0.4769 0.4579 0.4365 0.4205 0.4008 0.3866
5 0.8413 0.6838 0.5981 0.5440 0.5063 0.4783 0.4564 0.4387 0.4241 0.4012 0.3839 0.3645 0.3500 0.3323 0.3196
6 0.7807 0.6161 0.5321 0.4803 0.4447 0.4184 0.3980 0.3817 0.3682 0.3471 0.3313 0.3136 0.3004 0.2844 0.2729
7 0.7270 0.5612 0.4800 0.4307 0.3972 0.3726 0.3536 0.3384 0.3259 0.3064 0.2918 0.2756 0.2635 0.2489 0.2384
8 0.6798 0.5157 0.4377 0.3910 0.3594 0.3362 0.3185 0.3043 0.2927 0.2746 0.2611 0.2461 0.2350 0.2216 0.2119
9 0.6385 0.4775 0.4027 0.3584 0.3285 0.3067 0.2901 0.2768 0.2659 0.2491 0.2365 0.2226 0.2122 0.1998 0.1909
10 0.6020 0.4450 0.3733 0.3311 0.3028 0.2823 0.2666 0.2541 0.2439 0.2281 0.2163 0.2033 0.1936 0.1821 0.1738
11 0.5697 0.4169 0.3482 0.3080 0.2811 0.2616 0.2468 0.2350 0.2254 0.2105 0.1994 0.1872 0.1782 0.1673 0.1596
12 0.5410 0.3924 0.3264 0.2880 0.2624 0.2440 0.2299 0.2187 0.2096 0.1955 0.1851 0.1735 0.1650 0.1548 0.1476
13 0.5152 0.3709 0.3074 0.2707 0.2463 0.2286 0.2152 0.2046 0.1960 0.1827 0.1728 0.1618 0.1538 0.1441 0.1373
14 0.4919 0.3517 0.2907 0.2554 0.2321 0.2153 0.2025 0.1924 0.1841 0.1714 0.1620 0.1517 0.1440 0.1349 0.1284
15 0.4709 0.3346 0.2758 0.2419 0.2195 0.2034 0.1912 0.1815 0.1737 0.1616 0.1526 0.1427 0.1355 0.1268 0.1206
16 0.4517 0.3192 0.2624 0.2298 0.2083 0.1929 0.1812 0.1719 0.1644 0.1528 0.1443 0.1348 0.1279 0.1196 0.1137
17 0.4341 0.3053 0.2504 0.2190 0.1983 0.1835 0.1722 0.1633 0.1561 0.1450 0.1368 0.1278 0.1212 0.1133 0.1076
18 0.4180 0.2927 0.2395 0.2092 0.1892 0.1750 0.1641 0.1556 0.1487 0.1380 0.1302 0.1215 0.1152 0.1076 0.1022
19 0.4032 0.2811 0.2296 0.2003 0.1810 0.1672 0.1568 0.1486 0.1419 0.1317 0.1241 0.1158 0.1097 0.1024 0.0973
20 0.3894 0.2705 0.2205 0.1921 0.1735 0.1602 0.1502 0.1422 0.1358 0.1259 0.1187 0.1106 0.1048 0.0978 0.0928
21 0.3767 0.2607 0.2122 0.1847 0.1667 0.1538 0.1441 0.1364 0.1302 0.1207 0.1137 0.1059 0.1003 0.0935 0.0888
22 0.3648 0.2516 0.2045 0.1778 0.1604 0.1479 0.1385 0.1311 0.1251 0.1159 0.1091 0.1016 0.0962 0.0897 0.0851
23 0.3537 0.2432 0.1974 0.1715 0.1545 0.1425 0.1333 0.1262 0.1204 0.1115 0.1049 0.0977 0.0924 0.0861 0.0817
24 0.3434 0.2354 0.1908 0.1656 0.1491 0.1374 0.1286 0.1216 0.1160 0.1074 0.1010 0.0940 0.0889 0.0828 0.0785
25 0.3337 0.2281 0.1846 0.1601 0.1441 0.1328 0.1242 0.1174 0.1120 0.1036 0.0974 0.0906 0.0857 0.0798 0.0756
26 0.3245 0.2213 0.1789 0.1550 0.1395 0.1284 0.1201 0.1135 0.1082 0.1001 0.0941 0.0875 0.0827 0.0770 0.0730
27 0.3160 0.2149 0.1735 0.1503 0.1351 0.1244 0.1162 0.1099 0.1047 0.0968 0.0910 0.0846 0.0799 0.0744 0.0705
28 0.3078 0.2089 0.1685 0.1458 0.1311 0.1206 0.1127 0.1064 0.1014 0.0937 0.0881 0.0819 0.0773 0.0720 0.0681
29 0.3002 0.2033 0.1638 0.1416 0.1272 0.1170 0.1093 0.1033 0.0984 0.0909 0.0854 0.0793 0.0749 0.0697 0.0660
30 0.2929 0.1979 0.1593 0.1377 0.1236 0.1137 0.1061 0.1003 0.0955 0.0882 0.0828 0.0769 0.0727 0.0676 0.0639
31 0.2860 0.1929 0.1551 0.1340 0.1203 0.1105 0.1032 0.0974 0.0928 0.0857 0.0804 0.0747 0.0705 0.0656 0.0620
32 0.2795 0.1881 0.1511 0.1305 0.1171 0.1075 0.1004 0.0948 0.0902 0.0833 0.0782 0.0726 0.0685 0.0637 0.0602
33 0.2733 0.1836 0.1474 0.1272 0.1140 0.1047 0.0977 0.0923 0.0878 0.0810 0.0761 0.0706 0.0666 0.0619 0.0586
34 0.2673 0.1793 0.1438 0.1240 0.1112 0.1021 0.0952 0.0899 0.0855 0.0789 0.0741 0.0687 0.0648 0.0602 0.0570
35 0.2617 0.1753 0.1404 0.1210 0.1085 0.0996 0.0929 0.0876 0.0834 0.0769 0.0722 0.0669 0.0632 0.0586 0.0555
36 0.2563 0.1714 0.1372 0.1182 0.1059 0.0972 0.0906 0.0855 0.0813 0.0750 0.0704 0.0653 0.0616 0.0571 0.0540
37 0.2511 0.1677 0.1342 0.1155 0.1035 0.0949 0.0885 0.0835 0.0794 0.0732 0.0686 0.0637 0.0600 0.0557 0.0527

30
 38 0.2462 0.1641 0.1312 0.1130 0.1011 0.0927 0.0865 0.0815 0.0776 0.0715 0.0670 0.0621 0.0586 0.0544 0.0514
39 0.2415 0.1607 0.1284 0.1105 0.0989 0.0907 0.0845 0.0797 0.0758 0.0698 0.0655 0.0607 0.0572 0.0531 0.0502
40 0.2369 0.1575 0.1258 0.1082 0.0968 0.0887 0.0827 0.0779 0.0741 0.0683 0.0640 0.0593 0.0559 0.0519 0.0490
45 0.2168 0.1432 0.1140 0.0979 0.0875 0.0801 0.0746 0.0703 0.0668 0.0614 0.0576 0.0533 0.0502 0.0465 0.0439
50 0.2000 0.1315 0.1044 0.0895 0.0799 0.0731 0.0680 0.0640 0.0608 0.0559 0.0523 0.0484 0.0456 0.0422 0.0398
55 0.1859 0.1216 0.0964 0.0825 0.0735 0.0672 0.0625 0.0588 0.0558 0.0513 0.0480 0.0444 0.0418 0.0386 0.0364
60 0.1737 0.1132 0.0895 0.0765 0.0682 0.0623 0.0579 0.0544 0.0517 0.0474 0.0444 0.0410 0.0385 0.0356 0.0336
65 0.1632 0.1060 0.0837 0.0714 0.0636 0.0580 0.0539 0.0507 0.0481 0.0441 0.0412 0.0381 0.0358 0.0331 0.0312
70 0.1539 0.0997 0.0786 0.0670 0.0596 0.0544 0.0505 0.0474 0.0450 0.0413 0.0386 0.0356 0.0334 0.0309 0.0291
75 0.1458 0.0941 0.0741 0.0631 0.0561 0.0512 0.0475 0.0446 0.0423 0.0388 0.0362 0.0334 0.0314 0.0290 0.0273
80 0.1385 0.0892 0.0701 0.0597 0.0530 0.0483 0.0448 0.0421 0.0399 0.0366 0.0341 0.0315 0.0296 0.0273 0.0257
90 0.1260 0.0808 0.0634 0.0539 0.0478 0.0435 0.0403 0.0379 0.0359 0.0329 0.0306 0.0282 0.0265 0.0244 0.0230
100 0.1157 0.0739 0.0579 0.0491 0.0435 0.0396 0.0367 0.0344 0.0326 0.0298 0.0278 0.0256 0.0240 0.0222 0.0208
120 0.0998 0.0633 0.0494 0.0419 0.0371 0.0337 0.0312 0.0292 0.0277 0.0253 0.0235 0.0217 0.0203 0.0187 0.0176
140 0.0879 0.0555 0.0432 0.0365 0.0323 0.0293 0.0271 0.0254 0.0240 0.0219 0.0204 0.0188 0.0176 0.0162 0.0152
160 0.0787 0.0495 0.0384 0.0325 0.0287 0.0260 0.0240 0.0225 0.0213 0.0194 0.0181 0.0166 0.0155 0.0143 0.0134
180 0.0714 0.0447 0.0347 0.0293 0.0258 0.0234 0.0216 0.0202 0.0191 0.0174 0.0162 0.0149 0.0139 0.0128 0.0120
200 0.0653 0.0408 0.0316 0.0266 0.0235 0.0213 0.0196 0.0184 0.0174 0.0158 0.0147 0.0135 0.0126 0.0116 0.0108
225 0.0592 0.0369 0.0285 0.0240 0.0211 0.0191 0.0177 0.0165 0.0156 0.0142 0.0132 0.0121 0.0113 0.0104 0.0097
250 0.0541 0.0336 0.0260 0.0218 0.0192 0.0174 0.0160 0.0150 0.0142 0.0129 0.0120 0.0110 0.0102 0.0094 0.0088
275 0.0499 0.0309 0.0239 0.0200 0.0176 0.0160 0.0147 0.0137 0.0130 0.0118 0.0109 0.0100 0.0094 0.0086 0.0080
300 0.0464 0.0287 0.0221 0.0185 0.0163 0.0147 0.0136 0.0127 0.0120 0.0109 0.0101 0.0092 0.0086 0.0079 0.0074
350 0.0407 0.0250 0.0193 0.0161 0.0142 0.0128 0.0118 0.0110 0.0104 0.0094 0.0087 0.0080 0.0075 0.0068 0.0064
400 0.0363 0.0223 0.0171 0.0143 0.0126 0.0113 0.0104 0.0097 0.0092 0.0083 0.0077 0.0071 0.0066 0.0060 0.0056
450 0.0328 0.0201 0.0154 0.0129 0.0113 0.0102 0.0094 0.0087 0.0082 0.0075 0.0069 0.0063 0.0059 0.0054 0.0050
500 0.0299 0.0183 0.0140 0.0117 0.0103 0.0093 0.0085 0.0079 0.0075 0.0068 0.0063 0.0057 0.0053 0.0049 0.0046
600 0.0255 0.0156 0.0119 0.0099 0.0087 0.0078 0.0072 0.0067 0.0063 0.0057 0.0053 0.0048 0.0045 0.0041 0.0038
700 0.0223 0.0136 0.0103 0.0086 0.0075 0.0068 0.0062 0.0058 0.0055 0.0050 0.0046 0.0042 0.0039 0.0035 0.0033
800 0.0199 0.0120 0.0092 0.0076 0.0067 0.0060 0.0055 0.0051 0.0048 0.0044 0.0040 0.0037 0.0034 0.0031 0.0029
900 0.0179 0.0108 0.0082 0.0069 0.0060 0.0054 0.0050 0.0046 0.0043 0.0039 0.0036 0.0033 0.0031 0.0028 0.0026
1000 0.0163 0.0099 0.0075 0.0062 0.0054 0.0049 0.0045 0.0042 0.0039 0.0036 0.0033 0.0030 0.0028 0.0025 0.0024
1500 0.0114 0.0069 0.0052 0.0043 0.0038 0.0034 0.0031 0.0029 0.0027 0.0024 0.0022 0.0020 0.0019 0.0017 0.0016
2000 0.0088 0.0053 0.0040 0.0033 0.0029 0.0026 0.0024 0.0022 0.0021 0.0019 0.0017 0.0016 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012
2500 0.0073 0.0043 0.0033 0.0027 0.0023 0.0021 0.0019 0.0018 0.0017 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012 0.0011 0.0010
3000 0.0062 0.0037 0.0028 0.0023 0.0020 0.0018 0.0016 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012 0.0011 0.0010 8.9E-04 8.3E-04
4000 0.0048 0.0028 0.0021 0.0017 0.0015 0.0014 0.0012 0.0011 0.0011 0.0010 8.9E-04 8.1E-04 7.5E-04 6.8E-04 6.3E-04
5000 0.0039 0.0023 0.0017 0.0014 0.0012 0.0011 0.0010 9.3E-04 8.7E-04 7.9E-04 7.2E-04 6.5E-04 6.0E-04 5.5E-04 5.1E-04
7500 0.0027 0.0016 0.0012 0.0010 8.5E-04 7.6E-04 6.9E-04 6.4E-04 6.0E-04 5.4E-04 4.9E-04 4.4E-04 4.1E-04 3.7E-04 3.4E-04
10⁴ 0.0021 0.0012 9.1E-04 7.5E-04 6.5E-04 5.8E-04 5.3E-04 4.9E-04 4.6E-04 4.1E-04 3.7E-04 3.4E-04 3.1E-04 2.8E-04 2.6E-04
∞ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

31
Appendix C-2 Upper limit critical values for G tests on balanced designs; 34 ≤ ν ≤ ∞;
ζ = 0.05: significance level α₁ = 0.05 for one-sided test and α₂ = 0.10 for two-sided test

Number of degrees of freedom per data set (ν)

