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Module 22. Process Measurement
Module 22. Process Measurement
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National Guard
Black Belt Training
Module 22
Process Measurement
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TOOLS
•Process Mapping
ACTIVITIES
• Map Current Process / Go & See •Process Cycle Efficiency/TOC
• Identify Key Input, Process, Output Metrics •Little’s Law
• Develop Operational Definitions •Operational Definitions
• Develop Data Collection Plan •Data Collection Plan
• Validate Measurement System •Statistical Sampling
• Collect Baseline Data •Measurement System Analysis
• Identify Performance Gaps •TPM
• Estimate Financial/Operational Benefits •Generic Pull
• Determine Process Stability/Capability •Setup Reduction
• Complete Measure Tollgate •Control Charts
•Histograms
•Constraint Identification
•Process Capability
Note: Activities and tools vary by project. Lists provided here are not necessarily all-inclusive. UNCLASSIFIED / FOUO
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Learning Objectives
Understand the importance of measurement to
process improvement
Apply measures of central tendency and variation to
process data
Apply the concepts of common and special cause
variation
Apply Sigma Quality Level to processes
Know how to measure the Voice of the Customer and
Voice of the Business
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Measurement Fundamentals
Definition: The assignment of numbers to
observations according to certain decision rules
Measurement is the beginning of any science or
discipline
Without measurements, we do not know where we
are going or if we ever got there – we do not even
know where we are now!
If it is important to the customer, we should measure
it
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Measurement Example
The following data is the number of minutes it took Soldiers to
resolve their AKO issues when calling the AKO Helpdesk. Take a
few minutes to examine the data:
Time of Day Minutes To Resolve Issue
0730 00
0731 11
0800 06
0845 14
0903 11
0925 58
0940 47
1006 16
1120 09
1145 48
1158 43
1205 53
1214 49
1310 09
1400 10
How should we summarize and present this data to understand
the AKO Helpdesk’s overall performance?
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Mean Example
Lets go back to our AKO Helpdesk data:
0, 11, 6, 14, 11, 58, 47, 16, 9, 48, 43, 53,
49, 9, 10
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Mode - most
P -V alue < 0.005
M ean 25.600
frequently
S tDev 20.870
V ariance 435.543
S kew ness 0.43325
point M inimum
1st Q uartile
M edian
0.000
9.000
14.000
3rd Q uartile 48.000
A histogram
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 M aximum 58.000
95% C onfidence Interv al for M ean
shows data by
14.043 37.157
95% C onfidence Interv al for M edian
frequency of
9.374 47.626
95% C onfidence Interv al for S tDev
9 5 % C onfidence Inter vals
occurrence. It
15.279 32.914
Mean
“distribution” and
10 20 30 40 50
“spread” and of
the data
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Measuring Variation
Another important way of summarizing our data is by
measuring the average “spread” or variation between
each data point and the mean
While the center of our process is important, knowing
the spread is particularly important in service because
each user is an individual and deserves to be provided
with acceptable service
Do you care that the average wait is 26 minutes if you
are the one who had to wait 58 minutes?
A commonly used term in statistics for measuring this
variation is the standard deviation
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i
( X X ) 2
s i 1
n 1
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Subtotal = 6097.60
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Variance
If we square the standard deviation, we get the Variance
The Variance of a Data Sample is defined as follows:
Sample = 2
Variance
s
The Variance of the Population from which the sample is
drawn is defined as:
Population
Variance
2
The Variance is useful since we cannot add Standard Deviations
together, but we can add Variances (more on this in future
modules)
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Understanding Variation
There will always be some variation present in all processes:
Nature – Shape/size of leaves, snowflakes, etc.
Human – Handwriting, tone of voice, speed of walk, etc.
Mechanical – Weight/size/shape of product, etc.
Types of Variation
Common Cause Variation
This is the consistent, stable, random variability within the process
We will have to make a fundamental improvement to reduce common
cause variation
Is usually hard to reduce
Special Cause Variation
This is due to a specific cause that we can isolate
Special cause variation can be detected by spotting outliers or
patterns in the data
Usually easy to eliminate
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UCL=602.474
Base-wide electrical
Sample Mean
601
599
Control Chart showing
Special Cause variation 598 LCL=597.986
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Sample
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600.0
Sample Mean
Control Chart showing 599.5
__
X=599.548
LCL=598.775
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Sample
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Centered (Blue)
(Green)
Reduce On-Target Center
Spread Process
The Distribution
By examining the distribution, we can
see patterns that are difficult to see in
a simple table of numbers
Histogram
A common graphical tool used to portray
the distribution is the histogram
Exercise: Minitab
Let’s use Minitab to help us analyze some data
Open the Minitab data set called Red Beads Data.mtw
Four teams of four people each sampled 50 beads from
the same bead box
Each team member drew 10 samples of 50
The samples were randomly drawn and the beads
randomly replaced after drawn
The data collected was the number of “red” beads
counted out of the fifty beads sampled
What do you think the histogram of this data will look like?
