CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of study

The plantain plant is one of the world's largest herbs, and it is widely grown in developing

countries. Plantains are one of the most essential sources of energy for those who live in tropical,

humid climates (Florenta, et al., 2015). It is a member of the Musaceae family of the genus

Musa. Banana (English), 'Ogede agbagba' (Yoruba), 'Ayaba' (Hausa), and 'Ogadejioke' (Igbo) are

all names for Musa paradisiaca. The plant has long, overlapping leafstalks and a stem that is 1.22

to 6.10 meters tall (Oladiji et al., 2010).

The fruits grow in clusters, with each individual plantain measuring around 1 inch in diameter

and slightly longer. Plantain fruit takes between two and a half to four months after shooting to

mature into harvestable fruit, or about eight to twelve months after planting. Because plantains

are high in fiber, they can help decrease cholesterol and treat constipation, which can help

prevent colon cancer. Aside from that, its high potassium content has been discovered to be

beneficial in preventing high blood pressure and muscle cramps (Ng and Fong, 2000). The

leaves, root, fruit stalk, bract, and fruit of the plant have all been utilized for medical and

domestic reasons.

The fruit is eaten, the leaf juice is applied to fresh wounds, cuts, and bug bites, and the leaves are

used as an arbortifacient. Diarrhoea, dysentery, hysteria, and epilepsy are all treated using its sap.

Venereal illnesses and anemia are treated with a cold infusion of the root. Furthermore, the fruit

has been reported to have antiscorbutic, aphrodisiac, and diuretic properties (Gill, 1992).

According to Adeniji et al. (2006), 100 g of the plant's edible section included 67.30 g moisture,

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0.4 g crude fat, 31.15 g carbohydrate, 0.95 mg potassium, 35.1 mg sodium, 71.5 mg calcium, 28

mg phosphorus, 2.4 mg iron, and 116 kcal of energy.

Plantain peels are waste products from the plantain processing business that are typically

discarded in landfills, rivers, or uncontrolled areas (Osma et al., 2007). After the interior fleshy

portion of the fruit has been eaten, the peel is abandoned as garbage, posing a threat to the

environment, especially in areas where it is consumed often. According to Omole et al (2008),

the peel has the ability to replace corn starch in the snail's diet, however the bracts, fruit stalk,

and leaves are sometimes left on the farm as wastes. After cutting, fermenting, and drying,

leaves, pseudostems, fruit stalks, and peels give a meal that is somewhat more nutritious than

alfalfa press-cake. In Somalia, these waste materials have been proposed for use as organic

fertilizer. In Malaya, pigs fed with pseudostems are less prone to liver and kidney parasites than

those on other diets.

Despite their high carbohydrate content and other fundamental elements that can promote yeast

growth, plantain peels are a commonly available agricultural waste that is neglected as a possible

growing medium for yeast strains (Lim, 2009). Plantain peels, according to studies, are a

convenient, non-toxic, and environmentally beneficial ash to use as a matrix for making

mulching film. Micronutrients such as iron and zinc were detected in higher quantity in plantain

peels than in pulps, according to a study (Panda, 2013). Several endogenous enzyme-mediated

degradative reactions are thought to impact the starch and hemicellulose composition of the peels

during ripening, which explains the higher sugar content. When used for other biotechnological

purposes, this chemical conversion process makes biodegradation of discarded banana peel

simple (Steven, 2012). Given the need for waste management and the rise in the prices of

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livestock and human feeds, as well as the growing demand for these products, it is necessary to

assess the nutritional contents of plantain peel for possible use as livestock feeds.

Because of its nutritional functions, potassium is one of the most vital minerals required by

plants and animals. Potassium, after phosphorus and calcium, is the third most prevalent element

in humans, although potassium and nitrogen are the elements that plants require in substantial

amounts (Eddy et al., 2004). Potassium, on the other hand, is an extremely active metal that

cannot be found in its pure form. Potassium is most commonly found in the form of potash.

Potash has become one of the most commonly used materials in the world due to its usage in

fertilizer manufacture, food additives, aluminum recycling, explosives, pharmaceutical products,

water softening, snow and ice removal from highways, glass production, and other applications

(Eddy, 2007; Eddy and Ukpong, 2006; Okareh et al., 2015).

However, the majority of available potash is produced via chemical methods, implying that the

process is not fully environmentally friendly. Green potash production has long been a popular

technique among rural women. This was accomplished inadvertently. Potash is produced, for

example, by burning palm oil tree waste to ash and then filtering it. Potash manufacturing using

plant materials has some future promises and environmental sustainability in the current

dispensation. Olufemi et al. (2017), for example, investigated the generation of potash from

various plant materials and discovered that sunflower stalks, palm inflorescence, and corn stalks

contain potassium oxide in concentrations ranging from 28.01 to 43.01 percent. According to the

literature, numerous plant resources have the potential to be used as raw materials in the

manufacturing of potash (Adewuyi et al., 2006). The potassium content of plantain peel has been

discovered to be high, making it a valuable source of potassium (Babavemi et al., 2011; Hassan

et al., 2018).

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4
Statement of problem

Waste materials (plant biomass) are frequently dumped in open areas, cluttering the

environment, or burned in open areas, releasing harmful compounds into the atmosphere, water

bodies, and soil, posing a major threat to the lives of living beings. Unfortunately, this valuable

resource has not been fully utilized to its full potential in terms of safeguarding the environment

from pollution (Meteku, 2013). The production of potash from plant biomass, specifically

plantain peels, is one way to make good use of waste because these biomass materials are good

sources of potassium oxide, which can be used to produce potash that can be used as food

additives as well as preparing delicious native African meals.