L
34 39 49 59 79 99 119 149 199 299 499 999 2499 9999 ∞
2 0.6646 0.6541 0.6380 0.6260 0.6093 0.5978 0.5893 0.5799 0.5692 0.5565 0.5438 0.5310 0.5196 0.5098 0.5000
3 0.4789 0.4691 0.4542 0.4433 0.4281 0.4178 0.4102 0.4019 0.3925 0.3815 0.3705 0.3595 0.3498 0.3416 0.3333
4 0.3756 0.3669 0.3538 0.3442 0.3309 0.3220 0.3154 0.3083 0.3002 0.2907 0.2814 0.2720 0.2639 0.2569 0.2500
5 0.3098 0.3021 0.2904 0.2820 0.2703 0.2624 0.2567 0.2504 0.2434 0.2352 0.2270 0.2190 0.2119 0.2059 0.2000
6 0.2641 0.2572 0.2467 0.2392 0.2287 0.2217 0.2167 0.2111 0.2049 0.1976 0.1904 0.1833 0.1771 0.1719 0.1667
7 0.2305 0.2242 0.2147 0.2079 0.1985 0.1922 0.1876 0.1826 0.1770 0.1705 0.1640 0.1577 0.1522 0.1475 0.1429
8 0.2046 0.1989 0.1902 0.1840 0.1754 0.1697 0.1655 0.1609 0.1559 0.1500 0.1441 0.1384 0.1334 0.1292 0.1250
9 0.1842 0.1788 0.1709 0.1651 0.1572 0.1520 0.1481 0.1440 0.1393 0.1339 0.1286 0.1233 0.1188 0.1149 0.1111
10 0.1675 0.1626 0.1552 0.1498 0.1425 0.1377 0.1341 0.1303 0.1260 0.1210 0.1161 0.1112 0.1070 0.1035 0.1000
11 0.1537 0.1491 0.1422 0.1372 0.1304 0.1259 0.1226 0.1190 0.1150 0.1103 0.1058 0.1013 0.0974 0.0941 0.0909
12 0.1421 0.1377 0.1312 0.1266 0.1202 0.1160 0.1129 0.1095 0.1058 0.1015 0.0972 0.0930 0.0894 0.0863 0.0833
13 0.1321 0.1280 0.1219 0.1175 0.1115 0.1075 0.1046 0.1015 0.0980 0.0939 0.0899 0.0860 0.0826 0.0797 0.0769
14 0.1235 0.1196 0.1138 0.1097 0.1040 0.1003 0.0975 0.0946 0.0912 0.0874 0.0837 0.0800 0.0768 0.0741 0.0714
15 0.1159 0.1123 0.1068 0.1029 0.0975 0.0939 0.0913 0.0885 0.0854 0.0818 0.0782 0.0747 0.0717 0.0692 0.0667
16 0.1093 0.1058 0.1006 0.0969 0.0917 0.0884 0.0859 0.0832 0.0803 0.0768 0.0734 0.0701 0.0673 0.0649 0.0625
17 0.1034 0.1001 0.0951 0.0915 0.0867 0.0834 0.0811 0.0785 0.0757 0.0724 0.0692 0.0661 0.0634 0.0611 0.0588
18 0.0981 0.0949 0.0902 0.0868 0.0821 0.0790 0.0768 0.0744 0.0717 0.0685 0.0655 0.0625 0.0599 0.0577 0.0556
19 0.0934 0.0903 0.0857 0.0825 0.0780 0.0751 0.0729 0.0706 0.0680 0.0650 0.0621 0.0592 0.0568 0.0547 0.0526
20 0.0891 0.0861 0.0817 0.0786 0.0743 0.0715 0.0694 0.0672 0.0647 0.0619 0.0591 0.0563 0.0540 0.0520 0.0500
21 0.0852 0.0823 0.0781 0.0751 0.0710 0.0683 0.0663 0.0641 0.0618 0.0590 0.0563 0.0537 0.0514 0.0495 0.0476
22 0.0816 0.0789 0.0748 0.0719 0.0679 0.0653 0.0634 0.0613 0.0591 0.0564 0.0538 0.0513 0.0491 0.0473 0.0455
23 0.0783 0.0757 0.0718 0.0689 0.0651 0.0626 0.0608 0.0588 0.0566 0.0540 0.0515 0.0491 0.0470 0.0452 0.0435
24 0.0753 0.0727 0.0690 0.0662 0.0626 0.0601 0.0583 0.0564 0.0543 0.0518 0.0494 0.0471 0.0450 0.0433 0.0417
25 0.0725 0.0700 0.0664 0.0638 0.0602 0.0578 0.0561 0.0543 0.0522 0.0498 0.0475 0.0452 0.0433 0.0416 0.0400
26 0.0699 0.0675 0.0640 0.0614 0.0580 0.0557 0.0540 0.0523 0.0503 0.0480 0.0457 0.0435 0.0416 0.0400 0.0385
27 0.0675 0.0652 0.0618 0.0593 0.0559 0.0537 0.0521 0.0504 0.0485 0.0462 0.0441 0.0419 0.0401 0.0385 0.0370
28 0.0653 0.0630 0.0597 0.0573 0.0540 0.0519 0.0503 0.0487 0.0468 0.0446 0.0425 0.0405 0.0387 0.0372 0.0357
29 0.0632 0.0610 0.0578 0.0554 0.0523 0.0502 0.0487 0.0470 0.0452 0.0431 0.0411 0.0391 0.0374 0.0359 0.0345
30 0.0612 0.0591 0.0560 0.0537 0.0506 0.0486 0.0471 0.0455 0.0438 0.0417 0.0397 0.0378 0.0361 0.0347 0.0333
31 0.0594 0.0573 0.0543 0.0521 0.0491 0.0471 0.0457 0.0441 0.0424 0.0404 0.0385 0.0366 0.0350 0.0336 0.0323
32 0.0577 0.0557 0.0527 0.0505 0.0476 0.0457 0.0443 0.0428 0.0411 0.0392 0.0373 0.0355 0.0339 0.0326 0.0313
33 0.0561 0.0541 0.0512 0.0491 0.0462 0.0444 0.0430 0.0415 0.0399 0.0380 0.0362 0.0344 0.0329 0.0316 0.0303
34 0.0545 0.0526 0.0497 0.0477 0.0449 0.0431 0.0418 0.0404 0.0388 0.0369 0.0352 0.0334 0.0319 0.0306 0.0294
35 0.0531 0.0512 0.0484 0.0464 0.0437 0.0419 0.0406 0.0393 0.0377 0.0359 0.0342 0.0325 0.0310 0.0298 0.0286
36 0.0517 0.0499 0.0471 0.0452 0.0426 0.0408 0.0396 0.0382 0.0367 0.0349 0.0332 0.0316 0.0302 0.0290 0.0278
37 0.0504 0.0486 0.0459 0.0440 0.0415 0.0398 0.0385 0.0372 0.0357 0.0340 0.0324 0.0307 0.0293 0.0282 0.0270
38 0.0492 0.0474 0.0448 0.0430 0.0404 0.0388 0.0376 0.0363 0.0348 0.0332 0.0315 0.0299 0.0286 0.0274 0.0263
39 0.0480 0.0463 0.0437 0.0419 0.0394 0.0378 0.0366 0.0354 0.0340 0.0323 0.0307 0.0292 0.0279 0.0267 0.0256
40 0.0469 0.0452 0.0427 0.0409 0.0385 0.0369 0.0358 0.0345 0.0331 0.0315 0.0300 0.0285 0.0272 0.0261 0.0250
45 0.0420 0.0405 0.0382 0.0366 0.0344 0.0330 0.0319 0.0308 0.0296 0.0281 0.0267 0.0253 0.0242 0.0232 0.0222
50 0.0381 0.0367 0.0346 0.0331 0.0311 0.0298 0.0289 0.0278 0.0267 0.0254 0.0241 0.0228 0.0218 0.0209 0.0200
55 0.0348 0.0335 0.0316 0.0303 0.0284 0.0272 0.0263 0.0254 0.0243 0.0231 0.0219 0.0208 0.0198 0.0190 0.0182

32
 60 0.0321 0.0309 0.0291 0.0279 0.0261 0.0250 0.0242 0.0233 0.0224 0.0212 0.0201 0.0191 0.0182 0.0174 0.0167
65 0.0298 0.0286 0.0270 0.0258 0.0242 0.0232 0.0224 0.0216 0.0207 0.0196 0.0186 0.0176 0.0168 0.0161 0.0154
70 0.0278 0.0267 0.0252 0.0241 0.0226 0.0216 0.0209 0.0201 0.0192 0.0183 0.0173 0.0164 0.0156 0.0149 0.0143
75 0.0260 0.0250 0.0236 0.0225 0.0211 0.0202 0.0195 0.0188 0.0180 0.0171 0.0162 0.0153 0.0146 0.0139 0.0133
80 0.0245 0.0236 0.0222 0.0212 0.0199 0.0190 0.0183 0.0177 0.0169 0.0160 0.0152 0.0144 0.0137 0.0131 0.0125
90 0.0219 0.0211 0.0198 0.0189 0.0177 0.0169 0.0164 0.0158 0.0151 0.0143 0.0135 0.0128 0.0122 0.0116 0.0111
100 0.0198 0.0191 0.0179 0.0171 0.0160 0.0153 0.0148 0.0142 0.0136 0.0129 0.0122 0.0115 0.0110 0.0105 0.0100
120 0.0167 0.0161 0.0151 0.0144 0.0135 0.0128 0.0124 0.0119 0.0114 0.0108 0.0102 0.0096 0.0091 0.0087 0.0083
140 0.0144 0.0139 0.0130 0.0124 0.0116 0.0111 0.0107 0.0103 0.0098 0.0093 0.0088 0.0083 0.0078 0.0075 0.0071
160 0.0127 0.0122 0.0115 0.0109 0.0102 0.0097 0.0094 0.0090 0.0086 0.0081 0.0077 0.0072 0.0069 0.0066 0.0063
180 0.0114 0.0109 0.0102 0.0098 0.0091 0.0087 0.0084 0.0080 0.0077 0.0073 0.0068 0.0065 0.0061 0.0058 0.0056
200 0.0103 0.0099 0.0093 0.0088 0.0082 0.0078 0.0076 0.0073 0.0069 0.0065 0.0062 0.0058 0.0055 0.0052 0.0050
225 0.0092 0.0088 0.0083 0.0079 0.0074 0.0070 0.0067 0.0065 0.0062 0.0058 0.0055 0.0052 0.0049 0.0047 0.0044
250 0.0083 0.0080 0.0075 0.0071 0.0066 0.0063 0.0061 0.0058 0.0056 0.0053 0.0050 0.0047 0.0044 0.0042 0.0040
275 0.0076 0.0073 0.0068 0.0065 0.0061 0.0058 0.0056 0.0053 0.0051 0.0048 0.0045 0.0042 0.0040 0.0038 0.0036
300 0.0070 0.0067 0.0063 0.0060 0.0056 0.0053 0.0051 0.0049 0.0047 0.0044 0.0041 0.0039 0.0037 0.0035 0.0033
350 0.0061 0.0058 0.0054 0.0052 0.0048 0.0046 0.0044 0.0042 0.0040 0.0038 0.0036 0.0033 0.0032 0.0030 0.0029
400 0.0053 0.0051 0.0048 0.0045 0.0042 0.0040 0.0039 0.0037 0.0035 0.0033 0.0031 0.0029 0.0028 0.0026 0.0025
450 0.0048 0.0046 0.0043 0.0041 0.0038 0.0036 0.0034 0.0033 0.0031 0.0030 0.0028 0.0026 0.0025 0.0023 0.0022
500 0.0043 0.0041 0.0039 0.0037 0.0034 0.0032 0.0031 0.0030 0.0028 0.0027 0.0025 0.0023 0.0022 0.0021 0.0020
600 0.0036 0.0035 0.0032 0.0031 0.0029 0.0027 0.0026 0.0025 0.0024 0.0022 0.0021 0.0020 0.0018 0.0018 0.0017
700 0.0031 0.0030 0.0028 0.0027 0.0025 0.0023 0.0022 0.0021 0.0020 0.0019 0.0018 0.0017 0.0016 0.0015 0.0014
800 0.0028 0.0026 0.0025 0.0023 0.0022 0.0020 0.0020 0.0019 0.0018 0.0017 0.0016 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0013
900 0.0025 0.0024 0.0022 0.0021 0.0019 0.0018 0.0018 0.0017 0.0016 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012 0.0012 0.0011
1000 0.0022 0.0021 0.0020 0.0019 0.0017 0.0016 0.0016 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0013 0.0012 0.0011 0.0011 0.0010
1500 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0013 0.0012 0.0011 0.0011 0.0010 0.0010 9.1E-04 8.5E-04 7.9E-04 7.4E-04 7.0E-04 6.7E-04
2000 0.0011 0.0011 0.0010 0.0010 8.9E-04 8.4E-04 8.1E-04 7.7E-04 7.3E-04 6.8E-04 6.4E-04 6.0E-04 5.6E-04 5.3E-04 5.0E-04
2500 9.3E-04 8.8E-04 8.2E-04 7.8E-04 7.2E-04 6.8E-04 6.5E-04 6.2E-04 5.9E-04 5.5E-04 5.1E-04 4.8E-04 4.5E-04 4.2E-04 4.0E-04
3000 7.8E-04 7.4E-04 6.9E-04 6.5E-04 6.0E-04 5.7E-04 5.4E-04 5.2E-04 4.9E-04 4.6E-04 4.3E-04 4.0E-04 3.7E-04 3.5E-04 3.3E-04
4000 5.9E-04 5.6E-04 5.2E-04 4.9E-04 4.5E-04 4.3E-04 4.1E-04 3.9E-04 3.7E-04 3.5E-04 3.2E-04 3.0E-04 2.8E-04 2.7E-04 2.5E-04
5000 4.8E-04 4.5E-04 4.2E-04 4.0E-04 3.7E-04 3.5E-04 3.3E-04 3.1E-04 3.0E-04 2.8E-04 2.6E-04 2.4E-04 2.3E-04 2.1E-04 2.0E-04
7500 3.2E-04 3.1E-04 2.8E-04 2.7E-04 2.5E-04 2.3E-04 2.2E-04 2.1E-04 2.0E-04 1.9E-04 1.7E-04 1.6E-04 1.5E-04 1.4E-04 1.3E-04
10⁴ 2.5E-04 2.3E-04 2.2E-04 2.0E-04 1.9E-04 1.8E-04 1.7E-04 1.6E-04 1.5E-04 1.4E-04 1.3E-04 1.2E-04 1.1E-04 1.1E-04 1.0E-04
∞ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

33
Appendix D Lower limit values CLL at significance levels α1 = 0.01 (one-sided test, Eq. 29) and
α2 = 0.02 (two-sided test, Eq. 31)
n = number of observations per data set
ν = (n-1) = number of degrees of freedom per data set
L = number of data sets

Appendix D-1 Lower limit critical values for G tests on balanced designs; 1 ≤ ν ≤ 29;
ζ = 0.01: significance level α₁ = 0.01 for one-sided test and α₂ = 0.02 for two-sided test

Number of degrees of freedom per data set (ν)

