Priyali Dhingra

BA (H) History, 3rd year

Q. Discuss the various stages of Russian foreign policy from 1930 to 1953.

The year 1917 witnessed the rise of the Bolsheviks and the Communist revolution, which changed
the path of Russian political and social development for the foreseeable future. Headed by Lenin,
the priority of the Bolsheviks after finally coming into power and forming the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics was to bring an economic wave powerful enough to compete with the capitalist
nations of the west. There was no outside threat to USSR once the Allied intervention
accompanying the civil war was over. Relations between the west and USSR became increasingly
strained during the 1920s. Things started changing from the early 1930s when world events
started to threaten Soviet Russia and Hitler rose to power in Germany, which led to foreign policies
being formulated with greater attention. Importance was given to reactions to events and towards
protection of the nation. External politics started growing and impacting internal policies as well,
including industrial manufacture, military training and more. For convenience, we can divide the
phases of foreign policy into three time periods. The first phase involves the growth of foreign
relations from 1930 to 1939. The second phase starts with the Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939 and
concludes by the end of World War II, where Russia was on the victorious side (1941). The third
phase, which comes to a close with the death of Stalin in 1953, incorporates the aftermath of the
World War, and the events of Cold War-where we can see two great powers coming into indirect
conflict.

An illustration by David
Lo on So iet Union’s
political designs (circa
1948)
Development of foreign relations in the 1930s
The Great Depression that came up in 1929 made western businessmen seek ties with the Soviet
U io to sell the hea a hi e that as ital to ‘ussia s i dust ializatio . The u ge to de elop
diplomatic relations also came up in several western powers. Stalin, during his political struggles
and policy implementations, raised the spectre of war as per his convenience. He lay emphasis on
the probability of the western powers forming a coalition against the Soviet Union and reinforced
this view through propaganda. Even though this so-called coalition never came into existence,
Russia in the 1930s signed several international treaties, especially non-aggression pacts with its
neighbours, all designed to lower international tension. Soviet ideas on class war and imperialism
remained the same during this period, and Russia continued to promote international revolution of
the proletariat through Comintern. For a long time, Britain and France were regarded as the
atio s ai e e ies a d League of Natio s as the i ternational agency for western military
imperialism.
However, the world began to witness a change when Germany and Japan started questioning the
existing order in early 1930s. While the industrial giant, Germany, was weakened by the western
powers as an aftermath of the Treaty of Versailles, Japan, a growing economic and military power
was being crippled by the European powers that occupied Asia. The world saw the rise of Hitler in
1933, when he became the German vice chancellor and promised his nation its resurrection. It was
for the first time that Stalin saw the rise of a powerful leader, which raised alarms in his mind.
Clouds of th eat loo ed o e ‘ussia. The giga ti e pi e i the East is ipe fo ollapse, Hitle
said. Although the Communists of Germany aided Hitler in his rise to power and destruction of
Socialist Democratic Party, he attacked the German Communist Parties in February 1933 and
raided the branches of Soviet commercial agencies.
Differences started rising between Japan and Russia when Manchuria was invaded and converted
into a puppet state by Japan. Russia was unable to control Japan, and surrendered the Chinese
Eastern Railway, constructed entirely by Russian initiative, to them for a nominal price. Several
border conflicts also took place between both the parties.
Germany and Japan were two nations that wanted to transform the world order, and this changed
the nature of danger Soviet faced. The Soviet Union was still weak and unprepared for a battle
with the fascist leaders. Peace was strived for by the nation, since its military was not fully geared
for war, the economy could break down, and peasants could revolt against the war. The Foreign
Commissar, Maxim Litvinov, who occupied the post from 1930-1939 spoke only of peace. The
conflicting Soviet views on class war and anti-imperialism were not propagated openly after the
1930s.
The situation was arising for the Soviet Union to make sure that other capitalist nations do not
support or join the acts of aggression committed by fascist nations of Germany and Japan. It was
important to form a public opinion around condemnation of fascism and imperialism in democratic
ou t ies. “tali o ti ued to pu sue f ie dl elatio s ith Ge a , p ete di g he did t
u de sta d Hitle s o je ti es. Hitler, however, was ambitious and wanted war. He wanted to
e pa d the Ge a te ito . “tali s e t est optio as to fo allia es ith so e po e ful
states, the existence of which could prevent a military entanglement. When it became certain that
a war would take place, Stalin tried to deflect the enemy from the borders of his country.

Many historians think that in the years 1932-34, relations were already becoming difficult between
Germany and Japan, but the industrial commercial factors prevented the escalation of this
hostility. When the Non-Aggression Pact was signed later, there was a favourable balance of trade.
Max Beloff, in contrast, feels that too much importance should not be given to economic ties.
‘ussia s fo eig t ade e ai ed at a low level. In 1937 it was just under and in 1938 just over 1.1
pe e t of the o ld s total. A o di g to hi , o e i po ta t tha the e o o i ause of so ial
isolationism was an increasing mental isolationism.
The “o iet U io as o pelled to alte its pea e st ateg o e o ld e e ts, like the o e in
Be li , sta ted taki g pla e. Feeli g th eate ed, it e dea ou ed to eate a Easte Lo a o
whereby the independence of the Baltic countries and Poland was to be guaranteed by several
powers, including the USSR, France and possibly Germany. This would a t as a uffe zo e fo
Soviet Russia against the aggressive attacks or designs of Hitler as a barrier would be created
between both the nations. Poland and Germany,
however, refused to sign any treaties that might put
a check on their aggressive designs. Both signed a
non-aggression pact in 1934 which diplomatically
cleared the path for Germany fulfilling its
expansionist designs. Stalin now realized that Poland
could not be relied on.