Aim of study

The aim of this research is to study the comparative effect of potash and plantain peel ash used in

processing African salad. To achieve this aim, the following objectives have been stated for the

study;

a. To determine the proximate composition plantain peel ash.

b. To determine the elemental composition plantain peel ash.

c. To compare the proximate composition of plantain peel ash with potash.

d. To compare the elemental composition of plantain peel ash with potash.

Scope of study

The scope of this study covers potash extracted from plantain peels under standard laboratory

conditions. The proximate composition in this study is moisture content, ash content, fibre

content, protein content and energy content while the elemental compositions is Lead (Pb),

Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), Cadmium (Cd), Manganese (Mn) and Iron (Fe).

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 CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

Review of Concepts

Potash

Potash refers to potassium bearing compounds including all the various manufactured or

mined salts containing potassium such as potassium chloride or muriate of potash. Potash

form a major component of agricultural fertilizers, detergents, pharmaceuticals, de-icing salts

and ceramics. The current major production countries are Canada, Russia and Belarus

amounting to about 60% of the world production (Elemental Mineral Limited, 2016).

Plantain peels

Plantain (Musa paradisiaca) is a crop with permanent production and a major staple food

for Ghanaians and many other countries worldwide. Plantain is either consumed in the unripe

or ripe stage. There is abundance of plantain on the market from the months of September

to March and scarcity from May to August (Dzomeku et al., 2011). Plantain peels are the

major waste products generated in the consumption of plantain fruits after the removal of

the inner fleshy portion, more often than not discarded as waste; dumped in landfills,

unregulated grounds constituting a menace to the environment. Plantain peels are used as

feed for livestock, fertilizers, remedy for relief of insect bites, and treatment of dermatitis

and string eczema (Okareh et al., 2015).

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Potash and Potassium

Potassium (K) is essential for plant and animal life wherein it has many vital nutritional roles. In

plants, potassium and nitrogen are the two elements required in greatest amounts, while in

animals and humans potassium is the third most abundant element, after calcium and

phosphorus. Without sufficient plant and animal intake of potassium, life as we know it would

cease. Human and other animals atop the food chain depend upon plants for much of their

nutritional needs. Many soils lack sufficient quantities of available potassium for satisfactory

yield and quality of crops. For this reason available soil potassium levels are commonly

supplemented by potash fertilization to improve the potassium nutrition of plants, particularly for

sustaining production of high yielding crop species and varieties in modern agricultural systems.

Thus, potash, the fertilizer trade term referring to fertilizer materials containing potassium, has

become an increasingly important input for satisfying demands of an expanding population for

food, fibre and other commodities.

Approximately 95 % of current global consumption of potassium is used for fertilizers; the

remainder is used in various industrial applications including the manufacture of caustic

potassium and other intermediate chemicals. Potassium chloride or muriate of potash (MOP) is

the most popular potassium fertilizer. Potassium sulphate (SOP) is the next most important

potassium source followed by potassium magnesium sulphate, potassium nitrate, potassium

phosphate, and solutions of potassium thiosulphate and potassium polysulphide. Other potassium

containing salts such as potassium carbonate, potassium bicarbonate, and potassium hydroxide

have limited use for the production of high-purity fertilizers for foliar application and other

specialty uses.

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Combustion of plant biomass into ashes

Ash is formed from mineral matter during the process of combustion and gasification. Plant

biomasses are usually made up of cellulose which consists of 99.5 % combustible materials

and 0.5 % of incombustible materials. The combustible materials are usually converted to

water vapour and carbon dioxide whiles the incombustible minerals are converted to ashes.

The ashes, however consist of 80 % water insoluble components whiles the 20 % water soluble

components are potash (K2CO3), arcanite (K2SO4) and soda ash (Na2CO3) with

potassium carbonate (K2CO3) forming the major component (Thoburn, 2008). The

combustion of agricultural wastes (plant biomass) causes the oxidation of mineral ions such

as potassium to potassium oxide which then combines with the carbon dioxide resulting in

the formation of K2CO3 (Kumar, 2013).

4K(s) + O2 (g) → 2K2O(s) ………………………………….. (1)

K2O(s) + CO2 (g) → K2CO3(s) ……………………………... (2)

Effects of temperature on the yield of ash

Babayemi et al. (2011) observed that the incomplete combustion or ashing of plant biomass

results in the formation of a blackish residual substance. Onyegbado et al. (2002) in an

attempt to produce potassium hydroxide resorted to drying of waste plantain peels and

grinding of the dried peels into fine powder instead of combustion. The yield of KOH was

insignificant. Kumar (2013) also studied the effect of the ashing temperature on the yield of

the ash from the heating of the coffee husk in muffle furnace. The maximum yield of the ash

obtained was 18 % between the temperature ranges of 400℃ to 500℃. However, the yield

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of the ash decreased at temperatures above 500℃. This was due to the fact that the coffee

husk becomes completely combusted at temperatures above 500℃ oxidizing the carbon

present to carbon dioxide. Subsequently, at temperatures beyond 700℃ the potassium metal

salts and the other solid components present in the ash disintegrates into gaseous

components. Ofori-Boateng and Lee (2013); Kamalu and Oghome (2011) share the same

view that the extent of combustion of plant materials into ashes had an influence on the

quality of the potassium carbonate (K2CO3). This was observed in their attempt to produced

caustic potash for the manufacturing of soap using cotton seed hulls. The yield of the

potassium carbonate (K2CO3) was very minimum since a low temperature of ashing causes

incomplete combustion leading to the formation of black residual particles which can impart

negatively on the colour of the K2CO3 produced. This presupposes that the temperature at

which plant biomass are combusted into ashes has an influence on the quality of the ash

produced.