L
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 13 16 19 24 29
2 6.2E-05 0.0050 0.0206 0.0414 0.0627 0.0828 0.1012 0.1177 0.1326 0.1582 0.1794 0.2051 0.2256 0.2521 0.2722
3 1.1E-05 0.0017 0.0084 0.0186 0.0299 0.0411 0.0517 0.0615 0.0706 0.0865 0.1000 0.1167 0.1304 0.1483 0.1621
4 3.9E-06 8.3E-04 0.0047 0.0111 0.0185 0.0261 0.0334 0.0402 0.0466 0.0580 0.0678 0.0801 0.0902 0.1037 0.1142
5 1.8E-06 5.0E-04 0.0031 0.0076 0.0130 0.0186 0.0241 0.0293 0.0342 0.0430 0.0507 0.0604 0.0684 0.0791 0.0876
6 9.6E-07 3.3E-04 0.0022 0.0056 0.0098 0.0142 0.0185 0.0227 0.0267 0.0338 0.0401 0.0481 0.0547 0.0637 0.0707
7 5.8E-07 2.4E-04 0.0017 0.0043 0.0077 0.0113 0.0149 0.0184 0.0217 0.0277 0.0330 0.0398 0.0454 0.0531 0.0591
8 3.8E-07 1.8E-04 0.0013 0.0035 0.0063 0.0093 0.0124 0.0153 0.0182 0.0233 0.0279 0.0338 0.0387 0.0454 0.0507
9 2.6E-07 1.4E-04 0.0011 0.0029 0.0053 0.0079 0.0105 0.0131 0.0155 0.0201 0.0241 0.0293 0.0336 0.0396 0.0443
10 1.8E-07 1.1E-04 8.8E-04 0.0025 0.0045 0.0068 0.0091 0.0114 0.0135 0.0176 0.0211 0.0258 0.0297 0.0350 0.0393
11 1.4E-07 9.1E-05 7.5E-04 0.0021 0.0039 0.0059 0.0080 0.0100 0.0120 0.0156 0.0188 0.0230 0.0265 0.0314 0.0352
12 1.0E-07 7.6E-05 6.4E-04 0.0018 0.0034 0.0052 0.0071 0.0089 0.0107 0.0140 0.0169 0.0207 0.0240 0.0284 0.0319
13 8.1E-08 6.4E-05 5.6E-04 0.0016 0.0031 0.0047 0.0064 0.0080 0.0096 0.0126 0.0153 0.0188 0.0218 0.0259 0.0291
14 6.4E-08 5.5E-05 4.9E-04 0.0014 0.0027 0.0042 0.0058 0.0073 0.0088 0.0115 0.0140 0.0172 0.0200 0.0238 0.0268
15 5.2E-08 4.8E-05 4.4E-04 0.0013 0.0025 0.0038 0.0053 0.0067 0.0080 0.0106 0.0129 0.0159 0.0184 0.0220 0.0248
16 4.2E-08 4.2E-05 3.9E-04 0.0012 0.0023 0.0035 0.0048 0.0061 0.0074 0.0098 0.0119 0.0147 0.0171 0.0204 0.0231
17 3.5E-08 3.7E-05 3.5E-04 0.0011 0.0021 0.0032 0.0044 0.0057 0.0068 0.0091 0.0111 0.0137 0.0159 0.0190 0.0215
18 2.9E-08 3.3E-05 3.2E-04 0.0010 0.0019 0.0030 0.0041 0.0052 0.0064 0.0084 0.0103 0.0128 0.0149 0.0178 0.0202
19 2.5E-08 2.9E-05 2.9E-04 9.0E-04 0.0018 0.0028 0.0038 0.0049 0.0059 0.0079 0.0097 0.0120 0.0140 0.0168 0.0190
20 2.1E-08 2.6E-05 2.7E-04 8.3E-04 0.0016 0.0026 0.0036 0.0046 0.0056 0.0074 0.0091 0.0113 0.0132 0.0158 0.0180
21 1.8E-08 2.4E-05 2.4E-04 7.7E-04 0.0015 0.0024 0.0033 0.0043 0.0052 0.0070 0.0086 0.0107 0.0125 0.0150 0.0170
22 1.6E-08 2.2E-05 2.3E-04 7.2E-04 0.0014 0.0023 0.0031 0.0040 0.0049 0.0066 0.0081 0.0101 0.0118 0.0142 0.0161
23 1.4E-08 2.0E-05 2.1E-04 6.7E-04 0.0013 0.0021 0.0030 0.0038 0.0047 0.0062 0.0077 0.0096 0.0112 0.0135 0.0154
24 1.2E-08 1.8E-05 1.9E-04 6.3E-04 0.0013 0.0020 0.0028 0.0036 0.0044 0.0059 0.0073 0.0091 0.0107 0.0129 0.0146
25 1.1E-08 1.7E-05 1.8E-04 5.9E-04 0.0012 0.0019 0.0027 0.0034 0.0042 0.0056 0.0069 0.0087 0.0102 0.0123 0.0140
26 9.5E-09 1.5E-05 1.7E-04 5.5E-04 0.0011 0.0018 0.0025 0.0033 0.0040 0.0054 0.0066 0.0083 0.0098 0.0118 0.0134
27 8.4E-09 1.4E-05 1.6E-04 5.2E-04 0.0011 0.0017 0.0024 0.0031 0.0038 0.0051 0.0063 0.0080 0.0093 0.0113 0.0128
28 7.6E-09 1.3E-05 1.5E-04 4.9E-04 0.0010 0.0016 0.0023 0.0030 0.0036 0.0049 0.0061 0.0076 0.0090 0.0108 0.0123
29 6.8E-09 1.2E-05 1.4E-04 4.7E-04 0.0010 0.0015 0.0022 0.0028 0.0035 0.0047 0.0058 0.0073 0.0086 0.0104 0.0119
30 6.1E-09 1.1E-05 1.3E-04 4.5E-04 9.1E-04 0.0015 0.0021 0.0027 0.0033 0.0045 0.0056 0.0070 0.0083 0.0100 0.0114
31 5.5E-09 1.1E-05 1.3E-04 4.2E-04 8.7E-04 0.0014 0.0020 0.0026 0.0032 0.0043 0.0054 0.0068 0.0080 0.0096 0.0110
32 5.0E-09 1.0E-05 1.2E-04 4.0E-04 8.3E-04 0.0014 0.0019 0.0025 0.0031 0.0042 0.0052 0.0065 0.0077 0.0093 0.0106
33 4.6E-09 9.5E-06 1.1E-04 3.8E-04 8.0E-04 0.0013 0.0018 0.0024 0.0029 0.0040 0.0050 0.0063 0.0074 0.0090 0.0103
34 4.2E-09 8.9E-06 1.1E-04 3.7E-04 7.6E-04 0.0012 0.0018 0.0023 0.0028 0.0039 0.0048 0.0061 0.0072 0.0087 0.0099
35 3.8E-09 8.4E-06 1.0E-04 3.5E-04 7.3E-04 0.0012 0.0017 0.0022 0.0027 0.0037 0.0046 0.0059 0.0069 0.0084 0.0096
36 3.5E-09 7.9E-06 9.8E-05 3.4E-04 7.0E-04 0.0012 0.0016 0.0021 0.0026 0.0036 0.0045 0.0057 0.0067 0.0082 0.0093
37 3.2E-09 7.5E-06 9.3E-05 3.2E-04 6.8E-04 0.0011 0.0016 0.0021 0.0026 0.0035 0.0043 0.0055 0.0065 0.0079 0.0091

34
 38 3.0E-09 7.1E-06 8.9E-05 3.1E-04 6.5E-04 0.0011 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0034 0.0042 0.0053 0.0063 0.0077 0.0088
39 2.8E-09 6.7E-06 8.5E-05 3.0E-04 6.3E-04 0.0010 0.0015 0.0019 0.0024 0.0033 0.0041 0.0052 0.0061 0.0075 0.0085
40 2.5E-09 6.4E-06 8.2E-05 2.9E-04 6.1E-04 0.0010 0.0014 0.0019 0.0023 0.0032 0.0040 0.0050 0.0060 0.0072 0.0083
45 1.8E-09 5.1E-06 6.7E-05 2.4E-04 5.1E-04 8.5E-04 0.0012 0.0016 0.0020 0.0027 0.0034 0.0044 0.0052 0.0063 0.0073
50 1.3E-09 4.1E-06 5.6E-05 2.0E-04 4.4E-04 7.4E-04 0.0011 0.0014 0.0018 0.0024 0.0030 0.0039 0.0046 0.0056 0.0065
55 9.7E-10 3.4E-06 4.8E-05 1.8E-04 3.9E-04 6.5E-04 9.4E-04 0.0012 0.0016 0.0022 0.0027 0.0035 0.0041 0.0051 0.0058
60 7.5E-10 2.8E-06 4.1E-05 1.6E-04 3.4E-04 5.8E-04 8.4E-04 0.0011 0.0014 0.0019 0.0025 0.0031 0.0037 0.0046 0.0053
65 5.9E-10 2.4E-06 3.6E-05 1.4E-04 3.0E-04 5.2E-04 7.6E-04 0.0010 0.0013 0.0018 0.0022 0.0029 0.0034 0.0042 0.0049
70 4.7E-10 2.1E-06 3.2E-05 1.2E-04 2.7E-04 4.7E-04 6.9E-04 9.2E-04 0.0012 0.0016 0.0020 0.0026 0.0031 0.0039 0.0045
75 3.8E-10 1.8E-06 2.8E-05 1.1E-04 2.5E-04 4.3E-04 6.3E-04 8.4E-04 0.0011 0.0015 0.0019 0.0024 0.0029 0.0036 0.0041
80 3.1E-10 1.6E-06 2.5E-05 1.0E-04 2.3E-04 3.9E-04 5.8E-04 7.7E-04 0.0010 0.0014 0.0017 0.0023 0.0027 0.0033 0.0039
90 2.2E-10 1.2E-06 2.1E-05 8.4E-05 1.9E-04 3.3E-04 4.9E-04 6.7E-04 8.4E-04 0.0012 0.0015 0.0020 0.0024 0.0029 0.0034
100 1.6E-10 1.0E-06 1.8E-05 7.2E-05 1.7E-04 2.9E-04 4.3E-04 5.8E-04 7.4E-04 0.0010 0.0013 0.0017 0.0021 0.0026 0.0030
120 9.2E-11 7.0E-07 1.3E-05 5.4E-05 1.3E-04 2.3E-04 3.4E-04 4.6E-04 5.9E-04 8.4E-04 0.0011 0.0014 0.0017 0.0021 0.0025
140 5.8E-11 5.1E-07 1.0E-05 4.3E-05 1.0E-04 1.8E-04 2.8E-04 3.8E-04 4.9E-04 7.0E-04 9.0E-04 0.0012 0.0014 0.0018 0.0021
160 3.9E-11 3.9E-07 8.0E-06 3.5E-05 8.5E-05 1.5E-04 2.3E-04 3.2E-04 4.1E-04 5.9E-04 7.7E-04 0.0010 0.0012 0.0015 0.0018
180 2.7E-11 3.1E-07 6.6E-06 3.0E-05 7.2E-05 1.3E-04 2.0E-04 2.8E-04 3.6E-04 5.2E-04 6.7E-04 8.9E-04 0.0011 0.0014 0.0016
200 2.0E-11 2.5E-07 5.5E-06 2.5E-05 6.2E-05 1.1E-04 1.8E-04 2.4E-04 3.1E-04 4.6E-04 5.9E-04 7.9E-04 0.0010 0.0012 0.0014
225 1.4E-11 2.0E-07 4.5E-06 2.1E-05 5.3E-05 9.7E-05 1.5E-04 2.1E-04 2.7E-04 4.0E-04 5.2E-04 6.9E-04 8.4E-04 0.0011 0.0012
250 1.0E-11 1.6E-07 3.8E-06 1.8E-05 4.6E-05 8.4E-05 1.3E-04 1.8E-04 2.4E-04 3.5E-04 4.6E-04 6.1E-04 7.4E-04 9.4E-04 0.0011
275 7.6E-12 1.3E-07 3.2E-06 1.6E-05 4.0E-05 7.4E-05 1.2E-04 1.6E-04 2.1E-04 3.1E-04 4.1E-04 5.5E-04 6.7E-04 8.5E-04 0.0010
300 5.8E-12 1.1E-07 2.8E-06 1.4E-05 3.5E-05 6.6E-05 1.0E-04 1.5E-04 1.9E-04 2.8E-04 3.7E-04 4.9E-04 6.1E-04 7.7E-04 9.1E-04
350 3.7E-12 8.2E-08 2.2E-06 1.1E-05 2.8E-05 5.4E-05 8.5E-05 1.2E-04 1.6E-04 2.3E-04 3.1E-04 4.1E-04 5.1E-04 6.5E-04 7.7E-04
400 2.5E-12 6.3E-08 1.7E-06 8.9E-06 2.4E-05 4.5E-05 7.1E-05 1.0E-04 1.3E-04 2.0E-04 2.6E-04 3.5E-04 4.4E-04 5.6E-04 6.6E-04
450 1.7E-12 4.9E-08 1.4E-06 7.4E-06 2.0E-05 3.8E-05 6.1E-05 8.7E-05 1.1E-04 1.7E-04 2.3E-04 3.1E-04 3.8E-04 4.9E-04 5.8E-04
500 1.3E-12 4.0E-08 1.2E-06 6.3E-06 1.7E-05 3.3E-05 5.4E-05 7.6E-05 1.0E-04 1.5E-04 2.0E-04 2.8E-04 3.4E-04 4.4E-04 5.2E-04
600 7.3E-13 2.8E-08 8.8E-07 4.8E-06 1.3E-05 2.6E-05 4.2E-05 6.1E-05 8.1E-05 1.2E-04 1.6E-04 2.2E-04 2.8E-04 3.6E-04 4.3E-04
700 4.6E-13 2.0E-08 6.8E-07 3.8E-06 1.1E-05 2.1E-05 3.5E-05 5.0E-05 6.7E-05 1.0E-04 1.4E-04 1.9E-04 2.3E-04 3.0E-04 3.6E-04
800 3.1E-13 1.6E-08 5.4E-07 3.1E-06 8.9E-06 1.8E-05 2.9E-05 4.2E-05 5.7E-05 8.7E-05 1.2E-04 1.6E-04 2.0E-04 2.6E-04 3.1E-04
900 2.2E-13 1.2E-08 4.5E-07 2.6E-06 7.5E-06 1.5E-05 2.5E-05 3.6E-05 4.9E-05 7.5E-05 1.0E-04 1.4E-04 1.8E-04 2.3E-04 2.7E-04
1000 1.6E-13 1.0E-08 3.7E-07 2.2E-06 6.5E-06 1.3E-05 2.2E-05 3.2E-05 4.3E-05 6.6E-05 9.0E-05 1.2E-04 1.6E-04 2.0E-04 2.4E-04
1500 4.7E-14 4.4E-09 1.9E-07 1.2E-06 3.7E-06 7.7E-06 1.3E-05 1.9E-05 2.6E-05 4.1E-05 5.6E-05 7.8E-05 9.9E-05 1.3E-04 1.6E-04
2000 2.0E-14 2.5E-09 1.2E-07 7.9E-07 2.5E-06 5.2E-06 8.9E-06 1.3E-05 1.8E-05 2.9E-05 4.0E-05 5.7E-05 7.2E-05 9.5E-05 1.1E-04
2500 1.0E-14 1.6E-09 8.1E-08 5.7E-07 1.8E-06 3.9E-06 6.7E-06 1.0E-05 1.4E-05 2.2E-05 3.1E-05 4.4E-05 5.6E-05 7.4E-05 9.0E-05
3000 5.8E-15 1.1E-09 6.0E-08 4.3E-07 1.4E-06 3.0E-06 5.3E-06 8.0E-06 1.1E-05 1.8E-05 2.5E-05 3.6E-05 4.6E-05 6.1E-05 7.4E-05
4000 2.4E-15 6.3E-10 3.7E-08 2.8E-07 9.3E-07 2.1E-06 3.7E-06 5.6E-06 7.8E-06 1.3E-05 1.8E-05 2.6E-05 3.3E-05 4.4E-05 5.4E-05
5000 1.4E-15 4.0E-10 2.6E-08 2.0E-07 6.8E-07 1.5E-06 2.7E-06 4.2E-06 5.9E-06 9.8E-06 1.4E-05 2.0E-05 2.6E-05 3.5E-05 4.2E-05
7500 4.2E-16 1.8E-10 1.3E-08 1.1E-07 3.9E-07 8.9E-07 1.6E-06 2.5E-06 3.6E-06 6.0E-06 8.6E-06 1.3E-05 1.6E-05 2.2E-05 2.7E-05
10⁴ 9.1E-17 1.0E-10 8.1E-09 7.1E-08 2.6E-07 6.1E-07 1.1E-06 1.8E-06 2.5E-06 4.3E-06 6.2E-06 9.1E-06 1.2E-05 1.6E-05 2.0E-05
∞ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

35
Appendix D-2 Lower limit critical values for G tests on balanced designs; 34 ≤ ν ≤ ∞;
ζ = 0.01: significance level α₁ = 0.01 for one-sided test and α₂ = 0.02 for two-sided test

Number of degrees of freedom per data set (ν)

