Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 6 (2021) 100237

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Journal of Agriculture and Food Research

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Yield, nutrient uptake, and economic return of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) in
calcareous soil as affected by compost types
M.W. Bezabeh a, b, *, M.H. Hailemariam b, T.A. Sogn a, S. Eich-Greatorex a
a
Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway
b
College of Dryland Agriculture and Natural Resource Management, Mekelle University, Ethiopia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Compost application is a promising approach to improve soil fertility and the sustainability of plant production,
Effective microorganisms but different types of compost may vary in their efficiency. A field experiment was carried out to evaluate the
Vermicompost effect of traditional compost, vermicompost, and material composted with additional effective microorganisms
Traditional compost
(EM) on faba bean yield and related properties. The compost treatments were applied at three nitrogen levels
Faba bean yield
Nutrient uptake
(18, 27, and 36 kg ha− 1) and compared to mineral fertilizer alone or in combination with compost in a two-factor
Partial budget analysis randomized complete block design with four replicates. The economic effects of the different composts were
assessed using partial budget analysis.
All three composts resulted in significantly higher grain and biomass yields, as well as nutrient uptake into
grain compared to mineral fertilizer. This was reflected in a higher number of nodules and higher residual soil
nitrogen in the compost treatments. However, EM and vermicompost were most efficient, with a yield of
approximately 3.6 and 3.45 t ha − 1, respectively, compared to traditional compost with a yield of 3.1 t. Similar
results were found for other investigated properties. The economic analysis revealed that EM compost appli­
cation at medium and high nitrogen rates was the most profitable among the treatments, with marginal rates of
return varying between approximately 790 and 2800%.

1. Introduction
Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) is a major leguminous crop grown world­
wide. Production worldwide amounts to 4.8 Mio t yr− 1, with China as
the biggest producer (1.8 Mio t yr− 1), followed by Ethiopia (0.9 Mio t
yr− 1), Australia (0.4 Mio t yr− 1), and the United Kingdom (0.3 Mio t per
yr− 1) [1]. In Ethiopia, the largest faba bean-producing country in Africa,
has a significant role as a cheap protein source and cash crop. In addi­
tion, due to N fixation under legumes, the yield of subsequent cereal
crops can improve food security [2]. However, average yields in the
country in general (2.2 t ha− 1 in 2019/2020) and in the study area
Tigray in particular (1.7 t ha− 1 in 2019/2020) are still low [3] and below
the world average (8.7 t ha− 1 in 2019/2020) [1].
Ethiopia has a potential expansion area for faba bean production of
2.3 Mio ha [4], which includes soils of calcareous nature. Soils with
more than 10% CaCO3 are considered problematic for agricultural
production [5]. Because of the high pH (>7) and the CaCO3 content of
calcareous soils, important soil nutrients, such as N, P, S, Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn,
and B, often remain limited to plants [6]. Generally, in alkaline soils,
nitrogen is easily lost from the soil due to ammonia volatilization; this
problem is aggravated in the presence of CaCO3 in calcareous soil. Both
native and applied P remain adsorbed on clay minerals and CaCO3
surfaces and precipitate as calcium phosphates in calcareous soils. Thus,
P availability to plants in this type of soil is a significant problem. In
light-textured calcareous soils, leaching losses of SO4–S may occur. Due
to the high pH, lower solubility of micronutrients such as Zn, Fe, Cu, and
Mn results in deficiencies in plants. Calcareous soils are generally low in
organic matter [7,8], which is necessary for adequate soil functioning as
agricultural land. Therefore, crop productivity under these conditions
may be limited [7].
Thus, poor soil fertility management and soil fertility decline,
together with erratic rainfall, disease occurrence, parasitic weeds, and
lack of well-yielding varieties, are major limitations for faba bean pro­
ductivity in Ethiopia [9]. Mineral fertilizers have improved yields by
only 10% since the 1980s [10] because many resource-poor farmers
apply little or no fertilizer due to high costs. Furthermore, long-term,
and improper application of mineral fertilizers may also degrade soil
quality and cause ecological problems.

* Corresponding author. Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway.
E-mail address: merkeb.bezabeh@nmbu.no (M.W. Bezabeh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2021.100237
Received 21 January 2021; Received in revised form 1 November 2021; Accepted 11 November 2021
Available online 18 November 2021
2666-1543/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M.W. Bezabeh et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 6 (2021) 100237