Elemental composition of ashes of plant biomass

Zekri and Obreza (2013); Schwarzkopf (1972) in their publications made known that the

element potassium is one of the major nutrient that plays a very significant role in plants

physiological processes such as protein synthesis, rate of respiration, enhancement of the

transport of nutrients to the parts of the plant and enhances the thickening of the plant cell

wall, helping plants to remain upright. Potassium (K) forms a major component of the ashes

obtained from plant biomass such as cocoa husk, plantain peels, cassava peels and coffee

husks, since potassium (K) is found in nature usually embedded in the earth crust. Kumar

(2013), in his work analyzed the ashes from the combustion of coffee husk by Atomic

Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) and found the presence of the elements: potassium,

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sodium, manganese, calcium and iron. The concentrations in terms of composition were

41.93 ppm, 5.48 ppm, 9.71 ppm, 13.75 ppm and 4.04 ppm respectively.

Potassium was the highest accounting for about 71.5 % w/w. Onyegbado et al (2002), in their

work on the production of soap using plantain peels as the source of alkali analyzed the presence

of

metallic ions by dissolving 0.15 kg of the plantain peels ash in 2.50 dm 3 of deionized water

at a temperature of 60℃ and then leaving the mixture to stand for about 8 hours. Atomic

Absorption Spectrophotometric (AAS) analysis of the filtrate of the mixture showed that

potassium was the highest with a concentration of 126.1 ppm followed by sodium – 24.4

ppm, calcium – 1.04 ppm.

Multiple Uses of Plantain Peel

 Natural wrapping paper with additive essential oils.

Plantain peel waste contains more fine fibers than those that are made of wood with high

cellulose (6065%), hemicellulose (6-8%) and lignin (5-10%). the cellulose in the plantain peel is

far higher than that in softwood, conventional raw material of the paper. Moreover, plantain peel

only contains lignin (5-10%) that makes the cellulose separation process easier. Thus, the

plantain peel is potentially used to be the raw material of papermaking to reduce the dependence

of wood as the raw material of wrapping paper. The use of plantain peel waste also increases the

optimization of the waste itself by increasing the economic value. Additive materials in the form

of essential oils are added as a preservative and aroma agent, namely cinnamon oil, lemon oil,

clove oil and lime oil respectively 2% and 3% (Agustina & Susanti, 2018).

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  Antibacterial and phytochemical analysis of Plantain peel.

The invitro antibacterial activity of ethanolic and aqueous extract of plantain (Musa sp) peels

was investigated on both grampositive and gram-negative bacteria using agar well diffusion

technique. Phytochemical result showed ethanol to be a better solvent for the extraction of the

bioactive agents in banana peels which include: glycosides, alkaloids, saponins, tannins,

flavonoids and volatile oil. The presence of glycosides and alkaloids in Musa sp peels may be

attributed to their use by traditional medicine practitioners in healthcare systems in the treatment

of some bacterial infections such as cough, fever, cold and venereal diseases. Thus, extracts from

the peel can be used to control infections caused by Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli,

Klebsiella pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus. Infections such as bronchopneumonia,

bacterial endocarditis and meningitis caused by Micrococcus Spp. and Pseudomonas aeruginosa

will also find treatment with the extracts of this medicinal peel. Thus, the use of banana peel by

traditional medical practitioners is justified (Ehiowemwenguan, Emoghene & Inetianbor, 2014).

 The effects of plantain peel preparations on the properties of plantain peel dietary

fibre concentrate.

Four different preparation methods of plantain peel, dry milling, wet milling, wet milling and tap

water washing, and wet milling and hot water washing were investigated on their effects on the

chemical composition and properties of the plantain peel dietary fibre concentrate (BDFC). The

dry milling process gave the BDFC a significant higher fat, protein, and starch content than the

wet milling process, resulting in a lower water holding capacity (WHC) and oil holding capacity

(OHC). Washing after wet milling could enhance the concentration of total dietary fibre by

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improving the removal of protein and fat. Washing with hot water after wet milling process

caused a higher loss of soluble fibre fraction, resulting in a lower WHC and OHC of the obtained

BDFC when compared to washing with tap water. Wet milling and tap water washing gave the

BDFC the highest concentration of total and soluble dietary fibre, WHC and OHC (Giri, et al.

2016).

 Identification of phenolic compounds from Plantain peel (Musa paradaisica L.) as

antioxidant and antimicrobial agents.

The efficiency of the different solvent systems: aqueous, 80 % methanol, 80% ethanol and 80%

acetone was used for extraction of phenolic, flavonoid and tannin compounds. For mineral

content, potassium is the major element found in banana peel was (9.39 % of DW) followed by

magnesium, calcium, sodium and phosphorus were (0.71, 0.44, 0.18 and 0.09 % of DW),

respectively. Also, the content of microelement including iron, manganese, zinc and copper were

96.50, 35.01, 27.95 and 3.37 ppm, respectively. Methanolic extract (80%) had the highest

content of total phenolic, flavonoid and tannin were 17.89, 21.04 and 24.21 mg /g DW

respectively. Most of acetone plantain peel extracts (80%) was found to be highest antioxidant

and antimicrobial activity at 600 ppm against gram positive and negative bacteria, fungi and

yeast. The phenolic profiles of plantain peel acetone extract was identified by HPLC. The main

phenolic compounds were chyrsin, qurectein and catchin. These results clearly encourage the

application of plantain peel as a potent natural source of antioxidant and antimicrobial sources

(Waghmare & Kurhade, 2014).

 Analysis of properties of concrete using dried banana peel powder as admixture.

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Ingredients other than cement, water & aggregates that import a specific quality to either plastic

(fresh) mix or the hardened concrete (ASTMC 496) is called concrete admixture. The flexural

strength of concrete by using banana peel powder as admixture has increased, but considerable

lesser compressive strength has increased. The percentage of transmission temperature and

reduction time of temperature has decreased; hence it is clear that the exothermal reaction in

concrete has been reduced by using dried plantain peel powder as admixture (Gadgihalli, et al.