L
34 39 49 59 79 99 119 149 199 299 499 999 2499 9999 ∞
2 0.2881 0.3011 0.3212 0.3363 0.3577 0.3724 0.3833 0.3955 0.4093 0.4259 0.4425 0.4593 0.4743 0.4871 0.5000
3 0.1732 0.1824 0.1968 0.2077 0.2233 0.2342 0.2424 0.2515 0.2621 0.2747 0.2876 0.3008 0.3126 0.3229 0.3333
4 0.1227 0.1297 0.1408 0.1493 0.1615 0.1701 0.1766 0.1838 0.1922 0.2023 0.2127 0.2234 0.2330 0.2415 0.2500
5 0.0944 0.1001 0.1092 0.1161 0.1261 0.1332 0.1385 0.1445 0.1515 0.1599 0.1686 0.1776 0.1857 0.1928 0.2000
6 0.0765 0.0812 0.0889 0.0947 0.1032 0.1092 0.1138 0.1189 0.1249 0.1321 0.1396 0.1473 0.1543 0.1604 0.1667
7 0.0641 0.0682 0.0748 0.0798 0.0872 0.0925 0.0964 0.1009 0.1061 0.1124 0.1190 0.1258 0.1319 0.1373 0.1429
8 0.0550 0.0587 0.0645 0.0689 0.0754 0.0801 0.0836 0.0876 0.0922 0.0978 0.1037 0.1097 0.1152 0.1201 0.1250
9 0.0481 0.0514 0.0566 0.0606 0.0664 0.0706 0.0737 0.0773 0.0815 0.0865 0.0918 0.0973 0.1022 0.1066 0.1111
10 0.0427 0.0457 0.0504 0.0540 0.0593 0.0630 0.0659 0.0692 0.0729 0.0776 0.0824 0.0873 0.0919 0.0959 0.1000
11 0.0384 0.0411 0.0453 0.0486 0.0535 0.0569 0.0596 0.0625 0.0660 0.0703 0.0747 0.0793 0.0834 0.0871 0.0909
12 0.0348 0.0373 0.0412 0.0442 0.0487 0.0519 0.0543 0.0571 0.0603 0.0642 0.0683 0.0725 0.0764 0.0798 0.0833
13 0.0318 0.0341 0.0377 0.0406 0.0447 0.0477 0.0499 0.0525 0.0554 0.0591 0.0629 0.0668 0.0705 0.0737 0.0769
14 0.0293 0.0314 0.0348 0.0374 0.0413 0.0441 0.0461 0.0485 0.0513 0.0547 0.0583 0.0620 0.0654 0.0684 0.0714
15 0.0271 0.0291 0.0323 0.0347 0.0384 0.0409 0.0429 0.0451 0.0478 0.0510 0.0543 0.0578 0.0610 0.0638 0.0667
16 0.0253 0.0271 0.0301 0.0324 0.0358 0.0382 0.0401 0.0422 0.0447 0.0477 0.0508 0.0541 0.0571 0.0598 0.0625
17 0.0236 0.0254 0.0282 0.0303 0.0336 0.0358 0.0376 0.0396 0.0419 0.0448 0.0478 0.0509 0.0537 0.0562 0.0588
18 0.0222 0.0238 0.0265 0.0285 0.0316 0.0337 0.0354 0.0373 0.0395 0.0422 0.0450 0.0480 0.0507 0.0531 0.0556
19 0.0209 0.0224 0.0249 0.0269 0.0298 0.0319 0.0334 0.0352 0.0373 0.0399 0.0426 0.0454 0.0480 0.0503 0.0526
20 0.0197 0.0212 0.0236 0.0255 0.0282 0.0302 0.0317 0.0334 0.0354 0.0379 0.0404 0.0431 0.0456 0.0478 0.0500
21 0.0187 0.0201 0.0224 0.0242 0.0268 0.0287 0.0301 0.0317 0.0337 0.0360 0.0385 0.0410 0.0434 0.0455 0.0476
22 0.0177 0.0191 0.0213 0.0230 0.0255 0.0273 0.0287 0.0302 0.0321 0.0343 0.0367 0.0391 0.0414 0.0434 0.0455
23 0.0169 0.0182 0.0203 0.0219 0.0243 0.0260 0.0274 0.0289 0.0306 0.0328 0.0350 0.0374 0.0396 0.0415 0.0435
24 0.0161 0.0174 0.0194 0.0209 0.0232 0.0249 0.0262 0.0276 0.0293 0.0314 0.0336 0.0358 0.0379 0.0398 0.0417
25 0.0154 0.0166 0.0185 0.0200 0.0223 0.0238 0.0251 0.0265 0.0281 0.0301 0.0322 0.0344 0.0364 0.0382 0.0400
26 0.0148 0.0159 0.0178 0.0192 0.0213 0.0229 0.0241 0.0254 0.0270 0.0289 0.0309 0.0330 0.0350 0.0367 0.0385
27 0.0142 0.0153 0.0170 0.0184 0.0205 0.0220 0.0231 0.0244 0.0259 0.0278 0.0297 0.0318 0.0337 0.0353 0.0370
28 0.0136 0.0147 0.0164 0.0177 0.0197 0.0212 0.0223 0.0235 0.0250 0.0268 0.0287 0.0306 0.0324 0.0341 0.0357
29 0.0131 0.0141 0.0158 0.0171 0.0190 0.0204 0.0215 0.0227 0.0241 0.0258 0.0277 0.0296 0.0313 0.0329 0.0345
30 0.0126 0.0136 0.0152 0.0165 0.0183 0.0197 0.0207 0.0219 0.0232 0.0249 0.0267 0.0286 0.0303 0.0318 0.0333
31 0.0122 0.0131 0.0147 0.0159 0.0177 0.0190 0.0200 0.0211 0.0225 0.0241 0.0258 0.0276 0.0293 0.0307 0.0323
32 0.0117 0.0127 0.0142 0.0154 0.0171 0.0184 0.0194 0.0205 0.0217 0.0233 0.0250 0.0268 0.0284 0.0298 0.0313
33 0.0113 0.0123 0.0137 0.0149 0.0166 0.0178 0.0187 0.0198 0.0211 0.0226 0.0242 0.0259 0.0275 0.0289 0.0303
34 0.0110 0.0119 0.0133 0.0144 0.0161 0.0173 0.0182 0.0192 0.0204 0.0219 0.0235 0.0252 0.0267 0.0280 0.0294
35 0.0106 0.0115 0.0129 0.0140 0.0156 0.0167 0.0176 0.0186 0.0198 0.0213 0.0228 0.0244 0.0259 0.0272 0.0286
36 0.0103 0.0111 0.0125 0.0135 0.0151 0.0162 0.0171 0.0181 0.0193 0.0207 0.0222 0.0237 0.0252 0.0265 0.0278
37 0.0100 0.0108 0.0121 0.0132 0.0147 0.0158 0.0166 0.0176 0.0187 0.0201 0.0216 0.0231 0.0245 0.0257 0.0270
38 0.0097 0.0105 0.0118 0.0128 0.0143 0.0153 0.0162 0.0171 0.0182 0.0196 0.0210 0.0225 0.0238 0.0251 0.0263
39 0.0094 0.0102 0.0115 0.0124 0.0139 0.0149 0.0157 0.0166 0.0177 0.0190 0.0204 0.0219 0.0232 0.0244 0.0256
40 0.0092 0.0099 0.0112 0.0121 0.0135 0.0145 0.0153 0.0162 0.0173 0.0186 0.0199 0.0213 0.0226 0.0238 0.0250
45 0.0081 0.0087 0.0098 0.0107 0.0119 0.0128 0.0135 0.0143 0.0153 0.0164 0.0177 0.0189 0.0201 0.0211 0.0222
50 0.0072 0.0078 0.0088 0.0095 0.0107 0.0115 0.0121 0.0129 0.0137 0.0148 0.0159 0.0170 0.0181 0.0190 0.0200
55 0.0065 0.0070 0.0079 0.0086 0.0097 0.0104 0.0110 0.0116 0.0124 0.0134 0.0144 0.0154 0.0164 0.0173 0.0182

36
 60 0.0059 0.0064 0.0072 0.0079 0.0088 0.0095 0.0100 0.0106 0.0114 0.0122 0.0132 0.0141 0.0150 0.0158 0.0167
65 0.0054 0.0059 0.0066 0.0072 0.0081 0.0087 0.0092 0.0098 0.0105 0.0113 0.0121 0.0130 0.0139 0.0146 0.0154
70 0.0050 0.0054 0.0061 0.0067 0.0075 0.0081 0.0085 0.0091 0.0097 0.0104 0.0113 0.0121 0.0129 0.0136 0.0143
75 0.0046 0.0050 0.0057 0.0062 0.0070 0.0075 0.0080 0.0084 0.0090 0.0097 0.0105 0.0113 0.0120 0.0127 0.0133
80 0.0043 0.0047 0.0053 0.0058 0.0065 0.0070 0.0074 0.0079 0.0084 0.0091 0.0098 0.0106 0.0113 0.0119 0.0125
90 0.0038 0.0041 0.0047 0.0051 0.0057 0.0062 0.0066 0.0070 0.0075 0.0081 0.0087 0.0094 0.0100 0.0105 0.0111
100 0.0034 0.0037 0.0042 0.0046 0.0051 0.0056 0.0059 0.0063 0.0067 0.0073 0.0078 0.0084 0.0090 0.0095 0.0100
120 0.0028 0.0030 0.0034 0.0038 0.0042 0.0046 0.0049 0.0052 0.0056 0.0060 0.0065 0.0070 0.0075 0.0079 0.0083
140 0.0023 0.0026 0.0029 0.0032 0.0036 0.0039 0.0042 0.0044 0.0047 0.0051 0.0056 0.0060 0.0064 0.0068 0.0071
160 0.0020 0.0022 0.0025 0.0028 0.0031 0.0034 0.0036 0.0039 0.0041 0.0045 0.0048 0.0052 0.0056 0.0059 0.0063
180 0.0018 0.0020 0.0022 0.0024 0.0028 0.0030 0.0032 0.0034 0.0037 0.0040 0.0043 0.0046 0.0050 0.0053 0.0056
200 0.0016 0.0017 0.0020 0.0022 0.0025 0.0027 0.0029 0.0031 0.0033 0.0036 0.0039 0.0042 0.0045 0.0047 0.0050
225 0.0014 0.0015 0.0018 0.0019 0.0022 0.0024 0.0025 0.0027 0.0029 0.0032 0.0034 0.0037 0.0040 0.0042 0.0044
250 0.0012 0.0014 0.0016 0.0017 0.0020 0.0021 0.0023 0.0024 0.0026 0.0028 0.0031 0.0033 0.0036 0.0038 0.0040
275 0.0011 0.0012 0.0014 0.0016 0.0018 0.0019 0.0021 0.0022 0.0024 0.0026 0.0028 0.0030 0.0032 0.0034 0.0036
300 0.0010 0.0011 0.0013 0.0014 0.0016 0.0018 0.0019 0.0020 0.0022 0.0024 0.0026 0.0028 0.0030 0.0031 0.0033
350 8.7E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0014 0.0015 0.0016 0.0017 0.0018 0.0020 0.0022 0.0024 0.0025 0.0027 0.0029
400 7.5E-04 8.3E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0015 0.0016 0.0018 0.0019 0.0021 0.0022 0.0024 0.0025
450 6.6E-04 7.3E-04 8.4E-04 9.3E-04 0.0011 0.0012 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0016 0.0017 0.0018 0.0020 0.0021 0.0022
500 5.9E-04 6.5E-04 7.5E-04 8.3E-04 0.0010 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0015 0.0017 0.0018 0.0019 0.0020
600 4.8E-04 5.3E-04 6.2E-04 6.8E-04 7.9E-04 8.6E-04 9.2E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0015 0.0016 0.0017
700 4.1E-04 4.5E-04 5.2E-04 5.8E-04 6.7E-04 7.3E-04 7.8E-04 8.4E-04 9.1E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0013 0.0014
800 3.5E-04 3.9E-04 4.5E-04 5.1E-04 5.8E-04 6.4E-04 6.8E-04 7.3E-04 7.9E-04 8.7E-04 9.4E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013
900 3.1E-04 3.5E-04 4.0E-04 4.5E-04 5.1E-04 5.6E-04 6.0E-04 6.5E-04 7.0E-04 7.7E-04 8.4E-04 9.1E-04 9.8E-04 0.0010 0.0011
1000 2.8E-04 3.1E-04 3.6E-04 4.0E-04 4.6E-04 5.1E-04 5.4E-04 5.8E-04 6.3E-04 6.9E-04 7.5E-04 8.2E-04 8.8E-04 9.4E-04 0.0010
1500 1.8E-04 2.0E-04 2.3E-04 2.6E-04 3.0E-04 3.3E-04 3.6E-04 3.8E-04 4.1E-04 4.6E-04 5.0E-04 5.4E-04 5.9E-04 6.3E-04 6.7E-04
2000 1.3E-04 1.5E-04 1.7E-04 1.9E-04 2.2E-04 2.5E-04 2.6E-04 2.8E-04 3.1E-04 3.4E-04 3.7E-04 4.1E-04 4.4E-04 4.7E-04 5.0E-04
2500 1.0E-04 1.2E-04 1.4E-04 1.5E-04 1.8E-04 2.0E-04 2.1E-04 2.3E-04 2.5E-04 2.7E-04 3.0E-04 3.3E-04 3.5E-04 3.8E-04 4.0E-04
3000 8.5E-05 9.5E-05 1.1E-04 1.3E-04 1.5E-04 1.6E-04 1.7E-04 1.9E-04 2.0E-04 2.2E-04 2.5E-04 2.7E-04 2.9E-04 3.1E-04 3.3E-04
4000 6.2E-05 7.0E-05 8.2E-05 9.3E-05 1.1E-04 1.2E-04 1.3E-04 1.4E-04 1.5E-04 1.7E-04 1.8E-04 2.0E-04 2.2E-04 2.3E-04 2.5E-04
5000 4.9E-05 5.5E-05 6.5E-05 7.3E-05 8.6E-05 9.5E-05 1.0E-04 1.1E-04 1.2E-04 1.3E-04 1.5E-04 1.6E-04 1.7E-04 1.9E-04 2.0E-04
7500 3.2E-05 3.6E-05 4.2E-05 4.8E-05 5.6E-05 6.2E-05 6.7E-05 7.3E-05 8.0E-05 8.8E-05 9.7E-05 1.1E-04 1.2E-04 1.2E-04 1.3E-04
10⁴ 2.3E-05 2.6E-05 3.1E-05 3.5E-05 4.2E-05 4.6E-05 5.0E-05 5.4E-05 5.9E-05 6.6E-05 7.3E-05 8.0E-05 8.7E-05 9.3E-05 1.0E-04
∞ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

37
Appendix E Lower limit values CLL at significance levels α1 = 0.025 (one-sided test, Eq. 29) and
α2 = 0.05 (two-sided test, Eq. 31)
n = number of observations per data set
ν = (n-1) = number of degrees of freedom per data set
L = number of data sets

Appendix E-1 Lower limit critical values for G tests on balanced designs; 1 ≤ ν ≤ 29;
ζ = 0.025: significance level α₁ = 0.025 for one-sided test and α₂ = 0.05 for two-sided test

Number of degrees of freedom per data set (ν)