Once Hitler came to power, the Soviet Union started

looking for cooperation with non-communist states,
hi h ould p o ote olle ti e se u it a d
diplomatic relations in order to give more recognition
David Low,"How much will you give me not to kick your to Soviet Russia. USSR also became a member of the
pants for, say, twenty-five years?" (12th March, 1936)
League League of Nations in 1934, and was given a
permanent permanent seat on the council, which symbolized
that it as e og ized as a G eat Po e . Additio al lo alized ag ee e ts e e also sig ed ith
various nations for mutual assistance, since Soviet could not rely on League of Nations to control
the aggressors and their moves. The Soviet Union also harnessed the Communist International, in
hi h the ‘ussia Co u ist Pa t as do i a t, to est i t the fas ist desig s of its oppo e ts.
Comintern was prevented from openly propagating the idea of an international revolution of the
p oleta iat. I stead, it sta ted p o oti g a poli of popula f o ts a d opposed the g o th of
fascism. Stalin outmaneuvered Hitler by establishing diplomatic relations with China and US. The
national interest dictated Soviet foreign policy. As a member of the League of Nations, Soviet
advocated disarmament as well as supporting the idea of collective security.
In December 1934, the Soviet Union and France signed a protocol pledging to jointly revive the
Eastern Locarno. At this time, the Soviet Union was not keen on concluding any military alliance
with France. A Treat of Mutual Assistance was signed with France on 2 May 1935 to balance
Hitle s ou tship of Pola d. Without a ilita o e tio , the ag ee e t as at ost a
preliminary to a allia e athe tha a allia e itself, sa s Beloff. This ag ee e t failed to fulfill
the requirements of security that the Soviet Union needed. On 16 May 1935, a treat was
concluded with Czechoslovakia which tried to mobilize two nations, France and Czechoslovakia, to
check the expansionist ideas of Germany. Failure to implement this treaty when Hitler attacked
Czechoslovakia after some time proved disastrous for Europe.
At the Seventh Congress of Comintern in 1935, George Dimitrov, who was previously critical of
fas is a d so ial de o a a d lassified the as t i e ils, esta lished a U ited F o t of
communist parties with reformist socialist and even non-socialist parties who were willing to fight
fascism together. Fascism was singled out as ei g e t e el fe o ious, hau i isti , ou te -
e olutio a a d the ost i ious e e of the o ki g lass. The o igi al ai of this U ited
Front or Popular Front was to ensure that they would not fall prey to fascism themselves and/or
become allies of Hitle . “o e a sa that it ai ed at o tai i g the sp ead of fas is , athe
tha dest o i g its fo al poi ts...
The Soviet Union became a member of League of Nations thinking that such a prestigious
organization would be able to put a brake on the imperialist designs of the aggressors by imposing
sanctions on them. However, the League proved to be incapable of doing that one too many times.
When a civil war broke out in Spain in 1936, no steps were taken by the League of Nations to
punish the aggressors. The Soviet Union, in its eagerness to stop the activities of the fascists, sent
officers and technicians to assist the Loyalists. However, the insurgents won the bitter civil war in
“pai ith the assi e a ki g of Ital a d Ge a . But “o iet s involvement intensified the
distrust between the Soviet Union and Western democracies. The League could not control the
expansionist designs of the imperialist countries. The political scenario was charged with suspicion
and steps taken by the Soviet Union and Western power lacked mutual faith. The Western powers
were convinced that the ultimate aim of communism was to destroy capitalism and establish
communism. Hence, no possible steps were taken by western powers to control the spread of
fascism in Manchuria, Italy, and Spain, which convinced the Soviet Union that they were not
serious about curbing fascism.

In June 1935, Britain consented to the German violation of the armament clauses of the Treaty of
Versailles. Soviet was concerned about developments in the far east. The attempt to have the US
play the role that France had assumed in Europe, i.e. of a formal ally discouraging the potential
aggressor, had failed. It was absolutely clear that the United States would not safeguard the Soviet
Union from any menacing threat of Japan. As a violation to the Locarno Treat of 1925, the German
army entered Rhineland on 7 March 1936, which automatically granted Britain and France to resist
militarization without taking permission from the League of Nations (Rhine Pact). This
remilitarisation of Rhineland led to serious consequences for world peace, in addition to thwarting
F e h as e da . This i to ious o e g eatl e ha ed Hitle s po e . The “o iet U io
realized that France would like to cling to the alliance with it but for its own security, Moscow
surreptitiously renewed its effort to negotiate a Rapallo-type treaty with Nazi Germany. Germany
after the re-militarisation formed the Rome-Berlin axis in October 1936, which was followed by
German Japanese Anti-Comintern Pact in November 1936, joined by Italy in 1937 and Spain in
1939. Exaggerated and high-sounding dangers of communism without any practical content filled
this pa t. Mea hile, Japa ese a d “o iet U io s t oops kept fighti g attles et ee 1938 and
39, and the situation grew tenser.
After annexing Austria and violating the Treaty of Versailles in March 1939, Hitler planned to attack
Sudetenland
(Czechoslovakian ethnically
German land). The Munich
Agreement was signed by
France with Hitler and
Mussolini and
Czechoslovakia was asked
to cede Sudetenland to
Germany. The Soviet Union
and victim nation
Czechoslovakia were not
invited to the negotiations
of this pa t. Mos o s
sense of isolation reached
its peak after the signing of
Munich Pact.
Illustration by Sidney Strube, 1936, depicting Hitler killing the Czech democracy.

Soviet leaders abandoned any remaining illusions that they had about putting a check on the
expansionist programs of Hitler by means of collective security, and decided to formulate change
in their foreign policy. Brance Hooper maintains that the Munich Pact was the dividing line
between the two phases of Soviet foreign policy. Western democratic powers could not be relied
o a o e. Pola d ushed aside “o iet s offe i to esta lish o dial elatio s; so did
Hungary and Romania. In January 1939, the Soviet Union made some overtures to Germany
hoping to get some response, but it was disappointed.

