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Formelsammlung Nonlinear Dynamics
Formelsammlung Nonlinear Dynamics
Formelsammlung Nonlinear Dynamics
fork Bifurcation (Forward bifu., phase transition of 2nd order, soft bifu., safe 4.2 Nonuniform Oscillator
by Michael Garstka bifu.) • θ̇ = ω − a sin(θ) (here: a ≥ 0, ω ≥ 0) (Phase changes non-uniformally)
2 1D Problems • Normal form: ẋ = rx − x 3
(invariant: x ←→ −x, left-right-symmetry) • a < ω: Phase takes long through bottleneck π 2
, speeds up afterwards.
√ • a = ω: Systems stops oscillating at new half-stable f.p θ = π (S-N-B)
2.1 Flows on the line • Stable f.p. becomes unstable and two new stable f.p x∗ = ± r appear. 2
• Draw function ẋ = f (x). Get Fixed points by: f (x∗ ) = 0. • Cubic term is stabilizing.
• a > ω: Half-stable f.p. splits into a stable and unstable f.p.
• Complicated functions can be separately drawn: ẋ = x − cos(x).
• x − t-Plot: Pay attention to curvature!
2.2 Linear Stability Analysis (Linearization about stable fixed points)
• To gain quantitative information at a stable fixed point (e.g. rate of decay).
→
→ η(t) = x(t) − x? ⇒ η̇ = ẋ = f (x) = f (x? + η)
→ Taylor expansion: f (x∗ + η) = f (x∗ ) + ηf 0 (x∗ ) + O(η 2 ). → η̇ ≈ ηf 0 (x∗ )
⇒ If f 0 (x∗ ) < 0 the fixed point is stable. (If f 0 (x∗ ) = 0 nothing can be said)
• Measure of stability: characteristic time scale: 1 .
|f 0 (x∗ )| 3.3.2 Subcritical Pitchfork Bifurcation (Inverse bifu., backward bifu., phase transition of 1st order,
hard bifu., dangerous bifu.)
2.3 Existence and Uniqueness
3
• Theorem: If solution is smooth enough (f (x) and f 0 (x) continuous on open • Normal form: ẋ = rx + x
√
interval R of the x-axis and x0 ∈ R), then there exists a unique solution x(t) • Unstable f.p. becomes stable and two new unstable f.p x∗ = ± −r appear
for r ↓.
in time interval (−τ, τ ) around t0 . (C-Ex.: ẋ = x1/3 .)
• Cubic term is destabilizing. Helps r > 0 in driving the system to ±∞ → blow
• Blow Up: Solutions reach infinity in finite time. (e.g. x(t) = tan(t)) up.
2.4 Impossibility of Oscillations for ẋ = f (x)
• All traj. approach f.p. or ±∞ (phase point can’t reverse directions, no oscil-
dt = 02π dθdt dθ = R 2π dθ = ... = q 2π
RR
• Oscillation Period: T = 0 .
lations). ω−a sin(θ)
ω 2 −a2
√
π 2 √ 1
2.5 Potentials • Square-root-scaling law: T ≈ √ .
ω ω−a
• Particle is sliding down the walls of a potential well
• Bottleneck: very slow passage
• ẋ = f (x) = − dV
dx • Stabilizing terms needed: ẋ = rx + x3 − x5 . (Jumps and Hysterisis) • Ghost: a former saddle-node (a slightly < ω) that leads to bottleneck → traj.