2017).

 Nutrient and Heavy Metal Composition of Banana (Musa paradisiaca) Peels.

The higher amounts of K than Na in the peel samples investigated are considered of comparative

advantage. This is because intake of diets with higher Na to K ratio has been related to the

incidence of hypertension. Phosphorus is involved in several biological processes such as: bone

mineralization, energy production, cell signaling and regulation of acid-base homeostasis.

Findings from this study indicate that unripe plantain peel contains higher quantities of Zn than

ripe plantain peel, unripe and ripe banana peels respectively. The considerable amount of Fe in

unripe plantain peel is an important finding in this study. Iron is an essential component of

hemoglobin and it is critical to the proper function of the immune system and the production of

energy (Okorie, Eleazu & Nwosu, 2015).

 Comparative nutritional, functional, morphological, and diffractogram study on

culinary banana (Musa ABB) peel at various stages of development.

The culinary banana peel, which is an agricultural waste available in abundance, has not been

able to draw much attention in terms of its utilization. In addition to being an abundant source of

functional and nutritional compounds, it also deserves to be utilized in a proper and/or better

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way. The aim of this study was to explore this agro-waste at different levels of maturity in order

to identify the active compounds at particular stage of maturity. Phenolics, flavonoids, and

radical scavenging activity were maximum at early developmental stage, whereas compounds

like protein, fat, carbohydrates, and starch increased with maturity and declined at overripe stage.

The starch present in the peel is of C-type as confirmed by x-ray diffractograms and crystalline

in nature. The peel, at the edible mature stage 4, yielded a high cellulose content which could be

used as a reinforcement material in high performance biocomposites. The presence of various

functional groups indicating the complex nature of the culinary banana peel was confirmed by

Fourier transform infrared characterization. Scanning electron microscope micrographs revealed

that microstructure of peel changes drastically and degradation of starch and other compounds

occurred at the over-ripe stage. Hence, in this context, the culinary banana peel can serve as a

potential biomaterial in industrial applications and can add a higher value to this locally

important and underutilized crop (Khawas & Deka, 2016).

 Identification and antioxidant activity test of some compounds from methanol

extract peel of plantain

Identification methanolic extracts of banana peel by spectroscopy IR, MS, 1H and 13C NMR one

and two dimension showed that the compounds are 5,6,7,4’-tetrahidroxy-3,4-flavan-diol and a

new compound cyclohexenon derivative (2-cyclohexene1-on-2,4,4-trimethyl-3-O-2’-

hydroxypropyl ether) which shows antioxidant activity (Atun, et al. 2007).

Empirical Review

In a study carried out by Ewelike et al., (2021) on the “use of green plantain peel ash for palm oil

mill effluent treatment”, with the aim to assess the possible use of green plantain peel ash as a

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treatment material for reducing the biological oxygen demand (BOD) and oil and grease

concentrations of palm oil mill effluent (POME). The physiochemical characterization of the

effluent and green plantation peel ash were carried out using analytical methods adopted from

international standards and guidelines. Preliminary analysis of the effluent showed that it had

high biochemical oxygen demand of 29500mg/L and oil and grease concentration of 7200mg/L

accounting for its high polluting potential. Treatment of POME with different concentrations of

green plantain peels ash decreased the BOD and oil and grease concentrations. Maximum BOD

reduction of 87.8% was achieved when POME was treated with the highest concentration,

80mg/L (8.0% w/v) of green plantain peel ash. Similar concentration of green plantain peel ash

also gave the highest reduction of 89.2% in oil and grease concentration. The use of green

plantain peel ash which is locally available and cheap to procure in the treatment of palm oil mill

effluent considerably reduced the effluent BOD and oil and grease. This research work,

therefore, could serve as an efficient and cost effective method of improving the quality of palm

oil mill effluent thereby protecting the environment from the negative impact of the effluent.

Ngwasiri et al. (2021) investigated the effect of incorporation of potash from ficus carica fruit

peel waste into potash (nikkih) from plantain peel waste as emulsifiers on the physico-chemical,

functional properties, and acceptability of yellow achu soup. The work aimed at evaluating the

effect of traditional process methods on the physicochemical and functional properties of nikkih

produced from these peels in view of the optimization of the process. The peels were

preprocessed using two methods: boiling at 90oC before drying and direct drying of raw

samples. All samples were dried and combusted to ash at varying temperatures of 250 oC, 300oC,

and 350oC and times of 30 min, 60 min, and 90 min. The ash obtained was dissolved in varied

volumes of water, filtered to obtain the nikkih. Yellow achu soup was prepared through the dry

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gum method using water and read palm oil, with nikkih as emulsifier. The physicochemical and

functional properties of nikkih on yellow achu soup were evaluated using standard methods. The

ash yield ranged from 10.62±0.12% to 7.10±0.05%, with the raw samples combusted at 300 oC

and 250oC having the highest and lowest values respectively. The pH of nikkih ranged from

10.95±0 to 12.01±0.056 while potash content ranged from 32.45±0.905% to 72.29±1.31%, with

the highest and lowest values obtained from the raw sample combusted at 250 oC and the boiled

samples combusted at 350oC respectively. Alkaline content ranged from 61.7±0.141% to

52.8±0.141%, with boiled M. acuminate combusted at 350oC having the highest value and the

lowest from raw M. paradisiaca combusted at 250oC. The foaming capacity and foam stability

ranged from 6.9±0.01% to 16.07±2.51% and from 3.20±0.07% to 11.205±2.39% for M.

acuminate and M. paradisiaca respectively. The emulsification index ranged from 85.62±0.09%

to 86.67±1.141% after 24 hrs and from 26.0±0.94% to 27.02±2.390% after 48 hrs, with the

highest value from the raw M. acuminate combusted at 350 oC and the lowest from that

combusted at 300oC. The potash source, pretreatment method, combustion conditions, and

dilution factors all had an effect on the physicochemical and functional properties of nikkih.