In reasing pressure due to Hitler’s annexation of

Czechoslovakia, David Low (1938)
Hitler took advantage of the policy of appeasement followed by Great Britain and France at
Munich. He occupied the whole of Czechoslovakia, establishing the German protectorate of
Bohemia and Moravia and another one in Slovakia. This action not only destroyed the Munich pact
but made it clear that Hitler was determined to expand his territories beyond the areas that were
considered t be ethnically German. As his next act of aggression in Poland, Hitler not only
de a ded Da zig ut also the ight of e t ate ito ial Ge a t a sit a oss the Polish o ido ,
which linked East Prussia to the rest of Germany. All attacks were in the East towards the Soviet
border. When Germany turned its attention to Poland, Britain came in, threatening to go to war if
Ge a atta ked Pola d. This B itish u ilate al gua a tee to Pola d ade possi le the hole
t ai of e e ts leadi g to the Nazi-Soviet Pact of August 1939. This was a momentous
development and provided security to the Soviet, much like the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918). If
Hitler attacked Poland, Britain would release its wrath on him. Soviet here would have been an
important support to both Britain and Poland. This yet again raised its condition from being a
hopeless diplo at to the a ite of Eu ope s fate .

Nazi-“o iet Pa t & Hitle s i asio

Stalin endeavored once again to come to some agreements with Western democracies. He
demanded a free hand in the Baltic states and the right to send troops into Poland in the
eventuality of an attack by Germany. Even while negotiating with Western powers, Stalin kept
‘ussia s doo s ope fo Hitle , a d ith a e e ed gusto, t ied to o e to a ag ee e t ith
Hitler. Maxim Litvinov was replaced by Viacheslav Molotov, a high-ranking leader, as the former
happened to be a Jew and therefore unsuited to deal with Hitler. While Britain and France
continued to negotiate with the Soviet Union with a lack of urgency, entrusting the task to
i sig ifi a t offi e s, Ge a , ho did t a t to fight a a o t o f o ts, seized the
opportunity. Britain and France were clear that the ideological differences between Nazis and
Soviets would ensure that they never came together. However, Stalin and Hitler calculated their
steps in terms of power politics. Stalin surely needed time to build his military strength and wanted
to prevent any acts of aggression on his own territory. Even though both Western and fascist
powers were enemies for him, he sought a rapprochement with them whenever it suited his
nation. While an alliance with Britain and France would surely lead to war, an alliance with
Germany seemed to promise postponement of war for some time.
A diplomatic bombshell exploded on 23 August 1939, as the USSR and Germany announced a Non-
Aggression Pact. This pact included two exceptions from the usual non-aggression pacts. It made
no provision for controlling the acts of aggression by either of the signatories or by a third party. It
obligated its partner to stick to neutrality when the other engaged in aggression, something that
proved very advantageous to Hitler, as it authorized him to attack Poland. He also conquered parts
of western Europe, while the Soviet Union provided its naval bases and raw materials for him to do
so. Stalin in a way became indispensable for Hitler. The second unusual provision of the pact was
that it as to e te i to fo e as soo as it is sig ed.
 Illustrations by David Low and other artists on the Nazi -Soviet Pact of 1939

The Non-Aggression Pact provided the Soviet Union with two years of breathing space. Had it not
been signed, the war would have broken out much earlier. The purges of 1936-38 had weakened
the Soviet army, and the years between Non-Aggression Pact and World War II were utilized to re-
strengthen the nation. Even while signing the pact, Stalin knew that war with Germany was
unavoidable. The Nazi-Soviet Pact also had a soothing effect on the attitude of Japan and
contributed to Soviet security in the far east.
A secret additional Protocol of September 28 consisted of three important clauses. It first provided
the partition of Poland through the middle of the country. Eastern Poland was to be given to the
Soviet Union while western part was to be given to Germany. Secondly, the Protocol envisaged a
similar re-arrangement in the Baltic area. Russia was given a free hand in Estonia, Latvia, and
Finland while Lithuania was assigned to the German sphere of influence. The third was the Russian
i te est i ‘u a ia s Bessa a ia, a e uest heeded Ge a due to its o la k of i te est i
that area. Germany was more concerned with the immediate benefits that could be reaped from
this pact.
Two days after Hitler fortified the Non-Aggression Pact and invaded Poland (September 1, 1939),
B itai a d F a e de la ed a o Ge a . Wo ld Wa II as o a ealit . The “o iet U io s
troops rolled into Poland on September 17 with a fear that its national security would be
endangered if it did not participate in the war. Polish troops were ruthlessly suppressed. ON
September 28, the two aggressors formally portioned the country and this is known as the fourth
partition of Poland. A greater part of Lithuania was transferred to the Soviet Union, which was a
tremendous gain.

Illustrations on the partition of Poland

The partition of Poland made quite an impact on the communist parties abroad. The communist
parties had, before the partition, supported the policy of resisting the aggressive activities of the
Nazis, but after the partition on November 7, they condemned both Germany and the Allies for
indulging in a struggle for world domination. The Soviet Union, skeptical about further
cooperation, in September and October of 1939 signed several mutual assistance pacts with
Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. All three states consented to have Soviet troops stationed in their
areas.