Previous studies have indicated that organic fertilizers may be better Rhodobacter sphaeroides), lactobacilli (Lactobacillus plantarum, L. casei,
suited than mineral fertilizers to increase the sustainability of agricul­ and Streptococcus lactis), yeasts (Saccharomyces spp.), and Actinomycetes
ture. In general, organic fertilizers add organic matter, including nu­ (Streptomyces spp) [26]. For the vermicompost, the compost material
trients, which can improve soil biological properties, optimize soil was mixed, filled into containers, and earthworms were allowed to move
microbial community structure, enhance soil physical properties, and freely into the mixture from a container below. The earthworm species
thereby increase crop production [11–13]. Composts of plant residues used for the preparation of vermicompost were Eisenia faecida, and 1 kg
are inexpensive organic fertilizers that have traditionally been used in of earthworms was added to 2 m3 compost material [27].
many areas. Recently, the method of vermicomposting or the addition of
special beneficial microorganisms (EM) to improve compost products 2.2. Field experiment
has gained importance. Vermicompost has been shown to improve the
production of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) [14] and faba bean The field experiment was conducted under rain-fed conditions near
[15]. Another study showed that vermicompost tea applied as a foliar the village of Debrebrhan, Ayninbirkekin municipality. The Ayninbir­
fertilizer improved growth and yield quality in faba bean [16]. Simi­ kekin municipality lies in the southeastern part of the district (woreda)
larly, compost with EM addition can significantly increase tomato and Dogu’a Tembien in Tigray, located at 13◦ 40′ N and 39◦ 14′ E. The alti­
corn production [17]. In a field experiment conducted in China, compost tude of the study site was 2360 m above sea level. The study site belongs
with EM significantly increased wheat production compared to the use to the Antalo Limestone geological group, and the soil was classified as
of compost without EM [18]. Several studies suggest that application of Calcaric Vertisol [28]. Selected properties of the soil at the experimental
nitrogen as a fertilizer for the initial phase, before N fixation is well site are presented in Table 1. The soil textural class of the study area is
established, increases plant growth and yield of legumes in poor soils. clay. The bulk density of the soil was well below the critical value, at
Argaw and Mnalku [19] recommended 50 kg N ha− 1 for soyabean in which root penetration is likely to be severely restricted in clay (1.47 g
Pakistan, Youseif et al. [20] 48 kg N ha− 1 for faba bean on sandy soils in cm− 3) [29]. The soil was slightly alkaline, with a moderate content of
Egypt, Adak and Kibritci [21] 60 kg N ha− 1 combined with 40 kg P ha− 1 soil organic carbon. Soil nitrogen, available phosphorus [30] and
for faba bean in Turkey. For faba bean, field pea, dekeko, or lentil in sulphur [31] contents were generally in the low range (Table 2).
northern Tigray, Ethiopia Mesfin et al. [22] used 20 kg N ha− 1 in The Dogu’a Tembien district received a mean annual rainfall of 684
combination with 20 kg P ha− 1. On the other hand, some authors have mm and an average relative humidity of approximately 22% from 2003
reported that the addition of starter nitrogen inhibits nitrogenase ac­ to 2018. The average annual temperature during this period was
tivity, as well as root infection and nodule development in legumes, for 17.3 ◦ C, with a minimum of 11.4 ◦ C and a maximum of 23.2 ◦ C at the
example, in common bean under irrigation [23], soybean in north­ experimental site. Precipitation in the weeks before and during the
western Ethiopia [24], and peanut production under irrigation in growing season was measured daily using a manual rain gauge. From 3rd
Ethiopia [19]. However, as starter nitrogen can increase yields, nitrogen July (sowing date) to October 14, 2018 (harvest), precipitation was 560
fertilization in the form of organic fertilizers such as compost may pre­ mm, with approximately 95% falling in July and August (Fig. 1).
sent a way to improve legume production at a lower cost for poor The experimental site was a homogeneous, flat area that was fenced
farmers, and with an additional potential benefit of improved long-term in to control external effects. The experimental design was a randomized
yields due to increased soil fertility. Therefore, this study aimed to complete block design (RCBD) with 16 fertilization treatments per block
evaluate the effects of different compost types, i.e., traditional compost, and four blocks as replicates. The experiment consisted of the following
vermicompost, and EM compost, as fertilizers on yield and related pa­ treatments: traditional compost, compost with effective microorganisms
rameters in faba bean. As alternative uses of residual biomass and eco­ (EM compost), vermicompost and mineral fertilizer. Each fertilizer was
nomic considerations are important for farmers, the study also attempts applied at three levels of nitrogen, i.e., 18, 27, and 36 kg ha− 1, respec­
to evaluate the use of different composts economically. tively. In addition, a combination of each compost type (at a rate of 18
kg N ha− 1) with mineral fertilizer (at a rate of 18 kg N ha− 1) was
2. Materials and methods included, as well as a control without fertilizer (Table 1,Fig. 2).
According to Ahmadi et al. [32], for optimum faba bean yields, soils
2.1. Compost preparation must be capable of delivering the following amounts of nutrients per ha:
40 kg nitrogen (N), 4 kg phosphorus (P), sulphur 1.5 kg (S), and 28 kg
A field experiment was carried out with different types of compost zinc (Zn). The mineral fertilizer used for the experiment was a blended
and faba bean as test crops. The compost types used in the experiment
were traditional compost, compost with effective microorganisms (EM
Table 1
compost), and vermicompost. They were all prepared at Woukro St. List of treatments in the field experiment.
Mary College, Tigray, in the months before the field experiment. The
Treatment Fertilizer type Nitrogen level (kg
raw materials used for the preparation of the composts were the same for ha1)
all three types: dry grass and straw (40%), fresh plant residues mainly
T1 No 0
from vegetable and fruit production (40%), cow manure (10%), ash
T2 Mineral fertilizer (NPSZ + urea) 18
from wood-burning stoves and bonfire (5%), and soil (5%). The material T3 Mineral fertilizer (NPSZ + urea) 27
was composted for three months, in soil pits for the traditional compost T4 Mineral fertilizer (NPSZ + urea) 36
[25] and EM compost and mixed every two weeks, and in containers for T5 Traditional compost 18
the vermicompost. For EM compost preparation, effective microorgan­ T6 Traditional compost 27
T7 Traditional compost 36
isms were added at the start of the composting process in addition to the T8 Vermicompost 18
above-mentioned materials by spreading an EM solution over the T9 Vermicompost 27
compost material. The EM solution was obtained by mixing purchased T10 Vermicompost 36
EM-1 solution with molasses and diluting the mixture with water, at a T11 EM compost 18
T12 EM compost 27
ratio of 1:2:97 (1 L EM-1: 2 L molasses: 97 L water) and mixing well. The
T13 EM compost 36
EM-1 was produced by Woljeejii Agricultural Industry PLC (Bishoftu, T14 Traditional compost + Mineral fertilizer 36
Ethiopia) based on technology from EMRO Japan (Effective Microor­ (NPSZ + urea)
ganism Research Organization, https://www.emrojapan.com/). T15 Vermicompost + Mineral fertilizer (NPSZ + 36
EM consist of mixed cultures of beneficial, naturally occurring micro- urea)
T16 EM compost Mineral fertilizer (NPSZ + urea) 36
organisms such as photosynthetic bacteria (Rhodopseudomonas palustris,