Omoniyi, et al., (2019) studied the “assessment of the potential of plantain peel ash as a potash

biocatalyst for producing reducing sugar from Phoenix dactylifera seed pit”. The aim of this

study is to assess the potential of plantain peel ash (PPA) as a Bioalkali for lignocellulosic

pretreatment of Phoenix dactylifera. Date palm seed pit (DPSP) compared to synthetic KOH.

From the study, ashing 5.0 kg of plantain peels gave 9.4% ash. The combusted plantain peel ash

had K2O as the dominant oxide (54.2 wt %) using x-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy, the

concentrations of KOH extracted from PPA were quantified titrimetrically using 0.1M HCl. The

chemical hydrolysis of DPSP was carried out using Taguchi L9 orthogonal array design of

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experiment. The factors KOH/BioKOH concentrations (0.022–1.950%), Solid to liquid ratio

(1:30-1:90 w/v), treatment time (15–60 min) at 121oC were optimized for the hydrolysis. The

study indicated that the yield of reducing sugar from DPSP was 21.95 mg sugar/g substrate at

0.157% BioKOH, 30 min reaction time and 1:30 w/v solid: liquid ratio; while 29.35mg sugar/g

substrate was generated using inorganic KOH at the same optimized conditions. There was no

significant difference in the carbohydrate content of DPSP conversion to reducing sugar using

BioKOH compared to inorganic KOH. Therefore, the use of renewable alkaline for hydrolysis of

cellulosic waste to sugars, will increase the supply of sugar substitute for biofuel production,

reduce cost of alkali and checkmate environmental hazard.

Jedidiah (2019) investigated the “alkali extracts from banana peels ash used in removing metals

from metals polluted water from Abakaliki, Ebonyi State”. The purpose of this work is to

document the alkalis metal level of banana peels ash with a view of using it as a source of alkali

for metals removal from metals polluted water. This was carried out by ashing the peels and

dissolving it in distilled de – ionized water. The analysis on the solution was done using Atomic

Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) (Buck 205). The level of essential metals appear in this order: K

> Fe > Ca > Mg > Mn > Zn > Na. Potash content obtained was 26.4% of 100g banana peels ash

used which gave percentage purity of 69% and a purity of 80% on re-crystallization. The toxic

element (lead) in the ash was within the limit of World Health Organization (WHO, 2011). The

ash was characterized using X – Ray Diffraction (XRD) which gave a sharp peak at 2 theta =

28.5o and Brunauer Emett Teller (BET) which gave the surface area and pore size as 63.27m 2g-1

and 21.07 Ao respectively. The efficacy of the alkalis were tested in five borehole water invested

with metals at Abakaliki between Nov. 2017 – Jan. 2018 and May – July, 2018. Results showed

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that the following metals Al, Ca, Cr, Cu, Mg, Mn, Pb, Na, and Zn except K were reduced in all

the water samples for both periods.

Okwunodulu, et al. (2021) studied the “effects of plant ash fortification on okpa the ethnic and

traditional snack of Southeast Nigeria”. Bambara groundnut paste was prepared, mixed with

water and seasonings, and divided into four batches. Three out of the four batches were fortified

each with 1, 5 and 10% ash as samples B, C and D respectively. Each batch was separately

wrapped (250 ml) in plantain leaves and steamed. The remaining unfortified batch served as

control (sample A). Proximate and mineral contents were evaluated with standard analytical

methods. Sensory evaluation was determined subjectively with 20 semi-trained panelists. With

increase in ash fortification levels, there was increase in moisture (58.40-59.50%), fibre (1.20-

1.30%), ash (1.35-1.55%), calcium (72.50-85.38 mg/100g), magnesium (114.45-126.46

mg/100g), zinc (5.70-6.33 mg/100g), iron (1.45-2.36 mg/100g), phosphorous (206.32-219.40

mg/100g) and sodium (12.27-14.92 mg/100g). Only protein (8.63-8.43%), fat (4.15-4.00%),

carbohydrate (25.83-25.23%), energy (164.63-160.31 Kcal), and acceptability (7.05-4.10)

decreased. The control sample had the highest acceptability score which was not statistically

different from samples with 1 and 5% ash. Ash concentrations of 1 and 5% enhanced the taste,

appearance, aroma and texture of the okpa more than the control. There was significant increase

in most nutrients most especially the minerals more than the control.

Tsado, et al. (2021), studied the “proximate, minerals, and amino acid compositions of banana

and plantain peels”. In this study, banana and plantain peels grown in Nigeria was assessed for

their proximate, minerals and amino acid compositions. The proximate contents including

moisture, ash, lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and crude fibres were determined using standard

A.O.A.C methods. The amino acids by HPLC, and minerals by atomic absorption

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spectrophotometry. Results revealed that the total amino acid of 89.71±5.45 g/100g and

86.71±3.02 g/100g was recorded for plantain and banana peel. Glutamic acid 12.72±0.02 g/100g

was the most abundant amino acid in plantain peel while glycine (3.02±0.82 mg/100g) was the

most abundant amino acid in banana peel. Results revealed that sodium is the most abundant

minerals contents of both the plantain (76.88±0.89 Mg/100g) and banana (58.16±2.73 Mg/100g)

peel, while iron (7.89±0.79 Mg/100g and 5.06±0.07 Mg/100g) was the least minerals in the both

samples. Carbohydrate is the most abundant proximate contents of both the plantain

(74.12±0.565) and banana (63.82±0.32%) peel, followed by Crude fibre 8.36±0.04% and

12.67±0.08 %, crude ash (6.17±0.05% and 9.56±0.06%) for both plantain and banana peels

respectively. While crude fat (3.01±0.06% and 0.89±0.04%) was the least proximate in the both

samples. These peels could be considered good source of nutrients for production of human and

animal feeds, and their utilization for this purpose should be encouraged, as this will also help in

reducing the menace of nutrient deficiencies.