Finland being its next target, Soviet Union demanded it to move its boundaries some twenty miles
further away from Leningrad in exchange for a strip of Karelia. When negotiations failed, Soviet
troops attacked Finland and were outmaneuvered by its tiny army (November 29). The Soviet
Union was expelled out of the League of Nations. Finns sued for peace in March 1940. By the
treaty concluded with Finland, they ceded to the Soviet Union the Karelian isthmus with multiple
towns and territories. Transit rights to Sweden were also granted. Treaties of mutual obligation of
non-aggression were also signed. Although Stalin got a lot of concessions from Finland, he realized
that his armed forces were ill-equipped to wage a war with the major powers of the world, and so
he began a massive effort to re-organize the Red Army.
Germany continued to go on and win the territories of Denmark, Norway, France in summer of
1940. As a response, the Soviet Union extended its frontiers westward to prevent the border
states. Hitler accepted this strategy but also took steps to consolidate its influence in Romania.
After the Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia came under the Soviet Union, it deported
over 130,000 opponents of the regime without the compliance of legal procedures. These
measures taken by the Soviet Union to build its strength did not do well with Germany. Hitler
became convinced that Russia would have to be subjugated if his conquest of Europe was to be
safeguarded. Germans took steps to woo Romania and inland. The Germans tried to lull Soviet
suspicions by inviting Molotov to Berlin for discussions. After Germany conquered Yugoslavia, in
April 1941, with the assistance of Hungarian and Bulgarian forces, Stalin left no unturned to
appease Hitler, hoping that he could postpone the outbreak of war by pursuing a policy of
appeasement. He was proved wrong when on June 22, 1941, the Nazi German army launched a
full-scale attack on Soviet Russia.

Barbarossa: The German plan to launch an attack on the Soviet Union, Barbarossa, was launched
on June 22, 1941, with a threefold thrust.
1. The first objective was to isolate Russia from the Baltic Sea by quickly annexing Leningrad.
2. The second objective was to gain control over Moscow whereby the converging Russian
transport system would be disrupted.
3. The third objective was to seize the coal and food producing regions of the south like Ukraine
and the Caucasus, which would starve the Russians of fuel and food.

Hitle s atta k as de astati g a d aught the “o iet U io off

guard. Germans marched in all directions- in the north towards
Leningrad, in the center to Moscow, and in the south to Kiev. The
Soviet army was smashed and soldiers were taken prisoners in
many places. Stalin left the city when German armies reached
within 60 miles of Moscow. Late in November, the Red Army
started a counteroffensive. The Germans lost control. Luckily for
the Russians, winter came early that year, compelling the
Germans to restrict their activities largely to the south. The
Germans were unable to occupy Stalingrad in 1942. Some were
captured and many Nazis started to retreat. Russian victory could
not be halted.

1944 was an auspicious year for the Soviet Union. The long expected second front opened in June.
In September, Finland, Romania, and Bulgaria surrendered. Germans withdrew. Berlin fell on May
2. Moscow faced no threat from Japan. After the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan
surrendered on August 14, 1945.
Aftermath of the invasion & the victory of World War II
Soviet emerged victorious from the conflict of World War II, with its status being elevated to that
of a g eat o ld po e . The a itio s of Ge a i the est a d the a itio s of Japa i the
east had been crushed, and both countries had been compelled to surrender. Italy and France had
collapsed earlier, and Britain, a major rival of the Soviet Union had been weakened considerably.
The Russian victory of World War II had a positive impact on the communist movements in the
world as well.
Despite the gains mentioned above, it is an undeniable fact that the nation suffered an immense
loss. Some scholars even say that Russia lost forty percent more than Britain or the United States.
An approximated 20 million people died in the war. The loss of manpower was staggering. The
birth rate fell drastically. Huge lands were destroyed by both parties, and hence there was tons of
material destruction. The Nazis destroyed everything while on their way out of the empire.
Agricultural development of the country was massively affected by the loss of roughly ninety-eight
thousand Kolkhozes. Modes of transport weren t spa ed eithe .
The Soviet Government established The Extraordinary Commission to survey the damage caused
by World War II. According to the same, the wartime losses and damage can be estimated to a
rough equivalent of 67.9 billion (new) roubles (in 1941 prices). A rough estimate of the money
spent directly on the war-air defense, evacuation of plant and equipment from European Russia-
and the loss of national income during the war, amounts to 116.1 billion roubles. According to
James Miller and Susan Linz, World War II cost the nation two Five Year Plans.
When we talk about the awareness of German invasion before the attack in 1941, we notice that
“tali as o li ious to it, stati g that it ould ot happe he e . “tali did t a t to e the fi st
one to attack, even a few hours before the invasion. Alexander Worth says that Stalin probably
suffered from a nervous collapse when the myth of his shattered. Stalin abandoned the nation
and went into hiding. In his absence, his generals and subordinates tried to retrieve the situation
as much as possible. The ordinary people were left to their fate many of whom were unsatisfied
with the communist policies. Collectivisation was resented by the peasants, nationalization was
disliked by industry owners, private entrepreneurs felt cheated, the religious felt that they had
been deprived of their faith, and terrible purges had virtually shaken every section of the society. It
as a ge e al elief a o g the people that the ould e sa ed the ultu ed Ge a s. Ple t
of Russian women even welcomed the German soldiers with bread, milk, and butter, according to
General Guderian. Soviet was unprepared when the heavily prepared army of Germany attacked,
which resulted in massive losses for the former. However, Stalin soon chalked out a strategy that
was in consonance with the interests of his country. He broadcast his view to the people,
add essi g the as o ades , itize s , othe s a d siste s a d f ie ds . The use of these
words was deliberate, and it was obvious that Stalin was trying to gain their solidarity. He boosted
the morale of the people, reminding them of the role played by the Red Army during the Civil War
and foreign intervention but also by venturing further into the past. He reminded them of great
Russian heroes. The films, art, and music of the period endeavored to inculcate a feeling of
patriotism, an effort common in several nations, and hence leading to World War II being termed
as The G eat Pat ioti Wa . The “o iet soldie s attle as. Fo the othe la d! Fo “tali !
Stalin established proper coordination b/w the civilian and the military spheres of the government.
The State Defence Committee consisting of five to eight members was made the supreme war-
directing body. The army was strengthened by every measure possible. Their morale was kept
high, and they were smartened up internally, by promoting young officers and dismissing old
officers, and externally, by introducing new uniforms and braid. The government also realized that
it needed to win over the goodwill and cooperation for the church, which would help them target
people s deep eligious faith. The hief atheist e spape as also a ed. The state, the pa t
a d the a ed fo es o ked out st ategies to o ilize the atio s esou es to the a i u .
The various steps taken by the government to safeguard the interests of the Soviet Union proved
rewarding. By 1945-according to Dobb and Nove, more than half the metallurgical output of the
Soviet Union was produced in the Urals whereas five years earlier it was only one fifth. Steel
production doubled from that of 1940. The superiority in firepower of the German infantry of 1941
was surpassed in 1943.
Assistance provided to the Soviet Union by Western countries like the US, UK, and Canada proved
to be significant as well. The US was bound to give Soviet Union goods worth a billion dollars by the
Moscow Protocol of 1941. This agreement was superseded by the master lend-lease agreement of
June 1942 whereby the US was required to give goods worth 11 billion dollars to the Soviet Union.
Britain and Canada also promised to provide substantiate quantities of goods. The help received
from foreign countries in the form of machine tools, locomotives, metals and other items assisted
in solving problems of road transport and communication.
During World War II, the plight of the people was deplorable. There was an extreme dearth of
food, housing was overcrowded, clothing unobtainable, footwear unavailable and rations
inadequate. But the government handled the situation very carefully and appealed to their
pat iotis . The a ti e sloga as, E e thi g fo the f o t a d the people o e thei ha dships
to save their country from a deadly enemy. Steps were also taken to boost agriculture.