• V (t) decreases along trajectories → particle always moves to lower potential • rs < r < 0 : two different stable states coexist (origin and large-amplitude needs most of its time through this point.
dV = dV · dx = −ẋẋ = −|ẋ|2 < 0 fixed points)
dt dx dt
• local minima of V (x) = stable f.p., local maxima of V (x) = unstable f.p. • initial condition x0 determines which fixed point is approached as t → ∞
• origin is only locally stable
2.6 Examples
• Jumps and hysteresis: start at x∗ = 0 → increase r → state remains at 0 until
• RC-Circuit, Population Growth r = 0 → slightest pertub. will cause state to jump to high-amplitude branches
3 Bifurcations
and stays there as r is increased
• Bifurcation: Qualitative change in dynamics as parameters change. (f.p. • if r is decreased the state stays on the branches, only if r < rs the state jumps
created/destroyed, stability changes) back to the origin 4.3 Example: Overdamped Pendulum
• Parameter values at which bifurcation occurs: bifurcation points. • lack of reversibility: Hysteresis 2
• mL θ̈ + bθ̇ + mgL sin(θ) = Γ (constant torque: Γ)
• Word Meaning: Splitting into two branches. • The bifurcation at rs is a saddle-node-bifurcation. b θ̇ =
• Consider large b to approximate: bθ̇ + mgL sin(θ) = Γ ⇔ mgL Γ −
mgL
• Bifurcation Diagram: Sometimes its easier to see x∗ as the independent va- mgL Γ dθ 0
riable for drawing. 3.4 Imperfect Bifurcation sin(θ) → Non-Dimensionalize: τ = b
t, γ = mgL ⇒ dτ = θ = γ − sin(θ).
• Slight imperfections lead to loss of symmetry.
– γ > 1: Torque can’t be balanced by gravity and pendulum overturns conti-
3.1 Saddle-Node-Bifurcation (Blue-sky-bifu., fold bifu., turning-point bifu.) • Example: ẋ = h+rx−x3 (h=0: normal superc. pitchfork), symmetry is broken nually (nonuniform).
• Fixed points are created/destroyed. for h 6= 0 (Imperfection parameter) – γ = 1: fixed point appears at π 2
.
– γ < 1: fixed points splits into two (lower one is stable).
• Ex: ẋ = r + x2 • plot y = rx − x3 and y = −h → intersection points=fixed points – γ = 0: unstable equilibrium at top and stable equilibrium at the bottom.
• r ≤ 0 : one fixed point r > 0 : 2,3 intersections possible, depending on value 4.4 Synchronization (Fireflies)
of h Model
• critical case if horizontal line is tangent → S-N-B. • θ(t): phase of firefly’s flashing rhythm (θ = 0 instant of the flash)
• Bifurcation diagram (h 6= 0): as r is increased from negative values → no sharp • θ̇ = ω: eigenfrequency of single fly, θ̇ = Ω: eigenfrequency of swarm.
transition at r = 0, instead fixed point glides smoothly along upper branch → • θ̇ = ω + A · sin(Θ − θ) with A : resetting strength
lower branch of f.p. only accessible via a large disturbance. → catastrophe
• For example, if Θ is ahead of θ the firefly speeds up (θ̇ > ω).
Analysis
• Phase difference: φ = Θ − θ, Velocity difference: φ̇ = Θ̇ − θ̇ = Ω − ω − A sin(φ)
• Normal forms: Prototypical examples for S-N-B. ẋ = a(r − rc ) + b(x − x∗ )2 • Nondimensionalize: τ = At, µ = Ω−ω (µ : ⇒ dφ = φ0 = µ − sin(φ).
(reason: we need 2 nearby roots of f (x), f (x) needs bowl-shape) A dτ
• Different cases for µ ≥ 0:
3.2 Transcritical Bifurcation – µ = 0: Synchronization without phase difference (s.f.p.: φ∗ = 0)
– 0 < µ < 1: Synchronization w/ phase difference (phase lock, s.f.p.: φ∗ > 0)
• Fixed point is not destroyed, but changes stability → Normal form: ẋ = rx−x2 – µ = 1 S-N-B and µ > 1: No synchronization (phase drift, φ increases cont.)
• Example: Laser Threshold: ṅ = (GN0 − k)n − (αG)n2
4 Flows on the Circle (1D)
• Vector field on the circle: θ̇ = f (θ) with θ : point on the circle., f (θ): real-
valued-2π-periodic function.