Okop and Ukpe (2021), did a “comparative study of proximate and elemental composition of

banana peels and palm bunch as substitutes for preparing alkaline ash for domestic

consumption”. The study sought to produced and analysed potash from banana peel and palm

bunch in order to compare their proximate and elemental composition. The results of the analysis

revealed that inorganic (ash) contents were 12.78, 21.40 and 18.60 mg/l for potash produced

from banana peel, palm bunch and limestone. Corresponding values for fibre (3.65, 2.41, 18.60

mg/l), lipid (17.87, 16.50 and 13.56 mg/l), carbohydrate (5.23, 6.03 and 6.00 mg/l) and energy

value (423.73, 387.26 and 342.28 J) were also estimated. The samples showed high

concentration of calcium and potassium (which are essential elements), relatively low

concentrations of iron and manganese (which are trace elements) and low concentrations of lead

19
and cadmium, which are toxic metals. Although potash from banana peel and palm bunch waste

displayed comparative nutrient and elemental functions, their usefulness maybe limited by the

presence of heavy metals if not properly processed or checked.

20
 CHAPTER THREE

Methodology

3.1 Sampling

Fresh plantain peels were collected from a food canteen at Rivers State University. The peels

were sun dried to constant weight. Taxonomic authentication of the plant was conducted by at

the project supervisor, Department of Biochemistry, Rivers State University.

3.2 Sample Preparation

The fresh samples of the plantain peels were weighed on a balance. The mass obtained for the

fresh sample of the plantain peels were 15.380kg (15,380.000g) respectively. The weighed

plantain peels were washed with tap water followed by sun drying for three weeks from 7:30am

to 4:00pm daily. The dried plantain peels were then crushed into smaller pieces before blending

them into powdery form using an electronic blending machine and stored in plastic container

prior to the analysis. The mass of the blended plantain peels obtained was 2.150 kg (2,150.000g).

The blending of the samples was done at using an industrial blender.

3.3 Proximate Analysis

The proximate analysis of the sample was carried out by the methods of AOAC, (1990)

3.3.1 Determination of Ash Content

To determine the potash content of the sample, 1000g of the dried plantain peel was completely

combusted to ashes. The ash was leached with 1 Liter of distilled water. The leachate contains all

water-soluble inorganic compounds, forming the impure (crude) potash. The resulting potash

was obtained in dry form by evaporating the leachate to complete dryness and drying the residue

21
to constant weight in an oven at 105℃. Thus, the potash content of the sample was determined

mathematically as follows;

w2 1
PC a =( × v) × × 100 3.1
v1 w1

Where;

PCa = Potash content

W1 = weight of ash

V = volume of water

V1 = volume after evaporation

W2 = Dried ash after evaporation

3.3.2 Determination of Amino Acid Profile of the sample

The Amino acid compositions of the samples were determined using methods described by

Benitez (1989). The known sample was dried to constant weight, defatted, hydrolyzed,

evaporated in a rotary evaporator and loaded into the Applied Biosystems PTH Amino Acid

Analyzer. The sample was defatted using chloroform/methanol mixture of ratio 2:1. About

500mg of the sample was put in extraction thimble and extracted for 15 hours in soxhlet

extraction apparatus (AOAC, 1995). The defatted sample was weighed into glass ampoule. 7ml

of 6NHCL was added and oxygen was expelled by passing nitrogen into the ampoule (this is to

avoid possible oxidation of some amino acids during hydrolysis e.g methionine and cystine). The

glass ampoule was then sealed with Bunsen burner flame and put in an oven preset at 105 ℃ ±

5℃ for 22 hours. The ampoule was allowed to cool before broken open at the tip and the content

22
was filtered to remove the humins. It should be noted that tryptophan is destroyed by 6N HCL

during hydrolysis. The filtrate was then evaporated to dryness using rotary evaporator (AOAC,

1995). The residue was dissolved with 5ml to acetate buffer (pH 2.0) and stored in plastic

specimen bottles, which were kept in the freezer. A 60 microlitre of the sample was dispensed

into the cartridge of the analyzer. The analyzer is designed to separate and analyze free acidic,

neutral and basic amino acids of the hydrolysate (Benitez, 1989).

3.3.3 Determination of the Mineral composition of the Potash

The analysis of the mineral composition was carried out using Miroslav and Vladimir (1999)

procedure but with a slight modification. 0.5g portions of the sun dried and ground samples were

weighed into a porcelain crucible and ashed in a muffle furnace at a slowly increasing

temperature up to 600℃ for 2 hours. The samples were removed and cooled in a desiccator.

10ml of 6M HCL were added to each portion and heated on a steam bath for 15 min, after which

1mL of HNO3 was added and heated for an hour to ensure complete dissolution. 10mL of

distilled water were added, cooled and filtered into 50mL volumetric flasks and made up to mark

with distilled water. Metals were analyzed using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer at the

wavelengths 766.5nm, 589.0nm, 285.2nm, 422.7nm, 324.7nm, 248.3nm, 213.9nm and 283.3nm

for K, NA, Mg, Ca, Cu, Fe, Zn and Pb respectively.