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M.W. Bezabeh et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 6 (2021) 100237

Table 2 per pod, as well as average seed weight representative for each plot. The
Physico-chemical properties of surface soil (0–30 cm) of the aboveground biomass of straw was included by randomly weighing five
experimental area. dry plants after harvest, sun-drying, and threshing.
Parameter Value The soil attached to the roots was carefully removed by washing with
Soil texture
tap water. The nodules from each plant were removed, counted, and the
Clay (%) 52 nodule dry weight was determined. Total aboveground biomass yield
Silt (%) 31 was measured by weighing after complete sun-drying after harvest from
Sand (%) 17 the harvested plot of 2.25 m2. Grain yield was determined after
Bulk density (g cm− 3) 1.06
threshing the dried plants and adjusted to 12.5% seed moisture content.
pH 7.5
EC (mS cm− 1) 0.164 The aboveground biomass (aboveground straw biomass) was deter­
Total Nitrogen (%) 0.139 mined as the difference between the total harvested biomass and the
Available phosphorus (mg kg − 1
) 8 grain yield of the respective treatments.
Available sulphur (mg kg- 1) 18
Available zinc (mg kg − 1) 1.3
Available iron (mg kg − 1) 0.032
2.3.2. Compost, soil, and plant analysis
CaCO3 (%) 16
Organic carbon (%) 1.63 2.3.2.1. Initial soil and compost analysis. Soil properties were deter­
mined before starting the experiment. The soil texture was analyzed
using the Bouyoucos hydrometer method [34]. The bulk density (BD)
fertilizer recommended by the Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation
was determined using the core method [35]. The pH and electrical
Agency for the study site: 100 kg ha− 1 N:P:S: Zn (17.7: 35.3: 6.5: 2.5)
conductivity (EC) were measured in a 1:2.5 (vol: vol) soil to water
and 100 kg ha− 1 of urea (46% N). However, if Ethiopian farmers use
suspension. Organic carbon was determined using the Walkley and
mineral fertilizer for faba bean crops, they usually apply 100 kg ha− 1 of
Black method [36]. Total nitrogen in composts and soil before the field
diammonium phosphate (DAP), which contains 46% phosphorus and
experiment was analyzed using the Kjeldahl method [37], while avail­
18% nitrogen. The lowest rate of 18 kg N ha− 1 in this experiment thus
able phosphorus was measured using the Olsen method [38]. Available
represents the common fertilization practice of farmers.
Zn and Fe in the compost were measured by atomic adsorption spec­
The plot area was 2 × 2 m (4 m2), with an inner harvested area of 1.5
trometry after extraction with a DTPA solution [39]. Available S was
× 1.5 m2. The spacing between plants, rows, plots, and blocks was 5 cm,
determined by turbidity using a spectrophotometer after extraction with
40 cm, 50 cm, and 100 cm, respectively. The faba bean variety Moti was
0.01 M calcium chloride and adding seed solution (mix of 0.1087 g
sown on July 3, 2018, at a seed rate of 200 kg ha − 1. Moti was developed
K2SO4, 500 mL water, 500 mL concentrated HCl, and 2.0 g powdered
by the Holetta Agricultural Research Center (HARC) in Ethiopia in 2006.
gum acacia) [39].
The variety is moderately resistant to chocolate spot and rust, and ma­
tures early, which means it is suitable for areas with a relatively short
2.3.2.2. Residual soil nitrogen and plant analysis. Soil samples were
cropping season and moderate rainfall, as in the study area [33].
taken from each plot after harvest and analyzed for Kjeldahl-N to
determine soil residual nitrogen. The N, P, and S contents of faba bean
2.3. Data collection
stalk and seeds were measured using the wet digestion method described
in Ref. [39].
2.3.1. Agronomic data
Selected plant characteristics were determined during the field ex­
periments. When 50% of the plants were at the flowering stage, five faba 2.4. Data analysis
bean plants were randomly selected and uprooted from each plot center.
This was accounted for in the final grain yield by adding a calculated 2.4.1. Statistical analysis
yield for five plants with average numbers of pods per plant and seeds The data were subjected to a two-factor analysis of variance