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Exercise: Minitab
1. Let’s make a histogram of the data
Select: Stat>
Basic Statistics>
Display Descriptive Statistics
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Exercise: Minitab
3. Click on Graphs
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Exercise: Minitab
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Exercise: Minitab
This is a frequency
histogram that shows us,
for the entire 160 samples
run, how many red beads 22
remained in the paddle
each time
For example, 22 times out
of 160, there were 11 red
beads in the paddle
What type of variation is
present? Common or
Special Cause? 11
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Exercise: Minitab
Notice that the Data in Session Window gives us information
on both Central Tendency and Variation
Variable Maximum
Red Beads 19.000
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Quartiles
Every group of data has four quartiles. If you sort the data from
smallest to largest, the first 25% of the data is less than or equal to the
first quartile. The second quartile takes all the data up to the median.
The first 75% of the data is less than or equal to the third quartile and
25% of the data is greater than or equal to the third quartile – the
fourth quartile.
The Inter Quartile Range equals Q3 - Q1, spanning 50% of the data
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Exercise: Minitab
1. Let’s make a Box Plot of
the data
Select:
Stat>
Basic Statistics>
Display Descriptive Statistics
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Exercise: Minitab
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Exercise: Minitab
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Exercise: Minitab
Displayed are 4
boxplots, one for each
team
One way of
interpreting a box plot
is “looking down at the
top of a histogram”
This is a good way
to see how spread and
centering differ from
one team to another
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Exercise: Minitab
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Exercise: Minitab
As we would have
3 40 0 10.700 0.495 3.131 5.000 8.000 11.000
4 40 0 10.511 0.509 3.220 5.185 7.307 10.802
figured from the box Variable Team Q3 Maximum
plot, team 4 has a Red Beads 1 13.000 19.000
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Exercise: Minitab
1. Now let’s make a Dotplot
of the data
Select Graph> Dotplot
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Exercise: Minitab
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Exercise: Minitab
3. Double click on
C3-Red Beads to
place it in the
Graph Variables box
4. Double click on
C1-Team to place it in
the Categorical
Variables box.
Then click on OK.
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Exercise: Minitab
Displayed are the Four Dotplots, one for each team
This is a good way to see how spread and centering differ from
one team to another. Also, the scale remains the same.
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ƒ(x) = Y
Frequency
Variation
x
The Normal distribution is important in statistics because of the relationship
between the shape of the curve and the standard deviation ()
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The special properties of the normal distribution allow us to calculate the area
underneath the curve based upon how many sigmas (or standard deviations)
we are away from the mean:
-3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3
+/-1 =68.27%
+/-2 =95.45%
+/-3 =99.73%
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+/-3 = 99.7%
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Process Performance
There are two aspects to process performance:
Efficiency – Time and cost associated with executing the
process
Cycle time (processing time, on-time delivery, responsiveness, etc.)
Cost (number of resources required, capital equipment, etc.)
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Process Capability
Process capability measures whether or not a process is
capable of meeting customer requirements
It is a quantifiable comparison of a process’
performance (Voice of the Process) vs. the customer
requirements or “specifications” (Voice of the
Customer)
Most measures have some desired value (“target”) and
some acceptable limit of variation around the desired
value
The extent to which the “expected” values fall within these
limits determines how capable the process is of meeting
its requirements
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Tolerance • Target
• Pass/Fail
Cost
• Target
• Service Break Points
– Less than 1: Delighted
Cost
– 1 to 2: Very Satisfied
– 2 to 3: Satisfied
3 2 1 1 2 3
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LSL USL
LSL USL
Process Process
Center Center
3 3
3 6
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Desired
Current
LSL USL
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80%
70%
60%
% Distribution
50%
40%
Distribution
30%
Mean Delivery Time Reduced
20%
0%
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Lead-Time (days)
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- Example -
S tDev
V ariance
61.251
3751.674 has a non-normal
distribution with the
S kew ness 2.87329
Kurtosis 9.54577
N 118
M inimum 1.000
P-Value < 0.05
1st Q uartile 12.000
Mean = 44 days
M edian 22.000
Median = 22 days
95% C onfidence Interv al for M ean
33.647 55.981
95% C onfidence Interv al for M edian
17.000 29.123
95% C onfidence Interv al for S tDev
Std Dev = 61 days
9 5 % C onfidence Inter vals
54.308 70.246
Mean Range = 365 days
Median
20 30 40 50 60
Required Deliverable
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Takeaways
Now you should be able to:
Explain the importance of measurement to process
improvement
Given process data, calculate a measure of central
tendency and variation and describe what they tell us
Identify and contrast special cause and common
cause variation
Given process data, calculate a Sigma Quality Level
and describe what it tells us
Explain what is meant by VOC and VOP
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National Guard
Black Belt Training
APPENDIX
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Typical goals for Cp are greater than 1.33 (or 1.67 for high risk
or high liability items)
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Where is “within”
rather than pooled
99.7% of values
-3 +3
Process Width
LSL T USL
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Z xx
Cpk Z
3 s
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