• Definition: A rule that assigns a unique velocity vector to every point on the
circle.
• New Property: Flowing particle can return to starting point (periodic solutions
/ oscillations are possible)
1
5 Linear Systems (2D) – Robust cases:
h i
• A two-dimensional linear system: ẋ = Ax with x = x
y ,A = a b 1. Sources / Repellers: Re(λ1 ) > 0, Re(λ2 ) > 0.
c d
• Linear system: If x1 and x2 are solutions, then x3 = c1 x1 +c2 x2 is a solution. 2. Sinks / Attractors: Re(λ1 ) < 0, Re(λ2 ) < 0.
• x∗ = 0 is always a fixed point for any choice of A. 3. Saddles: Re(λ1 ) > 0, Re(λ2 ) < 0.
• Phase portrait: Trajectories moving in the phase plane. – Limit cases (at least one eigenvalue has Re(λ) = 0):
h i 1. Centers (both eigenvalues purely imaginary)
• Example: ẋ = Ax, A = a 0
0 at
−1 ⇒ x(t) = x0 e , ẏ = y0 e
−t
2. Higher-order and non-isolated f.p.
• a < −1: x(t) decays faster than y(t) → the trajectories approach the origin
tangent to the slower (here: y-) direction. x∗ = 0 is a stable node. • Hartman-Grobman-Theorem: The local phase portrait near a hyperbolic
fixed point (Re(λi ) 6= 0) is topologically equivalent to the phase portrait of
y(t) y
• a = −1: x(t) = x0 = const.. x∗ is called a symmetrical node or star. the linearization.
0
• Basin of Attraction: Set of x0 , s.t. x(t) → x∗ as t → ∞. (Region in ph.
• −1 < a < 0 : trajectories approach x∗ from the slower x-direction.
plane)
• a = 0: → x(t) = x0 , one gets a line of fixed points along x-axis.
p
• λ1,2 = 1
2
τ ± τ 2 − 4∆ with τ = tr(A) = λ1 + λ2 and ∆ = det(A) =
• a > 0 : x∗ becomes unstable, due to exponential growth in x- λ1 · λ2 Drawing Rules
direction.Trajectories go to infinity. Exception: If they start on the y-axis. • Saddle point: ∆ < 0 ⇒ λ1 > 0, λ2 < 0. • Indicate f.p. and draw some traj. going in/out tangent to slow eigenvector.
x∗ is called a saddle point/hyperbolic fixed point.
• Fixed points: ∆ > 0, τ < 0 (attracting), ∆ > 0, τ > 0 (repelling) • Connect all lines, so that picture makes sense.
∗
– Stable manifold of the saddle point. (Set of x0 : x(t) → x as → +∞)(y)
– Unstable manifold of x∗ (Set of x0 : x(t) → x∗ as → −∞)(x-axis) – Nodes: τ 2 − 4∆ > 0, Real roots and λ1 , λ2 same sign • Nullclines (2D): Lines with ẋ = 0 or ẏ = 0. Use other eq. for vector direction.
– Spirals: τ 2 − 4∆ < 0, Complex conjugate λ’s.
• Centers: τ 2
− 4∆ < 0 and ∆ > 0, τ = 0 ⇒ λ = ±iω (WARNING n.l. sys.!) • Indicate Basin of Attraction (often stable/unstable manif. of saddle serves as
basin boundary)
• Stars and degenerate nodes: τ 2 − 4∆ > 0
• Non-isolated f.p.: ∆ = 0 (line or plane of f.p.)