Fig. 1. Monthly rainfall data at the experimental site for the main growing season in 2018.

3
M.W. Bezabeh et al.
Fig. 2. The experimental layout of the study.
(ANOVA) with fertilizer type as one and fertilizer amount as the second
factor to analyze the effects of the treatments that were randomized
within each block in the RCBD design. The data were analyzed using R
programming software (version 4.0.0) with the updated statistical
package R Core Team (2020). Tukey’s HSD test (α = 0.05) was used for
mean separation when the treatments were significantly different at the
5% level.
2.4.2. Partial budget analysis
A partial budget analysis was used to evaluate the economic benefits
of the different fertilizer strategies based on the grain and straw yields of
the crop. In this experiment, we determined the most economically
acceptable treatments by estimating the respective costs and benefits
based on market prices for 2018. It is common that experimental yields
are higher than the yields that farmers can expect using the same
treatments [40]. Hence, in the economic calculations, the aboveground
straw biomass and grain yield were adjusted to 90% of the actual yield
obtained from the experimental plots to represent a more realistic yield
in farmers’ fields [40]. The gross and net benefits were calculated using
the following formulae:
Gross benefit = Yield x Price (1)
Net Benefit = Gross benefit - Total varying cost (2)
The marginal rate of return (MRR) was calculated by dividing the
change in net benefit by the change in variable cost, which is the in­
crease in return by increasing the input. The marginal rate of return was
calculated after conducting a simplified dominance analysis [40] to
select the treatments that are relevant to farmers in terms of earnings. A
treatment is said to be dominated when, as a result of an increase in
costs, its use does not lead to an increase in net benefits. It is dominated
because there is at least one other treatment of less or equal cost that
generates greater benefits. To perform this analysis, treatments were
organized according to an increasing order of variable costs and
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Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 6 (2021) 100237
compared with respect to whether increasing costs are followed by a
larger increase in net benefits. Fertilizer and labor costs were deter­
mined based on the current rates of fertilizer or compost and daily labor
payments. The cost for mineral fertilizer per 200 kg (100 kg NPSZ + 100
kg urea-was $ 198.78, for traditional compost per 100 kg$ 1.8, for EM
compost per 100 kg $ 3.25 per 100 kg, for vermicompost per 100 kg$
18.07 (including the price of worms) and for labor per day $ 7.22. The
grain and straw yields harvested from the plot were converted to a
hectare basis, and the market values of both components were calcu­
lated based on the 2018 market prices, with prices of 1.08 and 0.054 $
kg− 1 for grain and straw of faba bean, respectively.
3. Results
3.1. Compost effects on grain yield and aboveground biomass
3.1.1. Grain yield
Application of both EM compost and vermicompost significantly
increased the grain yield of faba beans compared to traditional compost
and mineral fertilizer (p < 0.001; Table 4). However, traditional
compost also resulted in higher yields than mineral fertilizers. Grain
yield generally increased with nitrogen level, but there were no signif­
icant differences between the high, medium, or combined levels, which
had average yields of 3507, 3367, and 3333 kg ha − 1, respectively.
The interaction between fertilizer type and nitrogen rate was sig­
nificant for grain yield. For instance, at high nitrogen levels, EM compost
application resulted in a significantly higher grain yield than traditional
compost and mineral fertilizer. Compost with effective microorganisms
and vermicompost improved grain yield by 13% and 10.7%, respec­
tively, compared to the equivalent amount of traditional compost, and
by 20% and 17%, respectively, compared to mineral fertilizer. (p <
0.001 Table 4).
M.W. Bezabeh et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 6 (2021) 100237

Table 3 3.2. Compost effects on number of nodules per plant and residual soil
Nutrients and organic carbon applied with the different composts at the high nitrogen
nitrogen level application.
Treatments Fertilizer N Corg P S Zn Fe 3.2.1. Number of nodules per plant
applied For both EM compost (362) and vermicompost (369), the average
kg ha− 1 number of nodules per plant was higher than for traditional compost
(333) (p<0.001), and all composts resulted in a higher numbers of
Traditional 9500 36 1374 20.4 8.0 5.6 1.91
compost nodules per plant than mineral fertilizer (Table 4). In general, the
Vermicompost 7068 36 992 29.1 8.5 8.8 2.17 numbers of nodules per plant increased with nitrogen dose (p<0.001)
EM compost 4712 36 777 81.2 8.5 8.3 2.24 but were not statistically different at medium and high nitrogen levels,
Mineral fertilizer 141.3 36 0 35.3 6.5 2.5 0 nor in the combined treatments, with average numbers of 355, 361, and
Total 100 (18)
Hereof: NPSZn + 41.3 (18)
358, respectively. The interaction between fertilizer type and nitrogen
Urea rate was significant for the number of nodules per faba bean plant. For
instance, all composts given at medium nitrogen levels resulted in
significantly higher numbers of nodules per plant than mineral fertilizer
3.1.2. Aboveground biomass at the same level (p<0.05; Table 4).
The aboveground biomass in all three compost treatments was
higher than that in the mineral fertilizer treatments (Table 4). Among 3.2.2. Residual soil nitrogen
the compost types, EM and vermicompost resulted in the highest Residual soil nitrogen generally increased with the amount of added
aboveground biomass (p<0.001). In addition, aboveground biomass nitrogen. In the EM compost (3.6 g kg − 1) and vermicompost (3.6 g kg
significantly increased with increasing doses of nitrogen (p< 0.001). The − 1
) treatments, residual soil nitrogen was significantly higher than in the
interaction of fertilizer type with nitrogen rate was significant, with, for traditional compost (3.2 g kg − 1) treatment (p<0.001), but all compost
example, higher aboveground biomass at high amounts of EM compost types resulted in higher residual soil nitrogen than mineral fertilizer.
(7625 kg ha − 1) compared to mineral fertilizer at the same level (6718. The interaction of fertilizer types with nitrogen rate affected residual soil
Kg ha − 1). nitrogen (p<0.05; Table 4), with little residual soil nitrogen found in the
EM compost and vermicompost improved (p<0.001) aboveground mineral fertilizer treatment at medium nitrogen level compared to the
biomass by 14.8% and 6.6%, respectively, compared to the traditional compost treatments at the same level.
compost and by 17.8% and 10%, respectively, compared to the mineral
fertilizer (Table 4).

Table 4
Effect of different compost types on faba bean yield, biomass, number of nodules per plant, and residual soil nitrogen.
Treatment(a) effect Nitrogen level Grain yield Aboveground biomass Residual soil nitrogen Nodules per plant

kg ha-1 g kg 1

CON 1875d 3594d 1.7d 187d

MF 2860c 5896c 3.0c 307c
TC 3112b 6483b 3.2b 333b
Ver 3445a 7131a 3.6a 369a
EM 3589a 7362a 3.6a 365a
P-value P-value < 2.2e-16 *** < 2.2e-16 *** < 2.2e-16 *** < 2.2e-16 ***
Nitrogen level(b) effect
ZERO 0 1875c 3594d 1.7c 186c
LOW 18 2917 b 5953c 3.1b 311b
MEDIUM 27 3367 a 6644b 3.5 a 358a
HIGH 36 3406a 7194a 3.5a 359a

COMBINED 36 3469a 7477a 3.5a 359a

P-value 6.127e-09 *** < 2.2e-16 *** 6.241e-09 *** 9.808e-11 ***
(Interaction effect) Treatment(a) X Nitrogen Level(b)
CON ZERO 1875h 3593j 1.7g 187h
MF LOW 2500g 5437i 2.6f 267g
MF MEDIUM 3000ef 5531hi 03.1de 320ef
MF HIGH 3081def 6718def 3.3bcd 337cde
TC LOW 2718fg 5875ghi 2.8ef 290fg
TC MEDIUM 3250bcde 6306efg 3.4abcd 347abcde
TC HIGH 3418bcde 6968bcde 3.4abcd 363abcd
TC COMBINED 3062def 6781cdef 3.2cde 331def
Ver LOW 3218bcde 6312efg 3.4abcd 343bcde
Ver MEDIUM 3562abc 7281bcd 3.8ab 380ab
Ver HIGH 3594ab 7462abc 3.6abc 370abcd
Ver COMBINED 3406abcde 7468abc 3.6abc 368abcd
EM LOW 3231bcde 6187fgh 3.5abcd 347abcde
EM MEDIUM 3656ab 7456bc 3.8a 386a
EM HIGH 3531abcd 7625ab 3.6abc 367abcd
EM COMBINED 3937a 8180a 3.7ab 377abc
P-value 0.02076 * 0.0002701 *** 0.03401 * 0.03756 *
CV 6.07 4.28 4.85 5.13
MSD 496.4 722.0 41.86 0.431

Where COMBINED =18 kg N ha− 1mineral+18 kg N ha− 1compost, MSD: Minimum Significant Difference, CV: coefficient of variance.
P values (*) significant at 0.05, P values (**) significant at 0.01, P values (***), significant at 0.001, Means with similar letters are not significantly different at Turkey
HSD test (alpha=00.05).

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M.W. Bezabeh et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 6 (2021) 100237

3.3. Compost effects on uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur into
faba beans
EM compost and vermicompost resulted in higher nitrogen and
phosphorus uptake into seeds, calculated on a per hectare basis, than
traditional compost and mineral fertilizer (Fig. 3A, Fig. 4A). Similar
results were found for seed sulfur uptake (Fig. 5A). While traditional
compost and mineral fertilizer showed similar levels of phosphorus and
sulfur, traditional compost resulted in higher nitrogen uptake than
mineral fertilizer (Figs. 3A, 4A and 5A). Nitrogen, phosphorus, and
sulphur uptake into faba bean seeds increased with fertilizer level, with
the highest amounts of 152, 142, and 142 kg N ha− 1, 9.1, 8.4, and 8.4 kg
P ha− 1, and 16.7, 15.7, and 15.6 kg S ha− 1, respectively, for the high,
medium and combined nitrogen levels. The interaction of fertilizer type
with nitrogen rate did not significantly affect the nitrogen, phosphorus,
and sulfur seed uptake of faba bean.
Similar to seed uptake, EM compost and vermicompost additions led
to higher nitrogen (110 and 102 kg ha− 1), phosphorus (4.6-and 3.6 kg
ha− 1), and sulfur (24.6 19.5 kg ha− 1) uptake into straw than traditional
compost, which in turn showed higher uptake than mineral fertilizer
(Figs. 3B, 4B and 5B). Nitrogen uptake into faba bean straw increased
with the amount of nitrogen added. Phosphorus and sulfur uptake into
faba bean straw followed the pattern of nitrogen uptake. In contrast to
uptake into seeds, the interaction of fertilizer types with nitrogen rate
affected N, P, and S uptake into straw.
3.4. Partial budget analysis
The partial budget analysis showed the highest net benefits (US$
4015 ha− 1) from the application of EM compost at high nitrogen levels.

Fig. 3. Uptake of nitrogen from different types of compost into seeds (A, B, C) and straw (D, E, F) of faba bean
Where Con: control, MF: mineral fertilizer, TC: traditional compost, Ver: Vermicompost, EM: compost with effective microorganisms. P values: (*) significant at 0.05, (**)
significant at 0.01, (***) significant at 0.001, Means with different letters are significantly different based on the Turkey HSD test (α= 0.05).

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M.W. Bezabeh et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 6 (2021) 100237

Fig. 4. Uptake of phosphorus from different types of compost into seeds (A, C, E) and straw (B, D, F) of faba bean
Where Con: control, MF: mineral fertilizer, TC: traditional compost, Ver: Vermicompost, EM: compost with effective microorganisms. P values: (*) significant at 0.05, (**)
significant at 0.01, (***) significant at 0.001, Means with different letters are significantly different based on the Turkey HSD test (α= 0.05).

Next to the control (US$1934 ha− 1), the application of mineral fertilizer
at the low nitrogen level gave the lowest net benefits (US$ 2570 ha− 1)
(Table 5). The marginal rates of return for the non-dominated treat­
ments with mineral fertilizer application at low and medium nitrogen
levels were 1009 and 6050%, respectively. For EM-compost application,
the marginal rates of return were 4200, 1689, 2831, and 788% for the
low, medium, high, and combined nitrogen levels, respectively. For
vermicompost application at low nitrogen level, the marginal rate of
return was 26,833% (Table 5). The producer would thus earn an addi­
tional US$ 10.09 or 60.50 per US$ invested from low or medium
amounts of mineral fertilizer, respectively, US$ 42, 16.89, 28.31 and
7.88 from low, medium, high, and combined EM-compost application,
and 268.33 from low vermicompost application. In general, the mini­
mum acceptable rate of return assumed in this study was 100%. How­
ever, economically viable options depend on a combination of the
marginal rate of return and the net benefits. Based on that, EM compost
treatments with medium, high, and combined nitrogen are economically
viable (Table 5) and could therefore be recommended for use by
smallholder farmers.
4. Discussion
4.1. Agronomic effects of compost types
All three compost types improved grain yield and aboveground
biomass of faba bean and other yield-related parameters. However, EM
compost and vermicompost resulted in higher yields than traditional
compost and mineral fertilizer at each nitrogen level. Similar results
were found for EM compost in a field experiment conducted on wheat in
China. The use of EM compost significantly increased biomass and grain

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M.W. Bezabeh et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 6 (2021) 100237

Fig. 5. Uptake of Sulphur from different types of compost into seeds (A, C, E) and straw (B, D, F) of faba bean
Where Con: control, MF: mineral fertilizer, TC: traditional compost, Ver: Vermicompost, EM: compost with effective microorganisms. P values: (*) significant at 0.05, (**)
significant at 0.01, (***) significant at 0.001, Means with different letters are significantly different based on the Turkey HSD test (α= 0.05).

production compared to that of compost without EM [18]. Similarly,
application of cattle manure treated with EM on a sandy regosol resulted
in higher vegetative and reproductive growth of capsicum than cattle
manure without EM [41]. Vermicompost has improved corn yield at­
tributes compared to traditional composting products [42]. In that
study, the authors suggested that the improvement of plant height in
vermicompost treatments compared to traditional compost could also be
attributed to the presence of plant growth hormones and enzymes in the
vermicompost.
The improvement in yield and aboveground biomass in both EM
compost and vermicompost may be due to higher amounts of sulphur,
zinc, and iron content added in these treatments (Table 3), which in the
case of sulphur is also reflected in increased plant biomass and seed
sulphur uptake. These nutrients are of particular importance to legumes
grown on calcareous soils. Sulphur fertilization improved faba bean
grain yield, aboveground biomass, nodulation, and protein yields [43,
44]. In legumes, iron not only plays a central role in photosynthesis and
other important metabolic processes in the plant; moreover, its defi­
ciency can negatively affect the initiation and development of nodules
[45] and consequently decrease legume yield and biomass. In our
experiment, a higher number of nodules per plant and more residual
nitrogen were recorded in the EM compost and vermicompost treat­
ments than in the traditional compost and mineral fertilizer treatments,
which may at least partly be related to the iron added in these treat­
ments. Furthermore, in Tigrayan calcareous soils, the application of Zn
and P improved faba bean grain yield, number of pods per plant, number
of seeds per pod, and uptake of nitrogen, in addition to phosphorus and
zinc uptake [46].
Nutrient retention and availability are affected by the type of com­
posting treatment. Compost with EM has been found to have a higher
macro- and micronutrient content compared to compost without EM
[47], and our results support these findings (Table 3). In line with this,

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M.W. Bezabeh et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 6 (2021) 100237

Table 5 present in the soil by secretion of organic acids such as citric, gluconic,
Summary of the partial budget analysis for the use of different composts in faba or lactic acid [56]. An increased population density of
bean production. phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms due to compost addition may
Treatment TVC NB CI BI DA MRR RANK provide phosphorus to the plants continuously during the growing
(US$) ($US) (%) season, thus leading to a higher total uptake. In addition, the added
Control 72 1934 mineral phosphorus is likely to be bound strongly as calcium phosphate
MF: LOW 135 2570 63 636 1010 8 and thus becomes less available to plants relatively quickly.
MF: MEDIUM 143 3054 8 484 6050 7 Increasing the amount of EM compost from 1 to 3 t significantly
EM: LOW 149 3306 6 252 4200 6
increased the grain yield and related parameters in rice [57]. However,
MF: HIGH 152 3182 3 − 124 D 4
TC: LOW 158 2782 6 − 400 D in a study by Jamilu and Samina [58], repeated applications of par­
VER: LOW 161 3288 3 506 16,867 5 thenium green manure sprayed with EM solution several times during
EM: MEDIUM 188 3744 27 456 1689 2 the growing season did not significantly increase wheat growth and
VER: MEDIUM 196 3635 8 − 109 D yield parameters. Another study showed that spraying an EM solution in
TC: MEDIUM 200 3279 4 − 356 D
EM: HIGH 226 4015 26 736 2831 1
a field without adding organic material as a carbon source for micro­
VER: HIGH 231 3639 5 − 376 D organisms did not improve the yield.
TC: HIGH 243 3433 12 − 206 D In a study by Argaw and Mnalku [59], a faba bean grain yield of
EM: 259 3559 16 126 788 3 4822 kg ha− 1 was achieved with an application rate of 8 t ha− 1 of ver­
COMBINED
micompost, which was equivalent to 95 kg N ha− 1. Although the
VER: 267 3421 8 − 138 D
COMBINED application rate was higher than the medium amount used in this
TC: 271 3048 4 − 373 D experiment (27 kg N), the medium amount of vermicompost in our study
COMBINED still resulted in a higher yield (5908 kg ha− 1; Table 3). Other studies
Where: TVC = Total variable cost ($ ha− 1), NB = Net benefit (ETB ha− 1), DA = have also reported improved growth of corn and wheat with vermi­
Dominance analysis and D = Dominated, MRR = Marginal rate of return, CI = compost compared to conventional composts and mineral fertilizers [42,
Cost increased, BI=benefit increased, MF = mineral fertilizer, TC = traditional 60,61]. However, Yatoo et al. [62] found that wheat growth and yield
compost, VER = vermicompost, EM = EM compost, LOW =18 kg N ha− 1, ME­ with vermicompost as a fertilizer were comparable with mineral fertil­
DIUM = 27 kg N ha− 1, HIGH = 36 kg N ha− 1, COMBINED = 18 kg N ha− 1mineral izers, but not better.
fertilizer +18 kg N ha− 1 compost. The amounts were calculated based on the In general, the average grain yield from EM compost (3231–3937 kg
average exchange rate of US dollar to Ethiopian Birr in 2018(1US$ = 27.6677 ha− 1) and vermicompost (3218–3594 kg ha− 1) found in this study were
Ethiopian Birr). higher than the average regional (1692 kg ha− 1), national (2117 kg
ha− 1), African (1861 kg ha− 1), and worldwide (1960 kg ha− 1) yields in
Shi-wei and Fu-zhen [48] showed that vermicompost has a large specific the experimental year 2018 [63].
surface area that provides more microsites for microbial activity, leading
to a higher amount of available nutrients than traditional compost. 4.2. Economic considerations
Thus, vermicompost application may have improved faba bean growth
more than traditional compost because the nutrient-binding capacity of The economic analysis revealed that the application of EM compost
vermicompost is higher than that of traditional compost. In calcareous at a medium or high rate, or in combination with mineral nitrogen
soils, this is of particular importance because they are generally char­ fertilizer, would be the most profitable (Table 5). The economic analysis
acterized by low availability of macro- and micronutrients, which re­ further suggested that for each US$ invested, the producer would not
stricts plant growth and production. Phosphorus is, among other only recover his investment but would earn an additional 28.3 to 7.8 US
functions, essential for root development and nodulation. Legume crops $ from EM compost application. The increased faba bean yield in the EM
have a high demand for phosphorus because the metabolic activities compost treatments compared to the control, as well as traditional
connected to N fixation in nodules require energy and thus a large compost and mineral fertilizer, is the basis for the good economic per­
amount of phosphorus in the form of ATP [49]. Some researchers have formance of this treatment.
consequently observed a significant correlation between phosphorus Although vermicompost also increased yield, its lower nitrogen
concentration in nodules and N-fixation [50–52]. Sulphur is an impor­ content led to the application of greater amounts to achieve the nitrogen
tant constituent of proteins, and important for metabolic and physio­ rates in this experiment. Consequently, the variable costs of the vermi­
logical changes in legumes. In addition, sulphur acts as nutrient compost treatments were higher, and thus the overall economic benefit
transporter and a component initiating many microbiological processes was lower than EM compost and the marginal rate of return was lower
in soil microbiological [53]. Desta et al. [46] also found that application than that for the EM compost. Other studies have found that vermi­
of Zn and P together improved faba bean grain yield, number of pods per compost is economically beneficial compared to mineral fertilizers. For
plant, number of seeds per pod, and uptake of nitrogen, in addition to instance, application of 7.5 t vermicompost per ha in garlic production
phosphorus and zinc uptake. resulted in a higher return than equivalent mineral fertilization [64].
Nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur uptake were improved by both Gebrehiwot et al. [65] also stated that application of 3.5 t vermicompost
EM compost and vermicompost in our study compared to traditional per ha in a wheat crop gave a higher economic return than an equivalent
compost and mineral fertilizer. In the case of EM compost, this mineral fertilization.
improvement may, at least in part, be related to the additional micro­
organisms present in the EM compost, accelerating the decomposition of 5. Conclusion
organic materials and thus enhancing the release of nutrients for plant
uptake [54] compared to traditional compost. In this study, the application of EM compost and vermicompost
Nutrient uptake in the compost treatments was improved compared increased yield and yield parameters, nutrient uptake, number of nod­
to the treatments with equivalent amounts of mineral fertilizer, ules, and residual nitrogen more than mineral fertilizer and traditional
although the initially available phosphorus in both EM compost and compost at the same rate of nitrogen. Fertilization with the highest ni­
vermicompost was lower than in the respective mineral fertilizer treat­ trogen level (36 kg ha 1) resulted in the highest yields and values for
ments. However, the addition of composted organic matter enhances the other yield attributes. EM compost and vermicompost added at a me­
density of microorganisms [55], including phosphate-solubilizing mi­ dium nitrogen rate (27 kg ha− 1), or a combination of compost and
croorganisms, which may mobilize previously unavailable phosphorus mineral fertilizer with an overall nitrogen level of 36 kg ha− 1 gave

9
M.W. Bezabeh et al.
similar yields and nutrient concentrations in seeds and straw. However,
the marginal rate of return of compost application suggests that EM
compost at the above-mentioned nitrogen rates is economically more
viable than vermicompost for use in faba bean production on calcareous
soils.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
Financial support was provided by the Mekelle University - Norwe­
gian University of Life Sciences collaboration fund (Project no.
228747).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jafr.2021.100237.
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