Illustrations
showcasing
Russia’s victory
over Germany.
While the Soviet Union took several steps to face the Germans, the Nazis were unable to harness
to their advantage the discontent of the people of the Soviet Union against communist rule. The
Nazis were captives of their racist ideology. Germany made psychological and strategic errors in
handling the Russians. By delaying the onset of the attack on Russia just long enough to permit the
Russian winter to intervene decisively. In June 1944, the Western Allies opened a second front in
France. The German armed forces were defeated and the Soviet Union won the war.

Diplomacy during the years of war

The period b/w 1941-1945 also saw the development of wartime diplomacy. After the German
invasion of 1941, Stalin looked for allies from whom he could procure military and economic help
and persuaded his allies to recognize the right of the Soviet Union over all the annexations made
by it after signing the Non-Aggression Pact, and the Secret Protocol that accompanied it. This
established close relations b/w United States and Britain.
From the several high-level conferences held b/w the allies during the war, three were most
significant at Tehran in December 1943, at Yalta in February 1945, and at Potsdam in July and
August . Afte the “o iet U io s t oops had succeeded in halting the Germans at Moscow
and were in a triumphant mood, Moscow wanted the Allies to launch an attack on Germany from
the west through France. The time for negotiations was appropriate for the Soviet Union as Stalin
had dissolved the Comintern only a few months earlier, which was a symbol of the international
communist movement and an irritant to the West.
Several issues were discussed at Tehran, including the establishment of a new international
organization for promoting world peace, the future of Germany, and the possibility of portioning
Ge a , the “o iet U io s i te est i Ma hu ia, a d the possi le pa ti ipatio of “o iet U io
in the Far Eastern war, and more. Stalin took advantage of the victories that the Soviet Union had
won and the tremendous losses it had suffered, and bargained well. He displayed tremendous grit
in outwitting the Allies on issues that were considered crucial by him

Stalin drew up a specific plan to meet the German threat, which was kept secret until 1946.
According to this plan, the opening of the second front in the spring of 1944 at Normandy was to
be accompanied by a severe and incessant attack by the Soviet Union on Germany that would
disable her and prevent her from sending her forces from the eastern front to the western front.
The Soviet Union kept compelling the Allies to open the second front, and assured that it would
participate in the war against Japan if Germany was defeated. This declaration immensely pleased
the US.
The second important conference, held at Yalta, had Winston Churchill, Franklin Roosevelt, and
Stalin assemble and discuss their cross-border attack on Berlin. The conference was also expected
to define the western frontier of Poland, as it was under the Soviet Union at that time. All three
powers agreed to Curzon line being accepted. They also agreed that the final assault on Germany
should be planned very skilfully. The USSR, US and Britain were to determine the steps to be taken
fo futu e pea e a d se u it , i ludi g the o plete disarmament, demilitarization, and
dis e e e t of Ge a . A Allied Co t ol Cou il as to se e as the top oo di ati g a d
policy organ of the occupying powers after the war came to an end and regular meetings of the
foreign ministers of the Allies were to be held in future.
Germany was to be divided into three zones of
occupation-the American, the British and the Soviet. A
fourth zone was later allocated to France (out of American
and British zones).Berlin, which was located deep inside
Some accord was also achieved on the proposed
organization of the United Nations. Subsequently, a secret
protocol was drafter that bound the USSR to go to war
against Japan within 90 days of victory. Russia was keep to
go on a war but put up some of its conditions-
preservation of the status quo in outer Mongolia, the
return of southern Sakhalin, the internationalisation of the
port of Dairen, the annexation of Kurlie islands, and the
restoration of former Russian rights in Manchuria, the
right to lease Port Arthur and the joint Soviet-Chinese
operation of the Chinese Eastern and South Manchurian
railways
Division of Germany into four parts railways. Since the war against Japan was easily won, the
Yalta deal turned out to be a great bargain for the Soviet Union.
The third and most important Potsdam Conference took place after Germany surrendered
unconditionally and World War II ended. US, Britain, France and the Soviet Union were in control
of Germany. In order to resolve the various problems that confronted the world, the
representatives of the three great powers met at Potsdam (near Berlin) with a few others. The aim
was to establish peace, restore normalcy, re-develop the areas devastated by war and defeat
Japan. Besides they had to determine what sort of treatment was to be accorded to Germany. It
was necessary for world peace that the wartime alliance of the Allies could be retained but
unfortunate differences that cropped up b/w them after the war resulted in different
circumstances.

