CAT 2

ANTHONY KARURI E031-01-1483/2019

In the 19th and earliest 20th century, the geometric parameters of reference ellipsoids were derived from
various terrestrial data sets and then introduced as a reference for national geodetic surveys. Normal
gravity formulae referred to these ellipsoids have been derived since about 1900 and are used for
national gravimetric surveys. These regional or local reference systems may be regarded as precursors
of the present global systems, which are based on the theory of the level ellipsoid.

1: Geodetic reference systems based on the theory of the level ellipsoid were first introduced in
1924/1930. At the IUGG General Assembly in Madrid 1924, Hayford’s ellipsoid was introduced as the
International Ellipsoid, with the parameters;

a = 6 378 388 m, f = 1/297.0

The General Assembly in Stockholm (1930) adopted the gravity formula established by G. Cassinis for
Hayford’s ellipsoid:

This corresponds to the normal gravity formula assuming a level ellipsoid. The geometric parameters a
and f were calculated by J. F. Hayford(1909) from astrogeodetic observations in the U.S.A.. In 1928, W.
A. Heiskanen determined the equatorial gravity from an adjustment of isostatically reduced gravity
values. The international reference system of 1924/1930 is thus defined by the four parameters:

The corresponding ellipsoid has been applied in numerous geodetic surveys; also, the normal gravity
formula has found broad acceptance.

2: At the General Assembly of the IUGG in Luzern (1967), the 1924/1930 reference system was replaced
by the Geodetic Reference System 1967 (GRS67), see IAG (1971). It was defined by the following

parameters;

The calculation of the semi-major axis was based on astrogeodetic observations collected over the
continents, which were transformed into a uniform system by gravimetric methods. Observations of
space probes yielded the geocentric gravitational constant, which includes the mass of the atmosphere.
The dynamic form factor was derived from the orbit perturbations of artificial satellites, and the angular
velocity of the Earth’s rotation was adopted from astronomy. The GRS67 has been used especially for
scientific problems and for a few geodetic networks.

3: At the IUGG General Assembly in Canberra (1979), the Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS80) was
introduced. It is also based on the theory of the geocentric equipotential ellipsoid, with the defining
parameters (Moritz, 2000):
With respect to the orientation, it is stated that the minor axis of the reference ellipsoid be parallel to
the direction defined by the Conventional International Origin and, that the primary meridian be parallel
to the zero meridian of the Bureau International de l'Heure (BIH) adopted longitudes. (BIH -International
Time Bureau). The system is consistent with the IAU system of astronomical constants (IAU -
International Astronomical Union). It is now widely used as a reference for geodetic work, in theory as
well as in practice. The equatorial radius of the GRS80 ellipsoid has been derived from laser distance
measurements to satellites, satellite altimetry, and Doppler positioning, with an uncertainty of 0.5 m.