L
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 13 16 19 24 29
2 3.9E-04 0.0125 0.0381 0.0660 0.0917 0.1143 0.1341 0.1514 0.1665 0.1920 0.2126 0.2371 0.2563 0.2807 0.2990
3 6.9E-05 0.0042 0.0156 0.0297 0.0439 0.0570 0.0688 0.0794 0.0890 0.1054 0.1190 0.1355 0.1486 0.1657 0.1788
4 2.4E-05 0.0021 0.0088 0.0178 0.0272 0.0361 0.0444 0.0519 0.0588 0.0707 0.0807 0.0930 0.1030 0.1160 0.1260
5 1.1E-05 0.0013 0.0057 0.0121 0.0190 0.0257 0.0320 0.0378 0.0431 0.0524 0.0603 0.0700 0.0780 0.0885 0.0966
6 6.0E-06 8.3E-04 0.0041 0.0089 0.0143 0.0196 0.0246 0.0293 0.0336 0.0412 0.0477 0.0558 0.0624 0.0712 0.0780
7 3.6E-06 6.0E-04 0.0031 0.0069 0.0113 0.0156 0.0198 0.0237 0.0273 0.0337 0.0392 0.0461 0.0518 0.0593 0.0652
8 2.4E-06 4.5E-04 0.0024 0.0056 0.0092 0.0129 0.0164 0.0197 0.0228 0.0284 0.0331 0.0391 0.0441 0.0507 0.0559
9 1.6E-06 3.5E-04 0.0020 0.0046 0.0077 0.0109 0.0139 0.0168 0.0196 0.0244 0.0286 0.0339 0.0383 0.0442 0.0488
10 1.2E-06 2.8E-04 0.0016 0.0039 0.0066 0.0094 0.0121 0.0146 0.0170 0.0213 0.0251 0.0299 0.0338 0.0391 0.0432
11 8.5E-07 2.3E-04 0.0014 0.0034 0.0057 0.0082 0.0106 0.0129 0.0150 0.0189 0.0223 0.0266 0.0302 0.0350 0.0388
12 6.5E-07 1.9E-04 0.0012 0.0029 0.0050 0.0072 0.0094 0.0115 0.0134 0.0170 0.0200 0.0240 0.0272 0.0316 0.0351
13 5.0E-07 1.6E-04 0.0010 0.0026 0.0045 0.0065 0.0084 0.0103 0.0121 0.0153 0.0182 0.0218 0.0248 0.0289 0.0321
14 4.0E-07 1.4E-04 9.1E-04 0.0023 0.0040 0.0058 0.0076 0.0094 0.0110 0.0140 0.0166 0.0199 0.0227 0.0265 0.0295
15 3.2E-07 1.2E-04 8.1E-04 0.0021 0.0036 0.0053 0.0069 0.0085 0.0101 0.0128 0.0152 0.0184 0.0210 0.0245 0.0273
16 2.6E-07 1.0E-04 7.2E-04 0.0019 0.0033 0.0048 0.0064 0.0078 0.0093 0.0118 0.0141 0.0170 0.0194 0.0227 0.0254
17 2.2E-07 9.2E-05 6.5E-04 0.0017 0.0030 0.0044 0.0059 0.0072 0.0086 0.0110 0.0131 0.0158 0.0181 0.0212 0.0237
18 1.8E-07 8.2E-05 5.9E-04 0.0016 0.0028 0.0041 0.0054 0.0067 0.0080 0.0102 0.0122 0.0148 0.0169 0.0199 0.0222
19 1.6E-07 7.3E-05 5.4E-04 0.0014 0.0026 0.0038 0.0051 0.0063 0.0074 0.0096 0.0114 0.0139 0.0159 0.0187 0.0209
20 1.3E-07 6.6E-05 4.9E-04 0.0013 0.0024 0.0035 0.0047 0.0059 0.0070 0.0090 0.0107 0.0130 0.0150 0.0176 0.0197
21 1.1E-07 6.0E-05 4.5E-04 0.0012 0.0022 0.0033 0.0044 0.0055 0.0065 0.0084 0.0101 0.0123 0.0142 0.0167 0.0187
22 9.9E-08 5.4E-05 4.2E-04 0.0011 0.0021 0.0031 0.0042 0.0052 0.0062 0.0080 0.0096 0.0117 0.0134 0.0158 0.0177
23 8.6E-08 4.9E-05 3.9E-04 0.0011 0.0019 0.0029 0.0039 0.0049 0.0058 0.0075 0.0091 0.0111 0.0127 0.0150 0.0169
24 7.6E-08 4.5E-05 3.6E-04 0.0010 0.0018 0.0028 0.0037 0.0046 0.0055 0.0072 0.0086 0.0105 0.0121 0.0143 0.0161
25 6.7E-08 4.2E-05 3.4E-04 9.4E-04 0.0017 0.0026 0.0035 0.0044 0.0052 0.0068 0.0082 0.0100 0.0116 0.0137 0.0154
26 5.9E-08 3.8E-05 3.1E-04 8.8E-04 0.0016 0.0025 0.0033 0.0042 0.0050 0.0065 0.0078 0.0096 0.0111 0.0131 0.0147
27 5.3E-08 3.6E-05 2.9E-04 8.3E-04 0.0015 0.0023 0.0032 0.0040 0.0047 0.0062 0.0075 0.0092 0.0106 0.0125 0.0141
28 4.7E-08 3.3E-05 2.8E-04 7.9E-04 0.0015 0.0022 0.0030 0.0038 0.0045 0.0059 0.0072 0.0088 0.0102 0.0120 0.0135
29 4.2E-08 3.1E-05 2.6E-04 7.5E-04 0.0014 0.0021 0.0029 0.0036 0.0043 0.0057 0.0069 0.0084 0.0098 0.0116 0.0130
30 3.8E-08 2.9E-05 2.5E-04 7.1E-04 0.0013 0.0020 0.0028 0.0035 0.0042 0.0054 0.0066 0.0081 0.0094 0.0111 0.0125
31 3.5E-08 2.7E-05 2.3E-04 6.7E-04 0.0013 0.0019 0.0026 0.0033 0.0040 0.0052 0.0063 0.0078 0.0090 0.0107 0.0121
32 3.1E-08 2.5E-05 2.2E-04 6.4E-04 0.0012 0.0019 0.0025 0.0032 0.0038 0.0050 0.0061 0.0075 0.0087 0.0103 0.0117
33 2.9E-08 2.4E-05 2.1E-04 6.1E-04 0.0012 0.0018 0.0024 0.0031 0.0037 0.0048 0.0059 0.0072 0.0084 0.0100 0.0113
34 2.6E-08 2.2E-05 2.0E-04 5.8E-04 0.0011 0.0017 0.0023 0.0029 0.0035 0.0047 0.0057 0.0070 0.0081 0.0097 0.0109
35 2.4E-08 2.1E-05 1.9E-04 5.6E-04 0.0011 0.0016 0.0022 0.0028 0.0034 0.0045 0.0055 0.0068 0.0079 0.0094 0.0106
36 2.2E-08 2.0E-05 1.8E-04 5.4E-04 0.0010 0.0016 0.0022 0.0027 0.0033 0.0044 0.0053 0.0065 0.0076 0.0091 0.0102
37 2.0E-08 1.9E-05 1.7E-04 5.1E-04 0.0010 0.0015 0.0021 0.0026 0.0032 0.0042 0.0051 0.0063 0.0074 0.0088 0.0099

38
 38 1.9E-08 1.8E-05 1.6E-04 4.9E-04 9.5E-04 0.0015 0.0020 0.0026 0.0031 0.0041 0.0050 0.0061 0.0071 0.0085 0.0096
39 1.7E-08 1.7E-05 1.6E-04 4.7E-04 9.1E-04 0.0014 0.0019 0.0025 0.0030 0.0039 0.0048 0.0060 0.0069 0.0083 0.0094
40 1.6E-08 1.6E-05 1.5E-04 4.6E-04 8.8E-04 0.0014 0.0019 0.0024 0.0029 0.0038 0.0047 0.0058 0.0067 0.0080 0.0091
45 1.1E-08 1.3E-05 1.2E-04 3.8E-04 7.5E-04 0.0012 0.0016 0.0021 0.0025 0.0033 0.0041 0.0050 0.0059 0.0070 0.0080
50 8.1E-09 1.0E-05 1.0E-04 3.2E-04 6.4E-04 0.0010 0.0014 0.0018 0.0022 0.0029 0.0036 0.0045 0.0052 0.0063 0.0071
55 6.1E-09 8.4E-06 8.8E-05 2.8E-04 5.6E-04 8.9E-04 0.0012 0.0016 0.0019 0.0026 0.0032 0.0040 0.0047 0.0056 0.0064
60 4.7E-09 7.1E-06 7.6E-05 2.5E-04 4.9E-04 7.9E-04 0.0011 0.0014 0.0017 0.0023 0.0029 0.0036 0.0042 0.0051 0.0058
65 3.7E-09 6.0E-06 6.7E-05 2.2E-04 4.4E-04 7.1E-04 0.0010 0.0013 0.0016 0.0021 0.0026 0.0033 0.0039 0.0047 0.0053
70 2.9E-09 5.2E-06 5.9E-05 1.9E-04 4.0E-04 6.4E-04 9.0E-04 0.0012 0.0014 0.0019 0.0024 0.0030 0.0036 0.0043 0.0049
75 2.4E-09 4.5E-06 5.2E-05 1.8E-04 3.6E-04 5.8E-04 8.2E-04 0.0011 0.0013 0.0018 0.0022 0.0028 0.0033 0.0040 0.0045
80 2.0E-09 4.0E-06 4.7E-05 1.6E-04 3.3E-04 5.3E-04 7.6E-04 0.0010 0.0012 0.0016 0.0020 0.0026 0.0030 0.0037 0.0042
90 1.4E-09 3.1E-06 3.9E-05 1.3E-04 2.8E-04 4.6E-04 6.5E-04 8.5E-04 0.0010 0.0014 0.0018 0.0023 0.0027 0.0032 0.0037
100 1.0E-09 2.5E-06 3.2E-05 1.1E-04 2.4E-04 4.0E-04 5.7E-04 7.4E-04 9.2E-04 0.0013 0.0016 0.0020 0.0024 0.0029 0.0033
120 5.8E-10 1.8E-06 2.4E-05 8.6E-05 1.9E-04 3.1E-04 4.5E-04 5.9E-04 7.3E-04 0.0010 0.0013 0.0016 0.0019 0.0024 0.0027
140 3.6E-10 1.3E-06 1.8E-05 6.8E-05 1.5E-04 2.5E-04 3.7E-04 4.8E-04 6.0E-04 8.4E-04 0.0011 0.0014 0.0016 0.0020 0.0023
160 2.4E-10 9.8E-07 1.5E-05 5.6E-05 1.2E-04 2.1E-04 3.1E-04 4.1E-04 5.1E-04 7.1E-04 9.0E-04 0.0012 0.0014 0.0017 0.0020
180 1.7E-10 7.8E-07 1.2E-05 4.7E-05 1.0E-04 1.8E-04 2.6E-04 3.5E-04 4.4E-04 6.2E-04 7.9E-04 0.0010 0.0012 0.0015 0.0017
200 1.2E-10 6.3E-07 1.0E-05 4.0E-05 9.0E-05 1.6E-04 2.3E-04 3.1E-04 3.9E-04 5.5E-04 6.9E-04 9.0E-04 0.0011 0.0013 0.0015
225 8.7E-11 5.0E-07 8.3E-06 3.3E-05 7.6E-05 1.3E-04 2.0E-04 2.7E-04 3.4E-04 4.7E-04 6.0E-04 7.8E-04 9.4E-04 0.0012 0.0014
250 6.3E-11 4.0E-07 7.0E-06 2.9E-05 6.6E-05 1.2E-04 1.7E-04 2.3E-04 2.9E-04 4.2E-04 5.3E-04 6.9E-04 8.4E-04 0.0010 0.0012
275 4.7E-11 3.3E-07 5.9E-06 2.5E-05 5.8E-05 1.0E-04 1.5E-04 2.1E-04 2.6E-04 3.7E-04 4.8E-04 6.2E-04 7.5E-04 9.3E-04 0.0011
300 3.7E-11 2.8E-07 5.1E-06 2.2E-05 5.1E-05 9.0E-05 1.4E-04 1.8E-04 2.3E-04 3.4E-04 4.3E-04 5.6E-04 6.8E-04 8.5E-04 0.0010
350 2.3E-11 2.0E-07 4.0E-06 1.7E-05 4.1E-05 7.3E-05 1.1E-04 1.5E-04 1.9E-04 2.8E-04 3.6E-04 4.7E-04 5.7E-04 7.2E-04 8.3E-04
400 1.5E-11 1.6E-07 3.2E-06 1.4E-05 3.4E-05 6.1E-05 9.3E-05 1.3E-04 1.6E-04 2.4E-04 3.1E-04 4.1E-04 4.9E-04 6.2E-04 7.2E-04
450 1.1E-11 1.2E-07 2.6E-06 1.2E-05 2.9E-05 5.2E-05 8.0E-05 1.1E-04 1.4E-04 2.1E-04 2.7E-04 3.5E-04 4.3E-04 5.4E-04 6.3E-04
500 7.9E-12 1.0E-07 2.2E-06 1.0E-05 2.5E-05 4.5E-05 7.0E-05 9.7E-05 1.2E-04 1.8E-04 2.4E-04 3.1E-04 3.8E-04 4.8E-04 5.6E-04
600 4.6E-12 7.0E-08 1.6E-06 7.6E-06 1.9E-05 3.6E-05 5.5E-05 7.7E-05 1.0E-04 1.5E-04 1.9E-04 2.5E-04 3.1E-04 3.9E-04 4.6E-04
700 2.9E-12 5.1E-08 1.3E-06 6.1E-06 1.6E-05 2.9E-05 4.5E-05 6.3E-05 8.2E-05 1.2E-04 1.6E-04 2.1E-04 2.6E-04 3.3E-04 3.9E-04
800 1.9E-12 3.9E-08 1.0E-06 5.0E-06 1.3E-05 2.4E-05 3.8E-05 5.4E-05 7.0E-05 1.0E-04 1.4E-04 1.8E-04 2.3E-04 2.9E-04 3.4E-04
900 1.3E-12 3.1E-08 8.2E-07 4.2E-06 1.1E-05 2.1E-05 3.3E-05 4.6E-05 6.0E-05 9.0E-05 1.2E-04 1.6E-04 2.0E-04 2.5E-04 3.0E-04
1000 9.8E-13 2.5E-08 6.9E-07 3.5E-06 9.4E-06 1.8E-05 2.9E-05 4.0E-05 5.3E-05 7.9E-05 1.1E-04 1.4E-04 1.8E-04 2.2E-04 2.6E-04
1500 2.9E-13 1.1E-08 3.5E-07 1.9E-06 5.3E-06 1.0E-05 1.7E-05 2.4E-05 3.2E-05 4.9E-05 6.5E-05 8.9E-05 1.1E-04 1.4E-04 1.7E-04
2000 1.2E-13 6.3E-09 2.2E-07 1.3E-06 3.6E-06 7.1E-06 1.2E-05 1.7E-05 2.3E-05 3.5E-05 4.7E-05 6.4E-05 8.0E-05 1.0E-04 1.2E-04
2500 6.3E-14 4.0E-09 1.5E-07 9.0E-07 2.6E-06 5.3E-06 8.7E-06 1.3E-05 1.7E-05 2.7E-05 3.6E-05 5.0E-05 6.3E-05 8.1E-05 9.7E-05
3000 3.6E-14 2.8E-09 1.1E-07 6.8E-07 2.0E-06 4.1E-06 6.9E-06 1.0E-05 1.4E-05 2.1E-05 2.9E-05 4.0E-05 5.1E-05 6.7E-05 8.0E-05
4000 1.5E-14 1.6E-09 6.8E-08 4.4E-07 1.3E-06 2.8E-06 4.8E-06 7.1E-06 9.6E-06 1.5E-05 2.1E-05 2.9E-05 3.7E-05 4.8E-05 5.8E-05
5000 7.9E-15 1.0E-09 4.7E-08 3.2E-07 9.8E-07 2.1E-06 3.6E-06 5.3E-06 7.3E-06 1.2E-05 1.6E-05 2.3E-05 2.9E-05 3.8E-05 4.6E-05
7500 2.2E-15 4.4E-10 2.4E-08 1.7E-07 5.6E-07 1.2E-06 2.1E-06 3.2E-06 4.5E-06 7.2E-06 1.0E-05 1.4E-05 1.8E-05 2.4E-05 3.0E-05
10⁴ 1.0E-15 2.5E-10 1.5E-08 1.1E-07 3.7E-07 8.3E-07 1.5E-06 2.2E-06 3.1E-06 5.1E-06 7.2E-06 1.0E-05 1.3E-05 1.8E-05 2.2E-05
∞ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