3.3.4 Determination of Crude (Fat) Lipid

2.0 g of the sample which was washed and dried in an oven and weighed into the extracting

thimble and plugged lightly with cotton wool. 150 ml of petroleum ether (boiling point 60–

800℃) was poured into 500 ml capacity round bottom flask and extracted using the soxhlet

extractor for about four hours. The extract was poured into a dry pre-weighed crucible (w 1) and

23
the thimble was rinsed with a little quantity of the ether back to the beaker. The beaker was then

heated on steam bath to drive off the excess of the solvent and then cooled in the desiccator and

weigh (w2) to obtain the lipid content.

3.3.5 Determination of the Carbohydrate Content of the sample

The carbohydrate content of the beetle was determined by calculation; as percentage difference

of the summation of other proximate parameters.

% carbohydrate = 100- (M+P+F+A+F2+L) 3.2

Where,

M = % Moisture

P = % Protein

F1= % Fat

A = % Ash

F2= % Crude Fiber

L = % Crude Lipid

3.3.6 Moisture

Moisture was determined by oven drying method. Two (2g) of the sample was accurately

weighed into a separate clean, dried crucible (W 1). Each crucible was allowed in an oven at 100-

105℃ for 6 - 12 hours until a constant weight was obtained. Then the crucible was placed in the

desiccator for 30min to cool. After cooling, it was weighed again (W 2). The percentage moisture

content was determined as follows:

24
 W 1 −W 2
% Moisture= × 100 3.3
Weight of peel

Where,

W1 = Initial weight of crucible + Sample

W2 = Final weight of crucible + Sample

3.4 Data Analysis

Data analysis was done using Microsoft Excel (2016). The experimental analysis was carried out

in duplicate for each parameter. Mean and standard deviation was used to carry out the

comparative analysis of the experimental data.

25
 CHAPTER FOUR

Results and Discussion

4.1 Results

4.1.1 Proximate Analysis

Figure 4.1 A and Figure 4.1B displays the distribution of the proximate analysis in percentage of

the plantain peels and potash analyzed in this study. For the dried plantain peels, the moisture

content was 48.09%, carbohydrate was 35.71%, crude protein was 4.08%, crude lipid was 7.1%

while the fibre and ash contents were 3.27% and 1.15% respectively. For the potash, moisture

content was 35.52%, carbohydrate was 45.26%, crude protein was 4%, crude lipids was 6.58%,

while fibre and ash contents were 3.29% and 1.05% respectively.

Plantain Peel

35.71
48.09

4.08
3.27 1.15 7.1

Moisture Crude Protein Crude Lipids

Ash Fibre Carbohydrate

Figure 4.1A: Proximate analysis for Plantain Peels

26
 Potash

35.52
45.26

4
3.29 1.05 6.58

Moisture Crude Protein Crude Lipids

Ash Fibre Carbohydrate

Figure 4.1A: Proximate analysis for Potash

Comparing the proximate analysis between the plantain peel and potash in percentage, the dried

plantain peel had more moisture, crude protein, fibre as well as carbohydrate contents than the

potash while the potash had more ash content than the dried plantain peels.

27
4.1.2 Mineral Composition

The mineral composition for the dried plantain peels and potash are displayed in table 4.1. Based

on the experimental analysis, the potash had more concentration than the dried plantain peels in

only six mineral components which were Iron (Fe) with 7.5mg/100g, Potassium (K) with

126.67mg/100g, Manganese (Mn) with 0.31mg/100g, Chromium (Cr) with 0.06mg/100g, Nickel

(Ni) with 0.055mg/100g and Aluminum (Al) with 0.025mg/100g. On the other hand, the plantain

peels contained higher concentrations of Calcium (Ca) with 15.025mg/100g, Zinc (Zn) with

0.0675mg/100g, Phosphorus (P) with 62.065mg/100g, Sodium (Na) with 3.81mg/100g,

Magnesium (Mg) with 15.18mg/100g, Copper (Cu) with 0.525mg/100g, Lead (Pb) with

3.12mg/100g and Cadmium (Cd) with 1.59mg/100g.

28
Table 4.1 Mineral composition for dried plantain peels and potash

Mineral Composition Concentration (mg/100g)

Potash Plantain peels
Calcium 13.5 15.025
Iron 7.5 6.1
Zinc 0.05 0.0675
Phosphorus 60.37 62.065
Potassium 126.67 124.325
Sodium 3.72 3.81
Magnesium 14.14 15.18
Copper 0.5 0.525
Lead 2.88 3.12
Cadmium 1.21 1.59
Silver ND ND
Mercury ND ND
Manganese 0.31 0.23
Chromium 0.06 0.04
Nickel 0.055 0.05
Selenium ND ND
Vanadium ND ND
Aluminum 0.025 0.02
Molybdenum ND ND
Tim ND ND
*ND = Not Detected

29
4.1.3 Amino Acid Composition
Amino acid components for the potash and dried plantain peels were analyzed and the results are

displayed in table 4.2. the potash had higher concentrations than the dried plantain peels in

isoleucine (0.51mg/g), Phenylalanine (2.99mg/g) and Valine (8.51mg/g), while the dried plantain

peels had higher concentrations than the potash in lysine (2.24mg/g), Histidine (1.15mg/g),

Arginine (3.25mg/g), Threonine (3.18mg/g), Leucine (3.01mg/g), aspartate (3.38mg/g), cystine

(0.49mg/g), glycine (3.15mg/g), serine (3.49mg/g), proline (2.87mg/g), Methionine (1.13mg/g),

glutamate (7.09mg/g), tyrosine (2.97mg/g), tryptophan (0.41mg/g) and alanine (5.61mg/g).

30
Table 4.2: Amino acid composition for dried plantain peels and potash

Concentration (mg/g)
Component
Potash Plantain Peels
Lysine 2.10 2.24
Histidine 1.06 1.15
Arginine 3.21 3.25
Threonine 2.27 3.18
Isoleucine 0.51 0.50
Phenylalanin
e 2.99 2.87
Leucine 3.00 3.01
Valine 8.51 8.50
Aspartate 3.24 3.38
Cystine 0.44 0.49
Glycine 2.71 3.15
Serine 3.21 3.49
Proline 2.55 2.87
Methionine 1.02 1.13
Glutamate 6.99 7.09
Tyrosine 2.44 2.97
Tryptophan 0.4 0.41
Alanine 5.13 5.61

31
4.1.4 Fatty Acid Composition

The fatty acid composition of the dried plantain peels was displayed in table 4.3. Lauric acid was

the predominant fatty acid (3.606mg/100g), Linolenic acid (0.585) was the second most

dominant fatty acid followed by myristic acid (0.3512mg/100g), Eicosapentaenoic acid

(0.3314mg/100g) and Linoleic acid (0.245mg/100g) were placed fourth and fifth respectively.

Stearic acid (0.107mg/100g) came in sixth, Decosahexanoic acid (0.0225mg/100g) and Dihomo-

y-linolenic acid (0.017mg/100g) came in seventh and eighth. Oleic acid (0.0163mg/100g) was

ninth and Mead acid (0.006mg/100g) was tenth. Adrenic acid was not detected.

Table 4.3: Fatty Acid Composition of the Dried Plantain Peels

Components Concentration (mg/100g)

Adrenic acid ND
Dihomo-y-linolenic acid 0.017
Eicosapentaenoic acid 0.3314
Myristic acid 0.3512
Linoleic acid 0.245
Linolenic acid 0.585
Mead acid 0.006
Lauric acid 3.606
Stearic acid 0.107
Oleic acid 0.0163
Decosahexanoic acid 0.0225
ND: Not Detected

32
4.1.5 Carbohydrate Composition

The carbohydrate composition of the dried plantain peels was analyzed and displayed in table

4.4. Mannose (3.8g/100g) was the predominant sugar in the test sample, glucose was second with

1.6g/100g. Arabinose and Xylose were placed third and fourth with concentrations 1.1g/100g

and 0.9g/100g respectively. Sucrose and Fructose came in fifth and sixth with concentrations

0.7g/100g and 0.6g/100g respectively. Rhamnose with concentration 0.51g/100g and Sorbitol

with concentration 0.4g/100g were place seventh and eighth while Ribose ranked last with

concentration 0.33g/100g. Maltose was not detected.

Table 4.4: Carbohydrate composition of the dried plantain peel

Carbohydrate Concentration (g/100g)

Ribose 0.33
Sucrose 0.7
Xylose 0.9
Mannose 3.8
Rhamnose 0.51
Arabinose 1.1
Sorbitol 0.4
Fructose 0.6
Glucose 1.6
Maltose ND
ND = Not Detected

33
4.2 Discussion of Findings

Comparing the proximate compositions of the potash with the dried plantain peels, findings

showed that, the dried plantain peels had almost the moisture content when compared to the

potash with 0.53% moisture content difference. The crude protein component showed that, the

plantain peel had more content than the potash by 2%. More so, the plantain peel had about 7.9%

lipid contents than the potash from the analysis. With respect to the ash and carbohydrate

content, the plantain peels had more than potash by 9.5% and 2.3% for ash and carbohydrates

contents respectively. However, the potash had more fibre content than the dried plantain peels

with a 0.6% content.

Comparing the mineral components of the potash and dried plantain peels, findings showed that,

the plantain peels contained more calcium with about 11.3% (1.525mg/100g), zinc with 35%

(0.0175mg/100g), Phosphorus with 2.8% (1.695mg/100g), Sodium with 2.4% (0.09mg/100g),

Magnesium with 7.4% (1.04mg/100g), Copper with 5% (0.025mg/100g), Lead with 8.3%

(0.24mg/100g) and Cadmium with 31.4% (0.38mg/100g) more content than the potash.

However, the potash had more Iron with 22.9% (1.4mg/100g), Potassium with 1.9%

(2.345mg/100g), Manganese with 34.78% (0.8mg/100g), Chromium with 50% (0.02mg/100g),

Nickel with 10% (0.005mg/100g) and Aluminum with 25% (0.05mg/100g). other components

like Silver, Mercury, Selenium, Vanadium, Molybdenum and Tim were not detected in the

analysis.

For the amino acid comparison, the potash had more Isoleucine with 2% (0.01mg/g),

Phenylalanine with 4.2% (0.12mg/g) and Valine with 0.11% (0.01mg/g) than the dried plantain

peels. However, the dried plantain peels had higher concentrations of Lysine with 6.7%

(0.14mg/g), Histidine with 8.5% (0.09mg/g), Arginine with 1.25% (0.04mg/g), Threonine with

34
40.1% (0.91mg/g), Leucine with 0.33% (0.01mg/g), aspartate with 4.32% (0.14mg/g), Cystine

with 11.4% (0.05mg/g), Glycine with 16.2% (0.44mg/g), Serine with 8.7% (0.28mg/g), Proline

with 12.5% (0.32mg/g), Methionine with 10.78% (0.11mg/g), Glutamate with 1.43% (0.1mg/g),

Tyrosine with 21.72% (0.53mg/g), Tryptophan with 2.5% (0.01mg/g) and Alanine with 9.35%

(0.48mg/g) more than the potash.

Conclusion

Based on the findings of the study, the researcher concluded that, ash from dried plantain peels

were a better substitute for potash because, it contained more moisture, ash content, crude

proteins, crude lipids as well as carbohydrate components than the potash from the proximate

analysis. Also, it contains more mineral components as well as the amino acid components than

the potash. Thus, it can be a better substitute for preparing African salad (abacha).

Recommendation

35
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APPENDIX I

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