At Potsdam, it was decided that Germany would not be dismembered and was to be treated as a
si gle e o o i u it . The sup e e autho it as gi e to ilita o anders-in-chief of the
four countries.
The developments that took place in the first part of 1945 made the European powers cautious of
the Soviet Union, and they were skeptical about honoring the commitments made at the Yalta
conference. In Bulgaria, Romania, and Yugoslavia, non-Communist partners in the coalition
governments were either being removed or compelled to complete subservience. The Soviet
Union looted the industrial equipment of the countries of Eastern Europe and transferred it to its
own territory, while concluding unequal treaties and utilizing state monopolies.

At the Potsdam Conference, Austria like Germany was also divided into four zones of occupation.
The Ge a assets i the “o iet U io s zo e of o upatio e e to e t a sfe ed to the Soviet
Union and it fully exploited this situation to further its interests. Austria was not required to give
compensation from other three zones of occupation. With regard to Poland, serious differences
remained b/w the Soviet Union and other Great Power. The new Polish government failed to come
up to the expectations of Western Great Powers. There were no free elections, and Soviet security
police continued its prejudiced activities-arresting and sending to trial the non-Communist
Polishmen who had fought against the Nazis in World War II. The terms on which Japan was
supposed to surrender were also discussed at the Potsdam conference. The armed forces of the
allies were to establish their hold over Japan and liquidate the military elements of that country.
Steps were then to be undertaken for total disarmament of Japan and the establishment of a
democratic government. Refusing to accept these terms initially, Japan had to surrender after the
allies retaliated by throwing atom bombs at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It was quite evident at
Potsdam that the Soviet Union wanted to dominate the Eastern Mediterranean.

Antagonistic policies & the beginning of Cold War

Although various agreements were reached at the Potsdam conference, there were sufficient
indications to show that the wartime collaboration of the three Great Powers would not last long,
which eventually resulted in the division of the world into two hostile camps. The Communist bloc
was headed by the Soviet Union, and the anti-Communist bloc was headed by the US, leading to
the Cold War.

Des i ed Ko t as a shotgu a iage of u likel pa t e s, o of Nazi agg essio , the

coalition of the anti-Axis powers began to break within a short time. For nearly two decades
following World War II, American historians held USSR responsible for the Cold War, but the
Viet a Wa oke do the o o o se sus a d people sta ted la i g A e i a s
aggressive policies. It is stated by historians that the bomb was dropped in Japan, not to win the
a , ut to f ighte the “o iet U io a d that the steps take “tali s go e e t to
st e gthe itself e e a espo se to A e i a s i pe ialist desig . Ho e e , the failed to draw a
convincing theory of the origin of Cold War.

Both US and USSR took steps to safeguard themselves. While

US formed the Truman Doctrine, Marshalll Plan, and the
NATO, Russia responded by establishing Cominform and
Comecon. Incidents like the Berlin blockade, the expulsion of
Tito from Cominform, the proclamation of the Chinese
People s ‘epu li , a d the Ko ea Wa added fuel to the fi e.
It is ofte te ed as a of e es .
Ideologies of both the blocs were very different from each
other. The Soviet leaders reared in the Marxist tradition
believed that capitalism and socialism could not coexist. The
capitalist west was thus an enemy to the Soviet Union, which
believed that socialism would triumph. Stalin, in a speech in
February 1946, accused the US of following an expansionist
course aimed at establishing world supremacy of American
The beginning of Cold War
imperialism. The US, in turn, accused the Soviet Union of following an expansionist course. The
Soviet concept of democracy involved unopposed rule by the Communist party while the Western
belief was that democracy involved majority rule curbed by minority opposition. The Western
leade s felt that a i o u tai had des e ded a oss the o ti e t a d to eet its th eat A glo-
American ties should be made strong.
“o iet U io s e te sio of its sphe e of i flue e to a ds the e te of Eu ope offe ded the
Western powers and created a clash of interests. Communist regimes dominated by the Soviet
Union were established in Poland, DDR (Soviet Zone of Germany), Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
Rumania, Bulgaria, Albania and Yugoslavia (in the Soviet bloc until 1948). Soviet Union acquired
la ge hu ks of la d f o these a eas. It s a e atio of Esto ia, Lat ia a d Lithua ia ga e it
control of the Eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. Thus, for the first time in European history, one great
power dominated the entire area which extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea. This expansion
was an irritant for other anti-Axis powers.

Certain other developments also accelerated tension. The Soviet Union desired that the armed
forces of US should be immediately withdrawn from Europe. The US refused and expressed
u happi ess agai st the iolatio of Yalta Ag ee e t. A e i a s possessio of the ato o
unnerved USSR. Developments in the United Nations also antagonized the Soviet Union and its
rivals.
The US adopted three different approaches in the post-war period to deal with Stalin and Soviet
U io s de elop e t. The fi st, pu sued f o -47, was the policy of cooperation and
accommodation. The second was the policy of containment. Economic aids and military pacts were
encouraged to check the expansionist designs of Soviet Union. The third was the period of open
conflict which lasted from 1950-1953. The relationship b/w Soviet Union and the Allies broke down
quickly. When in the first phase, no checks were placed on the expansionist designs of Soviet
U io , the poli had to e ha ged. ‘ussia s effo t to aptu e the lads of G ee e, Tu ke , Pe sia,
made the US feel that it was being taken advantage of. Consequently, it launched a comprehensive
two-pronged package consisting on the one hand of economic aid (as reflected in the Truman
Doctrine) and the Marshall Plan on the other hand of mutual military pacts as was the case in the
establishment of NATO.
Communist movement was gaining weight in Greece,
Turkey, and Persia. The US realized that it needed to
exercise command over developments in the eastern
Medite a ea to edu e ‘ussia s le el of i flue e. O e
step of that was the economic aid of 250 million dollars
offered by US President Truman to Germany. Turkey was
also assured aid of 150 million dollars. This aid proved to
be effective and the influence of communism was
checked in these areas by the year 1950. The Truman
Doctrine brought to a halt the policy of cooperation and
accommodation which was being pursued by the Allies
and thrashed any view of US being a mere spectator. The
US declared through Truman Doctrine that it would safeguard the interests of those nations whose
freedom was directly or indirectly endangered by the aggressive designs of other nations.
However, experts formulate it as being a method to exercise control over oil reserves of the
Middle East.
Marshall Plan, an enlargement of the Truman Doctrine, was the next step taken by the US. It
planned to provide economic aid to those nations which had been devastated by the war. In order
to restrict Communism, it was important to speed up the implementation of the Marshall Plan.
Welcomed by the western countries, many of them (including England, France, Belgium, Denmark,
Greece, Iceland, Italy, Norway and more) met in Paris in July 1947 to work out the details. Soviet
Union refused to participate in the deliberations and discouraged its satellites and other countries
of Europe from joining them due to several considerations, and a fear that this plan would make
the US more powerful. It was also feared that when American goods would penetrate in the
countries surrounding the USSR, it would be difficult for the Soviet Union to trade with them on its
te s. “tali s pa a ou t o side atio as to so ietize Easte Eu ope a d i teg ate it i to a
Soviet-controlled economic and political system but the Marshall Plan would lead to ties with the
West, strengthening the pro-Western elements. Interestingly, Soviet Union did not want to restore
the economic conditions of Europe very quickly as it believed that an unstable Europe would
embrace Communism more easily.
The Soviet Union intensified its criticism of the Marshall Plan and on September 18, 1947, spoke up
in the United Nations about how it was an attempt to split Europe into two camps. The Soviet
Union refused to participate in the Marshall Plan, and this negative response proved helpful for the
Western powers.
These developments led to the formation of Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) at a
special conference of nine communist parties in Silesia in September 1947. The nine communist
parties were from Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, France, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia,
and USSR. The communist strategy changed significantly post World War II, although the basic
assumptions of capitalist menace and the irreconcilable antagonism b/w the capitalist and socialist
systems were reiterated. Russian delegates in their post-war statements asserted that the world
had been divided into two major camps, the imperialist and anti-democratic camp on one hand,
and anti-imperialist and democratic camp on the other hand. They called for concerted and active
opposition by all communist parties to the Marshall plan.
The Cominform performed many other tasks apart from mobilizing communist parties against the
Marshall Plan. It became an instrument for monolithic control over European communist parties,
and helped in crystallizing opposition to Western policy.

The Council for Mutual Economic Aid ( COMECON) was established in July 1949 to counter the
various strategies like the Marshall Plan which were adopted by the US to restrict the expansion of
power of the Soviet Union. It was hoped that this organisation would ensure economic integration
of countries under its influence, making the Soviet Union secure and stable. However, Stalin soon
ealized that “o iet U io s satellites ould e e ploited a d the e as o eed to ake the
Comecon an effective body, having it be more or less a moribund organization.
The Berlin Blockade
The Berlin Blockade was an attempt in 1948 by the Soviet Union to limit the ability of France, Great
Britain, and the United States to travel to their sectors of Berlin, which lay within Russian-occupied
East Germany. Eventually, the western powers instituted an airlift that lasted nearly a year and
delivered much-needed supplies and relief to West Berlin. Coming just three years after the end of
World War II, the blockade was the first major clash of the Cold War and foreshadowed future
conflict over the city of Berlin. In late 1947, discussions on Germany broke down over Soviet
charges that the Allies were violating the Potsdam Agreement, and on March 20, 1948, the Soviets
withdrew from the Allied Control Council administering Berlin. Ten days later, guards on the East
German border began slowing the entry of Western troop trains bound for Berlin. On June 7, the
Western powers announced their intention to proceed with the creation of West Germany. On
June 24, arguing that if Germany was to be partitioned, Berlin could no longer be the single
German capital, the Soviets stopped all surface travel between West Germany and Berlin. the
Truman administration was convinced that losing Berlin would mean losing all of Germany. After a
military challenge was considered and rejected, the Berlin airlift was initiated. Over the next 321
days, Western fliers made 272,000 flights into West Berlin, delivering thousands of tons of supplies
every day. The effort gained wide public sympathy, and on May 12, 1949, the Soviets, concluding
that the blockade had failed, reopened the borders. East and West Germany were established as
separate republics later that month.

Da id Lo ’s illustrations on the Berlin lo kade

The problem of Yugoslavia & the Stalin-Tito split

Differences with Yugoslavia took a very serious turn and resulted in the expulsion of that country
from Comintern. Under the leadership of Tito, Yugos became the second greatest socialist nation
to not take any help from the Soviet Union. Yugoslavs resisted Sovietisation, and did not want to
become a colony of Soviet Union. For USSR, Tito was going against the very essence of socialism –
priority to the fathe la d. No spe ial p i ileges e e gi e to “o iet guests. Yugosla ia s a ed
forces and Communist party were a force to be reckoned with. Stalin believed that since the
socialist revolution had succeeded first in the Soviet Union, it alone had the right to interpret the
various connotations of Marxism-Leninism. The Cominform while expelling the Yugoslav
Co u ist Pa t o Ju e , , alleged that it had de iated f o the u ited so ialist f o t
agai st i pe ialis a d had take up positio s hi h were in consonance with nationalism, and
ot so ialis . The people of Yugosla ia did ot elie e that all good o u ists should fi st e
loyal to the Soviet Union. Tito continued in power despite the expulsion and was greatly supported
by the west and his own people. The US gave him economic and financial aid. The Soviet Union
i itiated pu ges i se e al ou t ies to e o e suspe ted Titos a d as a le to o tai the
negative impact of Titiosm.

Formation of NATO
In 1949, the prospect of further Communist expansion prompted the United States and 11 other
Western nations to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). This, along with Warsaw
Pact of 1955 proposed by Russia, provided the framework for the military standoff that continued
throughout the Cold War (1945-91).

Lo ’s illustration on Stalin’s
response to NATO

The est as u de p essu e afte the e e ts of Be li lo kade a d ‘ussia s o ti ui g e pa sio

over Europe. U.S. leaders agreed to join discussions aimed at forming a joint security agreement
with their European allies. The Western leaders met for discussion which concluded on April 4,
1949, when the foreign ministers of 12 countries in North America and Western Europe gathered
in Washington, D.C., to sign the North Atlantic Treaty. It was primarily a security pact, with Article 5
stating that a military attack against any of the signatories would be considered an attack against
them all. The original membership of the NATO consisted of Belgium, Britain, Canada, Denmark,
France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and the United States.
NATO fo ed the a k o e of the West s ilita ul a k agai st the U““‘ a d its allies fo the
next 40 years, with its membership growing larger over the course of the Cold War era.
Relationship b/w Russia & China
I O to e the Chi ese Co u ist Pa t lai ed i to a d fo ed the People s ‘epu li
of China. Socialist regimes now held power across one-fifth of the globe. Maintaining a friendly and
productive relationship between Moscow and Beijing was crucial for the advancement of global
socialism. In late 1949 Mao traveled to Moscow to meet Joseph Stalin for the first time.
Recognising the need for unity at a time of growing opposition to socialism, Stalin and Mao signed
a bilateral treaty called the Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance. Among its terms
was a military alliance: if either China or the Soviet Union was attacked, the other would come to
their assistance. More important to China we e the t eat s e o o i e efits, i ludi g a $
million Soviet loan and the provision of Russian technical advisors. During the 1950s thousands of
scientific, industrial and technical experts from Soviet Russia lived and worked in China. Their
advice and leadership played an important role in the growth of heavy industry there. Drawing on
the advice of Soviet economic strategists, Beijing committed itself to Stalinist models of
development – including funding industrial growth with surpluses produced by collectivized
agriculture.

Crisis in Korea & the period of Open Conflict

Armed forces from communist North Korea smash into South Korea, setting off the Korean War.
The United States, acting under the auspices of the United Nations, quickly sprang to the defense
of South Korea and fought a bloody and frustrating war for the next three years.
Korea, a former Japanese possession, had been divided into zones of occupation following World
War II. U.S. forces accepted the surrender of Japanese forces in southern Korea, while Soviet
fo es did the sa e i o the Ko ea. Like i Ge a , ho e e , the te po a di isio soo
became permanent. The Soviets assisted in the establishment of a communist regime in North
Korea, while the United States became the main source of financial and military support for South
Korea.

On June 25, 1950, North Korean forces surprised the South Korean army (and the small U.S. force
stationed in the country), and quickly headed toward the capital city of Seoul. The United States
respo ded pushi g a esolutio th ough the U.N. s “e u it Cou il alli g fo ilita
assistance to South Korea. (Russia was not present to veto the action as it was boycotting the
Security Council at the time.) With this resolution in hand, President Harry S. Truman rapidly
dispat hed U.“. la d, ai , a d sea fo es to Ko ea to e gage i hat he te ed a poli e a tio .
The American intervention turned the tide, and U.S. and South Korean forces marched into North
Korea. This action, however, prompted the massive intervention of communist Chinese forces in
late 1950. The war in Korea subsequently bogged down into a bloody stalemate. In 1953, the
United States and North Korea signed a cease-fire that ended the conflict. The cease-fire
agreement also resulted in the continued division of North and South Korea at just about the same
geographical point as before the conflict.
The Ko ea Wa as the fi st hot a of the Cold Wa . The pe iod / -53 is known as the
period of open conflict for the same reason. Over 55,000 American troops were killed in the
 o fli t. Ko ea as the fi st li ited a , o e i hi h the U.“. ai as ot the o plete a d
total defeat of the e e , ut athe the li ited goal of p ote ti g “outh Ko ea. Fo the U.“.
government, such an approach was the only rational option in order to avoid a third world war and
to keep from stretching finite American resources too thinly around the globe. It proved to be a
frustrating experience for the American people, who were used to the kind of total victory that had
been achieved in World War II. The public found the concept of limited war difficult to understand
or support and the Korean War never really gained popular support.

Conclusion
By the end of the Stalin era in the early 1950s, the irreconcilable
antagonism b/w Soviet Union and the West led to the
institutionalization of the Cold War and the hardening of the world
into two hostile blocs. World peace was being threatened by
“tali s poli of i pe ial e pa sio . At the ti e of “tali s de ise,
Soviet Union occupied a huge land mass consisting of Bulgaria,
Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Poland, and Romania. The West was
out aged the e te sio of “o iet U io s i flue e i Easte
Europe and other parts of the world, while the Soviet Union itself
felt that it had achieved only the bare minimum level of political
sta ilit . It is ightl o se ed that “o iet U io s a itio of
empire building was unable to bring about satisfactory results. However, Stalin was a fierce leader
and always retraced his steps when he was on the brink of war. He thoroughly understood the
situation, and initiated policies that were best for the Soviet Union.

Bibliography

History of Communist Russia, Karuna Kaushik

Www.academia.edu

Www.jstor.org

Illustrations – David Low and other artists.