39
Appendix E-2 Lower limit critical values for G tests on balanced designs; 34 ≤ ν ≤ ∞;
ζ = 0.025: significance level α₁ = 0.025 for one-sided test and α₂ = 0.05 for two-sided test

Number of degrees of freedom per data set (ν)

L
34 39 49 59 79 99 119 149 199 299 499 999 2499 9999 ∞
2 0.3134 0.3251 0.3432 0.3566 0.3755 0.3885 0.3981 0.4088 0.4210 0.4354 0.4499 0.4646 0.4776 0.4888 0.5000
3 0.1892 0.1977 0.2109 0.2209 0.2351 0.2450 0.2524 0.2606 0.2700 0.2814 0.2929 0.3046 0.3150 0.3242 0.3333
4 0.1341 0.1407 0.1510 0.1589 0.1702 0.1780 0.1839 0.1905 0.1982 0.2073 0.2167 0.2263 0.2349 0.2424 0.2500
5 0.1032 0.1086 0.1171 0.1236 0.1329 0.1394 0.1443 0.1498 0.1562 0.1639 0.1718 0.1798 0.1871 0.1935 0.2000
6 0.0835 0.0881 0.0953 0.1008 0.1088 0.1143 0.1185 0.1233 0.1287 0.1354 0.1422 0.1492 0.1555 0.1610 0.1667
7 0.0700 0.0739 0.0802 0.0850 0.0919 0.0968 0.1005 0.1046 0.1094 0.1152 0.1212 0.1274 0.1330 0.1379 0.1429
8 0.0601 0.0636 0.0691 0.0733 0.0795 0.0838 0.0871 0.0908 0.0950 0.1002 0.1056 0.1111 0.1161 0.1205 0.1250
9 0.0525 0.0557 0.0606 0.0644 0.0699 0.0738 0.0768 0.0801 0.0840 0.0887 0.0935 0.0985 0.1030 0.1070 0.1111
10 0.0466 0.0495 0.0540 0.0574 0.0624 0.0660 0.0686 0.0717 0.0752 0.0795 0.0839 0.0885 0.0926 0.0963 0.1000
11 0.0419 0.0445 0.0486 0.0517 0.0563 0.0596 0.0620 0.0648 0.0680 0.0720 0.0760 0.0803 0.0841 0.0875 0.0909
12 0.0380 0.0403 0.0441 0.0470 0.0513 0.0543 0.0566 0.0591 0.0621 0.0658 0.0695 0.0734 0.0770 0.0801 0.0833
13 0.0347 0.0369 0.0404 0.0431 0.0470 0.0498 0.0520 0.0543 0.0571 0.0605 0.0640 0.0677 0.0710 0.0739 0.0769
14 0.0319 0.0340 0.0373 0.0398 0.0434 0.0461 0.0480 0.0503 0.0529 0.0561 0.0593 0.0628 0.0659 0.0686 0.0714
15 0.0296 0.0315 0.0345 0.0369 0.0403 0.0428 0.0447 0.0468 0.0492 0.0522 0.0553 0.0585 0.0614 0.0640 0.0667
16 0.0275 0.0293 0.0322 0.0344 0.0377 0.0400 0.0417 0.0437 0.0460 0.0488 0.0517 0.0548 0.0576 0.0600 0.0625
17 0.0257 0.0274 0.0301 0.0322 0.0353 0.0375 0.0391 0.0410 0.0432 0.0459 0.0486 0.0515 0.0541 0.0565 0.0588
18 0.0241 0.0257 0.0283 0.0303 0.0332 0.0353 0.0368 0.0386 0.0407 0.0432 0.0459 0.0486 0.0511 0.0533 0.0556
19 0.0227 0.0242 0.0267 0.0286 0.0313 0.0333 0.0348 0.0365 0.0385 0.0409 0.0434 0.0460 0.0484 0.0505 0.0526
20 0.0215 0.0229 0.0252 0.0270 0.0297 0.0315 0.0330 0.0346 0.0365 0.0388 0.0412 0.0437 0.0459 0.0479 0.0500
21 0.0203 0.0217 0.0239 0.0256 0.0282 0.0299 0.0313 0.0329 0.0347 0.0369 0.0392 0.0415 0.0437 0.0456 0.0476
22 0.0193 0.0206 0.0227 0.0244 0.0268 0.0285 0.0298 0.0313 0.0330 0.0351 0.0373 0.0396 0.0417 0.0436 0.0455
23 0.0184 0.0196 0.0217 0.0232 0.0256 0.0272 0.0285 0.0299 0.0315 0.0336 0.0357 0.0379 0.0399 0.0417 0.0435
24 0.0175 0.0187 0.0207 0.0222 0.0244 0.0260 0.0272 0.0286 0.0302 0.0321 0.0342 0.0363 0.0382 0.0399 0.0417
25 0.0168 0.0179 0.0198 0.0212 0.0234 0.0249 0.0261 0.0274 0.0289 0.0308 0.0328 0.0348 0.0367 0.0383 0.0400
26 0.0160 0.0172 0.0190 0.0204 0.0224 0.0239 0.0250 0.0263 0.0278 0.0296 0.0315 0.0334 0.0352 0.0368 0.0385
27 0.0154 0.0165 0.0182 0.0196 0.0215 0.0230 0.0240 0.0253 0.0267 0.0284 0.0303 0.0322 0.0339 0.0355 0.0370
28 0.0148 0.0158 0.0175 0.0188 0.0207 0.0221 0.0231 0.0243 0.0257 0.0274 0.0292 0.0310 0.0327 0.0342 0.0357
29 0.0142 0.0152 0.0169 0.0181 0.0200 0.0213 0.0223 0.0234 0.0248 0.0264 0.0281 0.0299 0.0316 0.0330 0.0345
30 0.0137 0.0147 0.0162 0.0175 0.0193 0.0205 0.0215 0.0226 0.0239 0.0255 0.0272 0.0289 0.0305 0.0319 0.0333
31 0.0132 0.0142 0.0157 0.0169 0.0186 0.0198 0.0208 0.0219 0.0231 0.0247 0.0263 0.0280 0.0295 0.0309 0.0323
32 0.0128 0.0137 0.0151 0.0163 0.0180 0.0192 0.0201 0.0212 0.0224 0.0239 0.0254 0.0271 0.0286 0.0299 0.0313
33 0.0123 0.0132 0.0147 0.0158 0.0174 0.0186 0.0195 0.0205 0.0217 0.0231 0.0247 0.0262 0.0277 0.0290 0.0303
34 0.0119 0.0128 0.0142 0.0153 0.0169 0.0180 0.0189 0.0199 0.0210 0.0224 0.0239 0.0255 0.0269 0.0281 0.0294
35 0.0116 0.0124 0.0137 0.0148 0.0164 0.0175 0.0183 0.0193 0.0204 0.0218 0.0232 0.0247 0.0261 0.0273 0.0286
36 0.0112 0.0120 0.0133 0.0144 0.0159 0.0169 0.0178 0.0187 0.0198 0.0212 0.0226 0.0240 0.0254 0.0266 0.0278
37 0.0109 0.0117 0.0129 0.0139 0.0154 0.0165 0.0173 0.0182 0.0193 0.0206 0.0219 0.0234 0.0247 0.0258 0.0270
38 0.0106 0.0113 0.0126 0.0136 0.0150 0.0160 0.0168 0.0177 0.0187 0.0200 0.0213 0.0227 0.0240 0.0252 0.0263
39 0.0103 0.0110 0.0122 0.0132 0.0146 0.0156 0.0163 0.0172 0.0182 0.0195 0.0208 0.0221 0.0234 0.0245 0.0256
40 0.0100 0.0107 0.0119 0.0128 0.0142 0.0152 0.0159 0.0168 0.0178 0.0190 0.0203 0.0216 0.0228 0.0239 0.0250
45 0.0088 0.0094 0.0105 0.0113 0.0125 0.0134 0.0141 0.0148 0.0157 0.0168 0.0180 0.0192 0.0202 0.0212 0.0222
50 0.0078 0.0084 0.0094 0.0101 0.0112 0.0120 0.0126 0.0133 0.0141 0.0151 0.0161 0.0172 0.0182 0.0191 0.0200
55 0.0070 0.0076 0.0084 0.0091 0.0101 0.0109 0.0114 0.0120 0.0128 0.0137 0.0146 0.0156 0.0165 0.0173 0.0182

40
 60 0.0064 0.0069 0.0077 0.0083 0.0092 0.0099 0.0104 0.0110 0.0117 0.0125 0.0134 0.0143 0.0151 0.0159 0.0167
65 0.0059 0.0063 0.0071 0.0076 0.0085 0.0091 0.0096 0.0101 0.0107 0.0115 0.0123 0.0132 0.0140 0.0147 0.0154
70 0.0054 0.0058 0.0065 0.0071 0.0079 0.0084 0.0089 0.0094 0.0100 0.0107 0.0114 0.0122 0.0130 0.0136 0.0143
75 0.0050 0.0054 0.0060 0.0066 0.0073 0.0078 0.0082 0.0087 0.0093 0.0100 0.0107 0.0114 0.0121 0.0127 0.0133
80 0.0047 0.0050 0.0056 0.0061 0.0068 0.0073 0.0077 0.0082 0.0087 0.0093 0.0100 0.0107 0.0113 0.0119 0.0125
90 0.0041 0.0044 0.0050 0.0054 0.0060 0.0065 0.0068 0.0072 0.0077 0.0083 0.0089 0.0095 0.0101 0.0106 0.0111
100 0.0037 0.0040 0.0044 0.0048 0.0054 0.0058 0.0061 0.0065 0.0069 0.0074 0.0080 0.0085 0.0090 0.0095 0.0100
120 0.0030 0.0032 0.0037 0.0040 0.0044 0.0048 0.0051 0.0054 0.0057 0.0061 0.0066 0.0071 0.0075 0.0079 0.0083
140 0.0025 0.0027 0.0031 0.0034 0.0038 0.0041 0.0043 0.0046 0.0049 0.0052 0.0056 0.0061 0.0064 0.0068 0.0071
160 0.0022 0.0024 0.0027 0.0029 0.0033 0.0035 0.0037 0.0040 0.0042 0.0046 0.0049 0.0053 0.0056 0.0059 0.0063
180 0.0019 0.0021 0.0024 0.0026 0.0029 0.0031 0.0033 0.0035 0.0038 0.0041 0.0044 0.0047 0.0050 0.0053 0.0056
200 0.0017 0.0019 0.0021 0.0023 0.0026 0.0028 0.0030 0.0032 0.0034 0.0036 0.0039 0.0042 0.0045 0.0047 0.0050
225 0.0015 0.0016 0.0019 0.0020 0.0023 0.0025 0.0026 0.0028 0.0030 0.0032 0.0035 0.0037 0.0040 0.0042 0.0044
250 0.0013 0.0015 0.0017 0.0018 0.0021 0.0022 0.0024 0.0025 0.0027 0.0029 0.0031 0.0034 0.0036 0.0038 0.0040
275 0.0012 0.0013 0.0015 0.0016 0.0019 0.0020 0.0021 0.0023 0.0024 0.0026 0.0028 0.0031 0.0033 0.0034 0.0036
300 0.0011 0.0012 0.0014 0.0015 0.0017 0.0018 0.0019 0.0021 0.0022 0.0024 0.0026 0.0028 0.0030 0.0032 0.0033
350 9.3E-04 0.0010 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0016 0.0017 0.0018 0.0019 0.0021 0.0022 0.0024 0.0026 0.0027 0.0029
400 8.1E-04 8.8E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0013 0.0014 0.0014 0.0015 0.0017 0.0018 0.0019 0.0021 0.0022 0.0024 0.0025
450 7.1E-04 7.8E-04 8.9E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0015 0.0016 0.0017 0.0019 0.0020 0.0021 0.0022
500 6.3E-04 7.0E-04 8.0E-04 8.7E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0015 0.0017 0.0018 0.0019 0.0020
600 5.2E-04 5.7E-04 6.5E-04 7.2E-04 8.2E-04 8.9E-04 9.5E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0015 0.0016 0.0017
700 4.4E-04 4.8E-04 5.6E-04 6.1E-04 7.0E-04 7.6E-04 8.1E-04 8.6E-04 9.3E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0013 0.0014
800 3.8E-04 4.2E-04 4.8E-04 5.3E-04 6.1E-04 6.6E-04 7.0E-04 7.5E-04 8.1E-04 8.8E-04 9.6E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013
900 3.4E-04 3.7E-04 4.3E-04 4.7E-04 5.4E-04 5.8E-04 6.2E-04 6.7E-04 7.2E-04 7.8E-04 8.5E-04 9.2E-04 9.9E-04 0.0010 0.0011
1000 3.0E-04 3.3E-04 3.8E-04 4.2E-04 4.8E-04 5.2E-04 5.6E-04 6.0E-04 6.4E-04 7.0E-04 7.6E-04 8.3E-04 8.9E-04 9.4E-04 0.0010
1500 1.9E-04 2.1E-04 2.5E-04 2.7E-04 3.1E-04 3.4E-04 3.7E-04 3.9E-04 4.2E-04 4.6E-04 5.1E-04 5.5E-04 5.9E-04 6.3E-04 6.7E-04
2000 1.4E-04 1.6E-04 1.8E-04 2.0E-04 2.3E-04 2.5E-04 2.7E-04 2.9E-04 3.2E-04 3.5E-04 3.8E-04 4.1E-04 4.4E-04 4.7E-04 5.0E-04
2500 1.1E-04 1.2E-04 1.4E-04 1.6E-04 1.8E-04 2.0E-04 2.2E-04 2.3E-04 2.5E-04 2.8E-04 3.0E-04 3.3E-04 3.5E-04 3.8E-04 4.0E-04
3000 9.1E-05 1.0E-04 1.2E-04 1.3E-04 1.5E-04 1.7E-04 1.8E-04 1.9E-04 2.1E-04 2.3E-04 2.5E-04 2.7E-04 2.9E-04 3.1E-04 3.3E-04
4000 6.7E-05 7.5E-05 8.7E-05 9.7E-05 1.1E-04 1.2E-04 1.3E-04 1.4E-04 1.6E-04 1.7E-04 1.9E-04 2.0E-04 2.2E-04 2.3E-04 2.5E-04
5000 5.3E-05 5.9E-05 6.9E-05 7.7E-05 8.9E-05 9.8E-05 1.1E-04 1.1E-04 1.2E-04 1.4E-04 1.5E-04 1.6E-04 1.8E-04 1.9E-04 2.0E-04
7500 3.4E-05 3.8E-05 4.5E-05 5.0E-05 5.8E-05 6.5E-05 6.9E-05 7.5E-05 8.1E-05 9.0E-05 9.9E-05 1.1E-04 1.2E-04 1.3E-04 1.3E-04
10⁴ 2.5E-05 2.8E-05 3.3E-05 3.7E-05 4.3E-05 4.8E-05 5.2E-05 5.6E-05 6.1E-05 6.7E-05 7.4E-05 8.1E-05 8.8E-05 9.4E-05 1.0E-04
∞ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

41
Appendix F Lower limit values CLL at significance levels α1 = 0.05 (one-sided test, Eq. 29) and
α2 = 0.10 (two-sided test, Eq. 31)
n = number of observations per data set
ν = (n-1) = number of degrees of freedom per data set
L = number of data sets

Appendix F-1 Lower limit critical values for G tests on balanced designs; 1 ≤ ν ≤ 29;
ζ = 0.05: significance level α₁ = 0.05 for one-sided test and α₂ = 0.10 for two-sided test

Number of degrees of freedom per data set (ν)

L
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 13 16 19 24 29
2 0.0015 0.0250 0.0608 0.0943 0.1228 0.1466 0.1668 0.1841 0.1990 0.2235 0.2430 0.2659 0.2836 0.3059 0.3225
3 2.8E-04 0.0084 0.0249 0.0426 0.0589 0.0733 0.0859 0.0969 0.1067 0.1231 0.1364 0.1524 0.1650 0.1812 0.1934
4 9.6E-05 0.0042 0.0140 0.0255 0.0365 0.0465 0.0554 0.0634 0.0705 0.0826 0.0926 0.1047 0.1143 0.1268 0.1364
5 4.4E-05 0.0025 0.0092 0.0174 0.0255 0.0331 0.0399 0.0461 0.0516 0.0612 0.0691 0.0788 0.0866 0.0968 0.1045
6 2.4E-05 0.0017 0.0065 0.0128 0.0192 0.0252 0.0307 0.0357 0.0402 0.0481 0.0546 0.0627 0.0692 0.0778 0.0844
7 1.5E-05 0.0012 0.0049 0.0099 0.0151 0.0201 0.0247 0.0288 0.0327 0.0393 0.0449 0.0518 0.0574 0.0648 0.0705
8 9.4E-06 9.0E-04 0.0039 0.0080 0.0123 0.0165 0.0204 0.0240 0.0273 0.0331 0.0379 0.0440 0.0489 0.0554 0.0604
9 6.5E-06 7.0E-04 0.0031 0.0066 0.0103 0.0140 0.0174 0.0205 0.0234 0.0284 0.0327 0.0381 0.0424 0.0482 0.0527
10 4.6E-06 5.6E-04 0.0026 0.0056 0.0088 0.0120 0.0150 0.0178 0.0203 0.0249 0.0287 0.0335 0.0374 0.0426 0.0467
11 3.4E-06 4.6E-04 0.0022 0.0048 0.0077 0.0105 0.0132 0.0156 0.0179 0.0220 0.0255 0.0299 0.0334 0.0382 0.0419
12 2.6E-06 3.8E-04 0.0019 0.0042 0.0067 0.0093 0.0117 0.0139 0.0160 0.0197 0.0229 0.0269 0.0302 0.0345 0.0379
13 2.0E-06 3.2E-04 0.0016 0.0037 0.0060 0.0083 0.0105 0.0125 0.0144 0.0178 0.0207 0.0244 0.0274 0.0315 0.0346
14 1.6E-06 2.8E-04 0.0014 0.0033 0.0054 0.0075 0.0095 0.0114 0.0131 0.0162 0.0189 0.0223 0.0251 0.0289 0.0318
15 1.3E-06 2.4E-04 0.0013 0.0029 0.0048 0.0068 0.0086 0.0104 0.0120 0.0149 0.0174 0.0206 0.0232 0.0267 0.0294
16 1.1E-06 2.1E-04 0.0011 0.0027 0.0044 0.0062 0.0079 0.0095 0.0110 0.0137 0.0161 0.0190 0.0215 0.0248 0.0273
17 8.8E-07 1.8E-04 0.0010 0.0024 0.0040 0.0057 0.0073 0.0088 0.0102 0.0127 0.0149 0.0177 0.0200 0.0231 0.0255
18 7.3E-07 1.6E-04 9.4E-04 0.0022 0.0037 0.0052 0.0067 0.0082 0.0095 0.0119 0.0139 0.0165 0.0187 0.0216 0.0239
19 6.2E-07 1.5E-04 8.5E-04 0.0020 0.0034 0.0049 0.0063 0.0076 0.0088 0.0111 0.0130 0.0155 0.0176 0.0203 0.0225
20 5.3E-07 1.3E-04 7.8E-04 0.0019 0.0032 0.0045 0.0058 0.0071 0.0083 0.0104 0.0123 0.0146 0.0166 0.0192 0.0213
21 4.6E-07 1.2E-04 7.2E-04 0.0017 0.0030 0.0042 0.0055 0.0067 0.0078 0.0098 0.0115 0.0138 0.0156 0.0181 0.0201
22 4.0E-07 1.1E-04 6.6E-04 0.0016 0.0028 0.0040 0.0051 0.0063 0.0073 0.0092 0.0109 0.0130 0.0148 0.0172 0.0191
23 3.5E-07 9.9E-05 6.2E-04 0.0015 0.0026 0.0037 0.0048 0.0059 0.0069 0.0087 0.0103 0.0124 0.0141 0.0164 0.0182
24 3.0E-07 9.1E-05 5.7E-04 0.0014 0.0024 0.0035 0.0046 0.0056 0.0066 0.0083 0.0098 0.0118 0.0134 0.0156 0.0173
25 2.7E-07 8.3E-05 5.3E-04 0.0013 0.0023 0.0033 0.0043 0.0053 0.0062 0.0079 0.0093 0.0112 0.0128 0.0149 0.0165
26 2.4E-07 7.7E-05 5.0E-04 0.0013 0.0022 0.0032 0.0041 0.0050 0.0059 0.0075 0.0089 0.0107 0.0122 0.0142 0.0158
27 2.1E-07 7.1E-05 4.7E-04 0.0012 0.0021 0.0030 0.0039 0.0048 0.0056 0.0072 0.0085 0.0102 0.0117 0.0136 0.0152
28 1.9E-07 6.6E-05 4.4E-04 0.0011 0.0020 0.0028 0.0037 0.0046 0.0054 0.0069 0.0082 0.0098 0.0112 0.0131 0.0146
29 1.7E-07 6.2E-05 4.1E-04 0.0011 0.0019 0.0027 0.0036 0.0044 0.0052 0.0066 0.0078 0.0094 0.0108 0.0126 0.0140
30 1.5E-07 5.8E-05 3.9E-04 0.0010 0.0018 0.0026 0.0034 0.0042 0.0049 0.0063 0.0075 0.0090 0.0103 0.0121 0.0135
31 1.4E-07 5.4E-05 3.7E-04 9.6E-04 0.0017 0.0025 0.0033 0.0040 0.0047 0.0061 0.0072 0.0087 0.0100 0.0117 0.0130
32 1.3E-07 5.0E-05 3.5E-04 9.1E-04 0.0016 0.0024 0.0031 0.0039 0.0045 0.0058 0.0069 0.0084 0.0096 0.0112 0.0125
33 1.1E-07 4.7E-05 3.3E-04 8.7E-04 0.0015 0.0023 0.0030 0.0037 0.0044 0.0056 0.0067 0.0081 0.0093 0.0109 0.0121
34 1.0E-07 4.5E-05 3.2E-04 8.3E-04 0.0015 0.0022 0.0029 0.0036 0.0042 0.0054 0.0065 0.0078 0.0089 0.0105 0.0117
35 9.6E-08 4.2E-05 3.0E-04 7.9E-04 0.0014 0.0021 0.0028 0.0034 0.0041 0.0052 0.0062 0.0075 0.0087 0.0102 0.0114
36 8.8E-08 4.0E-05 2.9E-04 7.6E-04 0.0014 0.0020 0.0027 0.0033 0.0039 0.0050 0.0060 0.0073 0.0084 0.0098 0.0110
37 8.1E-08 3.8E-05 2.7E-04 7.3E-04 0.0013 0.0019 0.0026 0.0032 0.0038 0.0049 0.0058 0.0071 0.0081 0.0095 0.0107

42
 38 7.5E-08 3.6E-05 2.6E-04 7.0E-04 0.0013 0.0019 0.0025 0.0031 0.0037 0.0047 0.0056 0.0069 0.0079 0.0093 0.0104
39 6.9E-08 3.4E-05 2.5E-04 6.7E-04 0.0012 0.0018 0.0024 0.0030 0.0035 0.0046 0.0055 0.0066 0.0076 0.0090 0.0101
40 6.4E-08 3.2E-05 2.4E-04 6.5E-04 0.0012 0.0017 0.0023 0.0029 0.0034 0.0044 0.0053 0.0065 0.0074 0.0087 0.0098
45 4.5E-08 2.5E-05 2.0E-04 5.4E-04 9.9E-04 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0038 0.0046 0.0056 0.0065 0.0076 0.0086
50 3.2E-08 2.0E-05 1.6E-04 4.6E-04 8.5E-04 0.0013 0.0017 0.0022 0.0026 0.0034 0.0041 0.0050 0.0057 0.0068 0.0076
55 2.4E-08 1.7E-05 1.4E-04 4.0E-04 7.4E-04 0.0011 0.0015 0.0019 0.0023 0.0030 0.0036 0.0044 0.0051 0.0061 0.0069
60 1.9E-08 1.4E-05 1.2E-04 3.5E-04 6.6E-04 0.0010 0.0014 0.0017 0.0021 0.0027 0.0033 0.0040 0.0047 0.0055 0.0062
65 1.5E-08 1.2E-05 1.1E-04 3.1E-04 5.9E-04 9.0E-04 0.0012 0.0015 0.0019 0.0024 0.0030 0.0037 0.0042 0.0051 0.0057
70 1.2E-08 1.0E-05 9.3E-05 2.8E-04 5.3E-04 8.1E-04 0.0011 0.0014 0.0017 0.0022 0.0027 0.0034 0.0039 0.0046 0.0053
75 9.5E-09 9.0E-06 8.3E-05 2.5E-04 4.8E-04 7.4E-04 0.0010 0.0013 0.0016 0.0021 0.0025 0.0031 0.0036 0.0043 0.0049
80 7.8E-09 7.9E-06 7.5E-05 2.3E-04 4.4E-04 6.8E-04 9.3E-04 0.0012 0.0014 0.0019 0.0023 0.0029 0.0033 0.0040 0.0045
90 5.5E-09 6.2E-06 6.1E-05 1.9E-04 3.7E-04 5.8E-04 8.0E-04 0.0010 0.0012 0.0016 0.0020 0.0025 0.0029 0.0035 0.0040
100 4.0E-09 5.1E-06 5.1E-05 1.6E-04 3.2E-04 5.0E-04 7.0E-04 8.9E-04 0.0011 0.0015 0.0018 0.0022 0.0026 0.0031 0.0035
120 2.3E-09 3.5E-06 3.8E-05 1.2E-04 2.5E-04 3.9E-04 5.5E-04 7.1E-04 8.6E-04 0.0012 0.0014 0.0018 0.0021 0.0025 0.0029
140 1.4E-09 2.6E-06 2.9E-05 9.7E-05 2.0E-04 3.2E-04 4.5E-04 5.8E-04 7.1E-04 9.7E-04 0.0012 0.0015 0.0018 0.0021 0.0024
160 9.7E-10 2.0E-06 2.3E-05 7.9E-05 1.6E-04 2.7E-04 3.8E-04 4.9E-04 6.0E-04 8.2E-04 0.0010 0.0013 0.0015 0.0018 0.0021
180 6.8E-10 1.6E-06 1.9E-05 6.6E-05 1.4E-04 2.3E-04 3.2E-04 4.2E-04 5.2E-04 7.1E-04 8.9E-04 0.0011 0.0013 0.0016 0.0019
200 4.9E-10 1.3E-06 1.6E-05 5.7E-05 1.2E-04 2.0E-04 2.8E-04 3.7E-04 4.6E-04 6.3E-04 7.8E-04 0.0010 0.0012 0.0014 0.0016
225 3.5E-10 9.9E-07 1.3E-05 4.7E-05 1.0E-04 1.7E-04 2.4E-04 3.2E-04 4.0E-04 5.4E-04 6.8E-04 8.7E-04 0.0010 0.0013 0.0014
250 2.5E-10 8.0E-07 1.1E-05 4.0E-05 8.7E-05 1.5E-04 2.1E-04 2.8E-04 3.5E-04 4.8E-04 6.0E-04 7.7E-04 9.2E-04 0.0011 0.0013
275 1.9E-10 6.6E-07 9.4E-06 3.5E-05 7.6E-05 1.3E-04 1.9E-04 2.5E-04 3.1E-04 4.3E-04 5.4E-04 6.9E-04 8.2E-04 0.0010 0.0012
300 1.5E-10 5.6E-07 8.2E-06 3.1E-05 6.8E-05 1.1E-04 1.7E-04 2.2E-04 2.8E-04 3.9E-04 4.9E-04 6.2E-04 7.5E-04 9.2E-04 0.0011
350 9.2E-11 4.1E-07 6.3E-06 2.4E-05 5.4E-05 9.3E-05 1.4E-04 1.8E-04 2.3E-04 3.2E-04 4.1E-04 5.2E-04 6.3E-04 7.7E-04 8.9E-04
400 6.2E-11 3.1E-07 5.1E-06 2.0E-05 4.5E-05 7.8E-05 1.1E-04 1.5E-04 1.9E-04 2.7E-04 3.5E-04 4.5E-04 5.4E-04 6.6E-04 7.7E-04
450 4.3E-11 2.5E-07 4.2E-06 1.7E-05 3.8E-05 6.6E-05 9.8E-05 1.3E-04 1.7E-04 2.4E-04 3.0E-04 3.9E-04 4.7E-04 5.8E-04 6.8E-04
500 3.2E-11 2.0E-07 3.5E-06 1.4E-05 3.3E-05 5.8E-05 8.6E-05 1.2E-04 1.5E-04 2.1E-04 2.7E-04 3.5E-04 4.2E-04 5.2E-04 6.0E-04
600 1.8E-11 1.4E-07 2.6E-06 1.1E-05 2.5E-05 4.5E-05 6.8E-05 9.2E-05 1.2E-04 1.7E-04 2.2E-04 2.8E-04 3.4E-04 4.2E-04 4.9E-04
700 1.1E-11 1.0E-07 2.0E-06 8.6E-06 2.1E-05 3.7E-05 5.5E-05 7.6E-05 9.7E-05 1.4E-04 1.8E-04 2.4E-04 2.9E-04 3.6E-04 4.2E-04
800 7.7E-12 7.8E-08 1.6E-06 7.0E-06 1.7E-05 3.1E-05 4.7E-05 6.4E-05 8.2E-05 1.2E-04 1.5E-04 2.0E-04 2.5E-04 3.1E-04 3.6E-04
900 5.4E-12 6.2E-08 1.3E-06 5.9E-06 1.4E-05 2.6E-05 4.0E-05 5.5E-05 7.1E-05 1.0E-04 1.3E-04 1.8E-04 2.2E-04 2.7E-04 3.2E-04
1000 3.9E-12 5.0E-08 1.1E-06 5.0E-06 1.2E-05 2.3E-05 3.5E-05 4.8E-05 6.2E-05 9.1E-05 1.2E-04 1.6E-04 1.9E-04 2.4E-04 2.8E-04
1500 1.2E-12 2.2E-08 5.6E-07 2.7E-06 7.0E-06 1.3E-05 2.1E-05 2.9E-05 3.8E-05 5.6E-05 7.4E-05 9.9E-05 1.2E-04 1.5E-04 1.8E-04
2000 4.9E-13 1.3E-08 3.4E-07 1.8E-06 4.7E-06 9.0E-06 1.4E-05 2.0E-05 2.7E-05 4.0E-05 5.3E-05 7.1E-05 8.8E-05 1.1E-04 1.3E-04
2500 2.5E-13 8.0E-09 2.4E-07 1.3E-06 3.4E-06 6.7E-06 1.1E-05 1.5E-05 2.0E-05 3.0E-05 4.1E-05 5.5E-05 6.8E-05 8.7E-05 1.0E-04
3000 1.5E-13 5.6E-09 1.8E-07 9.6E-07 2.7E-06 5.2E-06 8.4E-06 1.2E-05 1.6E-05 2.4E-05 3.3E-05 4.5E-05 5.6E-05 7.1E-05 8.5E-05
4000 6.1E-14 3.1E-09 1.1E-07 6.3E-07 1.8E-06 3.6E-06 5.8E-06 8.5E-06 1.1E-05 1.7E-05 2.3E-05 3.2E-05 4.0E-05 5.2E-05 6.2E-05
5000 3.1E-14 2.0E-09 7.5E-08 4.5E-07 1.3E-06 2.6E-06 4.4E-06 6.4E-06 8.6E-06 1.3E-05 1.8E-05 2.5E-05 3.1E-05 4.1E-05 4.9E-05
7500 9.3E-15 8.9E-10 3.8E-08 2.4E-07 7.4E-07 1.5E-06 2.6E-06 3.8E-06 5.2E-06 8.2E-06 1.1E-05 1.6E-05 2.0E-05 2.6E-05 3.1E-05
10⁴ 3.9E-15 5.0E-10 2.4E-08 1.6E-07 4.9E-07 1.0E-06 1.8E-06 2.7E-06 3.7E-06 5.8E-06 8.0E-06 1.1E-05 1.4E-05 1.9E-05 2.3E-05
∞ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

43
Appendix F-2 Lower limit critical values for G tests on balanced designs; 34 ≤ ν ≤ ∞;
ζ = 0.05: significance level α₁ = 0.05 for one-sided test and α₂ = 0.10 for two-sided test

Number of degrees of freedom per data set (ν)

L
34 39 49 59 79 99 119 149 199 299 499 999 2499 9999 ∞
2 0.3354 0.3459 0.3620 0.3740 0.3907 0.4022 0.4107 0.4201 0.4308 0.4435 0.4562 0.4690 0.4804 0.4902 0.5000
3 0.2030 0.2109 0.2231 0.2322 0.2452 0.2542 0.2608 0.2683 0.2768 0.2869 0.2972 0.3077 0.3171 0.3252 0.3333
4 0.1439 0.1502 0.1598 0.1671 0.1775 0.1848 0.1902 0.1962 0.2032 0.2115 0.2200 0.2286 0.2364 0.2432 0.2500
5 0.1108 0.1159 0.1239 0.1300 0.1386 0.1447 0.1492 0.1543 0.1602 0.1672 0.1744 0.1817 0.1884 0.1942 0.2000
6 0.0896 0.0940 0.1008 0.1060 0.1134 0.1187 0.1226 0.1269 0.1320 0.1381 0.1443 0.1507 0.1565 0.1616 0.1667
7 0.0751 0.0789 0.0848 0.0893 0.0958 0.1004 0.1038 0.1077 0.1121 0.1175 0.1230 0.1287 0.1338 0.1383 0.1429
8 0.0644 0.0678 0.0731 0.0771 0.0829 0.0869 0.0900 0.0934 0.0974 0.1022 0.1072 0.1123 0.1169 0.1209 0.1250
9 0.0563 0.0593 0.0641 0.0677 0.0729 0.0766 0.0794 0.0825 0.0861 0.0904 0.0949 0.0995 0.1037 0.1074 0.1111
10 0.0500 0.0527 0.0570 0.0603 0.0651 0.0684 0.0709 0.0738 0.0770 0.0810 0.0851 0.0894 0.0932 0.0966 0.1000
11 0.0449 0.0474 0.0513 0.0543 0.0587 0.0618 0.0641 0.0667 0.0697 0.0734 0.0772 0.0811 0.0846 0.0877 0.0909
12 0.0407 0.0430 0.0466 0.0494 0.0534 0.0563 0.0584 0.0608 0.0636 0.0671 0.0706 0.0742 0.0775 0.0804 0.0833
13 0.0372 0.0393 0.0427 0.0453 0.0490 0.0517 0.0537 0.0559 0.0585 0.0617 0.0650 0.0684 0.0715 0.0742 0.0769
14 0.0342 0.0362 0.0393 0.0417 0.0453 0.0477 0.0496 0.0517 0.0542 0.0571 0.0602 0.0634 0.0663 0.0688 0.0714
15 0.0317 0.0335 0.0365 0.0387 0.0420 0.0443 0.0461 0.0481 0.0504 0.0532 0.0561 0.0591 0.0618 0.0642 0.0667
16 0.0294 0.0312 0.0340 0.0361 0.0392 0.0414 0.0431 0.0449 0.0471 0.0498 0.0525 0.0553 0.0579 0.0602 0.0625
17 0.0275 0.0292 0.0318 0.0338 0.0367 0.0388 0.0404 0.0422 0.0442 0.0467 0.0493 0.0520 0.0545 0.0566 0.0588
18 0.0258 0.0274 0.0299 0.0318 0.0346 0.0365 0.0380 0.0397 0.0417 0.0441 0.0465 0.0491 0.0514 0.0535 0.0556
19 0.0243 0.0258 0.0281 0.0300 0.0326 0.0345 0.0359 0.0375 0.0394 0.0417 0.0440 0.0464 0.0487 0.0506 0.0526
20 0.0230 0.0244 0.0266 0.0283 0.0309 0.0327 0.0340 0.0355 0.0373 0.0395 0.0418 0.0441 0.0462 0.0481 0.0500
21 0.0217 0.0231 0.0252 0.0269 0.0293 0.0310 0.0323 0.0338 0.0355 0.0376 0.0397 0.0420 0.0440 0.0458 0.0476
22 0.0206 0.0219 0.0240 0.0256 0.0279 0.0295 0.0308 0.0322 0.0338 0.0358 0.0379 0.0400 0.0420 0.0437 0.0455
23 0.0196 0.0209 0.0229 0.0244 0.0266 0.0282 0.0294 0.0307 0.0323 0.0342 0.0362 0.0382 0.0401 0.0418 0.0435
24 0.0187 0.0199 0.0218 0.0233 0.0254 0.0269 0.0281 0.0294 0.0309 0.0327 0.0346 0.0366 0.0384 0.0400 0.0417
25 0.0179 0.0190 0.0209 0.0223 0.0243 0.0258 0.0269 0.0281 0.0296 0.0314 0.0332 0.0351 0.0369 0.0384 0.0400
26 0.0171 0.0182 0.0200 0.0213 0.0233 0.0247 0.0258 0.0270 0.0284 0.0301 0.0319 0.0338 0.0354 0.0369 0.0385
27 0.0164 0.0175 0.0192 0.0205 0.0224 0.0238 0.0248 0.0260 0.0273 0.0290 0.0307 0.0325 0.0341 0.0356 0.0370
28 0.0158 0.0168 0.0184 0.0197 0.0216 0.0229 0.0239 0.0250 0.0263 0.0279 0.0296 0.0313 0.0329 0.0343 0.0357
29 0.0152 0.0162 0.0178 0.0190 0.0208 0.0220 0.0230 0.0241 0.0254 0.0269 0.0285 0.0302 0.0317 0.0331 0.0345
30 0.0146 0.0156 0.0171 0.0183 0.0200 0.0213 0.0222 0.0232 0.0245 0.0260 0.0276 0.0292 0.0307 0.0320 0.0333
31 0.0141 0.0150 0.0165 0.0177 0.0193 0.0205 0.0214 0.0225 0.0237 0.0251 0.0267 0.0282 0.0297 0.0310 0.0323
32 0.0136 0.0145 0.0160 0.0171 0.0187 0.0199 0.0207 0.0217 0.0229 0.0243 0.0258 0.0273 0.0287 0.0300 0.0313
33 0.0132 0.0140 0.0154 0.0165 0.0181 0.0192 0.0201 0.0210 0.0222 0.0236 0.0250 0.0265 0.0279 0.0291 0.0303
34 0.0127 0.0136 0.0149 0.0160 0.0175 0.0186 0.0195 0.0204 0.0215 0.0228 0.0242 0.0257 0.0270 0.0282 0.0294
35 0.0123 0.0132 0.0145 0.0155 0.0170 0.0181 0.0189 0.0198 0.0209 0.0222 0.0235 0.0250 0.0263 0.0274 0.0286
36 0.0120 0.0128 0.0140 0.0150 0.0165 0.0175 0.0183 0.0192 0.0203 0.0215 0.0229 0.0243 0.0255 0.0266 0.0278
37 0.0116 0.0124 0.0136 0.0146 0.0160 0.0170 0.0178 0.0187 0.0197 0.0209 0.0222 0.0236 0.0248 0.0259 0.0270
38 0.0113 0.0120 0.0132 0.0142 0.0156 0.0166 0.0173 0.0182 0.0192 0.0204 0.0216 0.0230 0.0242 0.0252 0.0263
39 0.0109 0.0117 0.0129 0.0138 0.0151 0.0161 0.0168 0.0177 0.0186 0.0198 0.0211 0.0224 0.0235 0.0246 0.0256
40 0.0106 0.0114 0.0125 0.0134 0.0147 0.0157 0.0164 0.0172 0.0182 0.0193 0.0205 0.0218 0.0229 0.0240 0.0250
45 0.0093 0.0100 0.0110 0.0118 0.0130 0.0139 0.0145 0.0152 0.0161 0.0171 0.0182 0.0193 0.0204 0.0213 0.0222
50 0.0083 0.0089 0.0098 0.0106 0.0116 0.0124 0.0130 0.0136 0.0144 0.0154 0.0163 0.0174 0.0183 0.0191 0.0200
55 0.0075 0.0080 0.0089 0.0095 0.0105 0.0112 0.0117 0.0124 0.0131 0.0139 0.0148 0.0158 0.0166 0.0174 0.0182

44
 60 0.0068 0.0073 0.0081 0.0087 0.0096 0.0102 0.0107 0.0113 0.0119 0.0127 0.0136 0.0144 0.0152 0.0159 0.0167
65 0.0062 0.0067 0.0074 0.0080 0.0088 0.0094 0.0099 0.0104 0.0110 0.0117 0.0125 0.0133 0.0141 0.0147 0.0154
70 0.0057 0.0062 0.0068 0.0074 0.0081 0.0087 0.0091 0.0096 0.0102 0.0109 0.0116 0.0123 0.0130 0.0137 0.0143
75 0.0053 0.0057 0.0064 0.0068 0.0076 0.0081 0.0085 0.0089 0.0095 0.0101 0.0108 0.0115 0.0122 0.0127 0.0133
80 0.0050 0.0053 0.0059 0.0064 0.0071 0.0076 0.0079 0.0084 0.0089 0.0095 0.0101 0.0108 0.0114 0.0119 0.0125
90 0.0044 0.0047 0.0052 0.0056 0.0062 0.0067 0.0070 0.0074 0.0078 0.0084 0.0090 0.0096 0.0101 0.0106 0.0111
100 0.0039 0.0042 0.0047 0.0050 0.0056 0.0060 0.0063 0.0066 0.0070 0.0075 0.0081 0.0086 0.0091 0.0095 0.0100
120 0.0032 0.0034 0.0038 0.0041 0.0046 0.0049 0.0052 0.0055 0.0058 0.0062 0.0067 0.0071 0.0076 0.0079 0.0083
140 0.0027 0.0029 0.0032 0.0035 0.0039 0.0042 0.0044 0.0047 0.0050 0.0053 0.0057 0.0061 0.0065 0.0068 0.0071
160 0.0023 0.0025 0.0028 0.0031 0.0034 0.0037 0.0039 0.0041 0.0043 0.0047 0.0050 0.0053 0.0057 0.0060 0.0063
180 0.0020 0.0022 0.0025 0.0027 0.0030 0.0032 0.0034 0.0036 0.0038 0.0041 0.0044 0.0047 0.0050 0.0053 0.0056
200 0.0018 0.0020 0.0022 0.0024 0.0027 0.0029 0.0031 0.0032 0.0034 0.0037 0.0040 0.0043 0.0045 0.0048 0.0050
225 0.0016 0.0017 0.0020 0.0021 0.0024 0.0026 0.0027 0.0029 0.0030 0.0033 0.0035 0.0038 0.0040 0.0042 0.0044
250 0.0014 0.0016 0.0017 0.0019 0.0021 0.0023 0.0024 0.0026 0.0027 0.0029 0.0032 0.0034 0.0036 0.0038 0.0040
275 0.0013 0.0014 0.0016 0.0017 0.0019 0.0021 0.0022 0.0023 0.0025 0.0027 0.0029 0.0031 0.0033 0.0035 0.0036
300 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0016 0.0018 0.0019 0.0020 0.0021 0.0023 0.0024 0.0026 0.0028 0.0030 0.0032 0.0033
350 9.9E-04 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0015 0.0016 0.0017 0.0018 0.0019 0.0021 0.0022 0.0024 0.0026 0.0027 0.0029
400 8.6E-04 9.3E-04 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0015 0.0016 0.0017 0.0018 0.0020 0.0021 0.0022 0.0024 0.0025
450 7.5E-04 8.2E-04 9.3E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0015 0.0016 0.0017 0.0019 0.0020 0.0021 0.0022
500 6.7E-04 7.3E-04 8.3E-04 9.1E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0013 0.0014 0.0016 0.0017 0.0018 0.0019 0.0020
600 5.5E-04 6.0E-04 6.9E-04 7.5E-04 8.5E-04 9.2E-04 9.7E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0015 0.0016 0.0017
700 4.7E-04 5.1E-04 5.8E-04 6.4E-04 7.2E-04 7.8E-04 8.3E-04 8.8E-04 9.5E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0014
800 4.0E-04 4.4E-04 5.0E-04 5.5E-04 6.3E-04 6.8E-04 7.2E-04 7.7E-04 8.3E-04 9.0E-04 9.7E-04 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013
900 3.6E-04 3.9E-04 4.4E-04 4.9E-04 5.5E-04 6.0E-04 6.4E-04 6.8E-04 7.3E-04 7.9E-04 8.6E-04 9.3E-04 9.9E-04 0.0011 0.0011
1000 3.2E-04 3.5E-04 4.0E-04 4.4E-04 5.0E-04 5.4E-04 5.7E-04 6.1E-04 6.6E-04 7.1E-04 7.7E-04 8.4E-04 8.9E-04 9.5E-04 0.0010
1500 2.0E-04 2.2E-04 2.6E-04 2.8E-04 3.2E-04 3.5E-04 3.8E-04 4.0E-04 4.3E-04 4.7E-04 5.1E-04 5.5E-04 5.9E-04 6.3E-04 6.7E-04
2000 1.5E-04 1.7E-04 1.9E-04 2.1E-04 2.4E-04 2.6E-04 2.8E-04 3.0E-04 3.2E-04 3.5E-04 3.8E-04 4.1E-04 4.4E-04 4.7E-04 5.0E-04
2500 1.2E-04 1.3E-04 1.5E-04 1.7E-04 1.9E-04 2.1E-04 2.2E-04 2.4E-04 2.6E-04 2.8E-04 3.0E-04 3.3E-04 3.6E-04 3.8E-04 4.0E-04
3000 9.7E-05 1.1E-04 1.2E-04 1.4E-04 1.6E-04 1.7E-04 1.8E-04 2.0E-04 2.1E-04 2.3E-04 2.5E-04 2.8E-04 3.0E-04 3.1E-04 3.3E-04
4000 7.1E-05 7.8E-05 9.1E-05 1.0E-04 1.2E-04 1.3E-04 1.4E-04 1.5E-04 1.6E-04 1.7E-04 1.9E-04 2.1E-04 2.2E-04 2.4E-04 2.5E-04
5000 5.6E-05 6.2E-05 7.2E-05 8.0E-05 9.2E-05 1.0E-04 1.1E-04 1.2E-04 1.3E-04 1.4E-04 1.5E-04 1.6E-04 1.8E-04 1.9E-04 2.0E-04
7500 3.6E-05 4.0E-05 4.7E-05 5.2E-05 6.0E-05 6.6E-05 7.1E-05 7.6E-05 8.3E-05 9.1E-05 1.0E-04 1.1E-04 1.2E-04 1.3E-04 1.3E-04
10⁴ 2.6E-05 2.9E-05 3.4E-05 3.8E-05 4.5E-05 4.9E-05 5.3E-05 5.7E-05 6.2E-05 6.8E-05 7.4E-05 8.1E-05 8.8E-05 9.4E-05 1.0E-04
∞ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

45

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