6.2 Conservative Systems
6 Dynamics in the Phase Plane (Nonlinear 2D) • There exists a conserved quantity, i.e. a quantity that is const. along trajec-
• General form of a vector field in phase plane: ẋ = f (x). By flowing along tories. (ẋ = f (x), ∃ a function E(x) s.t. dE
dt
= 0 on all trajectories.)
the vector field, a phase point traces out a solution x(t), corresponding to a
trajectory. • mẍ = F (x) (F 6= F (t, ẋ), i.e. no damping or time-dependent driving force)
– λ1 = λ2 = λ: 6.3 Reversible Systems (Dynamics looks the same whether time runs forward or bachward)
• Definition: Any 2nd-order system that is invariant under t → −t and y → −y.
∗ Case 1: Distinct eigenvectors, that span the whole plane, so every vec-
(e.g. ẋ = f (x, y), ẏ = g(x, y) with f odd in y and g even in y). More general:
tor can be composed by them → all trajectories are straight lines to the
origin, f.p. is a star node. ẋ = f (x) is reversible if it’s invariant under t → −t, x → R(x), where the
∗ Case 2: λ = 0 → The whole plane is filled with fixed points. mapping satisfies R(x)2 = x.
∗ Case 3: Only one eigenvector. The fixed point is a degenerate node.
∗ Intuition: Ordinary node → Two eigendirections get scissored together. • Structural Stabilty (Topology of phase-portrait is robust against small per- • Reversible sys. have many of the same properties as conservative sys., e.g.
→ Borderline between spiral and node. turb.) centers are robust in reversible sys. as well.
2
6.4 Pendulum Lyapunov Functions 8.3 Hopf Bifurcations
2
• Equation of motion: d 2θ + L g p
sin θ = 0 Set ω = g/L and τ = ωt → Nondi- • Theorem: If for a given system ẋ = f (x) with fixed point at x∗ a Lyapunov • Fixed point changes stability, b/c both complex conjugate eigenvalues cross
dt function exists, then x∗ is gl. asympt. stable and closed orbits aren’t possible. the Im-Axis into the right half plane. (for dimensions n ≥ 2)
mensionalize: θ̈ + sin θ = 0 → θ̇ = ν, ν̇ = − sin θ. • A Lyapunov function has the following properties: • You cant use linearization to distinguish between subcr. and supercr. bifu.
• F.P.: (θ ∗ , ν ∗ = (kπ, 0) (centers), (θ ∗ , ν ∗ = (0, 0) (saddle) 1. V (x) > 0 for all x 6= x∗ , and V (x∗ ) = 0 (V is positive definite.).
8.3.1 Supercritical Hopf Bifurcation (soft, continuous, safe)
• A stable spiral changes into an unstable spiral surrounded by a small nearly
• Energy: E = 1 θ̇ 2 − cos θ. from:(θ̇(θ̈ + sin θ) = 0) ∗ ∗
2 2. V̇ < 0 for all x 6= x (All trajectories flow „downhill“ toward x ). elliptical limit cycle when control-parameter µ is changed. (or vice versa)
• Intuition: All trajectories move monotonically down the graph of V (x) to- • Example: ṙ = µr − r 3 , θ̇ = ω + br 2
wards x∗ . The solution can’t get stuck anywhere else, b/c then V wouldn’t
change.
7.2 Poincaré-Bendixson Theorem (To proof Existence of Closed Orbits)
• In 2D systems, you can’t have something more complicated then a fixed-point
or a closed orbit (chaos is not possible in 2D).
3
8.5 Coupled Oscillators and Quasiperiodicity 9.3 Chaos on a Strange Attractor 11.2.2 Similarity Dimension (for self-similar fractals)
• New 2D-Phase-Space: Torus. Natural phase space for systems: θ̇1 = • Plots for system and r > rH
f1 (θ1 , θ2 ), θ̇2 = f2 (θ1 , θ2 ), where f is a periodic function.
• Ex.: Coupled oscillators: θ̇1 = ω1 +K1 sin(θ2 −θ1 ), θ̇2 = ω2 +K2 sin(θ1 −θ2 )
• Visualize on torus or on a square with periodic boundary conditions: