PROCEEDINGS

10th National Workshop on Livestock and Fisheries

Research in Nepal
5-7 March 2017

Chief Editor
Dr. Tek Bahadur Gurung

Editors
Dr. Megh Raj Tiwari
Dr. Sita Ram Aryal
Mr. Suresh Kumar Wagle
Dr. Swoyam Prakash Shrestha
Dr. Neena Amatya Gorkhali
Mr. Birendra Khanal
Mrs. Sunita Sanjyal

Government of Nepal

Nepal Agricultural Research Council

National Animal Science Research Institute (NASRI)

Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal

i
 Increasing Nutrient Content of Livestock Manures
Through Feeding and Management Strategies: A Review
N. Rawal
Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Nepal
E-mail: nabin_rawal@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Livestock manure has been as asset to crop since the beginning of organized agriculture in Nepal. Animal manure is a nutrient
resource containing most of the essential elements required for plant growth and can be a significant source of nutrients in
both intensive and subsistence production systems. This paper examines the factors associated with nutrient content in manure
from livestock farming illustrating various examples and cases relevant to Nepalese farming practices. The primary factors that
affect nutrient composition of manure are livestock species, stage of growth, age and condition of animal, feeding practices and
composition, housing and bedding system, moisture content in manure, manure storage condition, time that the manure spends
in storage, weather conditions and method of manure application system. All of these factors affect the amounts of nitrogen
(N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and micronutrients in the manure, as well as its net value. The nutrient contents of stored
manures can vary, as often they are mixtures of excreta of different age from animals fed different diets, and possibly come from
different animal species. In fact, 55–90% of the N and P content of animal feed is excreted in faeces and urine. The variation
in N content in urine is even larger than in FYM. If manure is not properly stored, it may lose 25% of its nitrogen in just
one day and 50% in two days as ammonia gas. Appropriate feeding and management strategies are required to optimize the
performance, amount and quality of farmyard manure that are valuable source of nutrients for crops when properly applied
to soils.
Key words: Feeding, livestock, manure and nutrient composition
INTRODUCTION
Livestock are the integral and vital constituent of farming system in Nepal. Animal manure is the most basic
agricultural by-product and has a long history as a fertilizer in agriculture. However, to activate the benefits of
manure fertilizers there is a need to manage this fertilizer input to prevent environmental problems with its
use. The excretions from cattle and other animals contain several essential plant nutrients which contribute
to increase crops yield when properly applied to the soils. Animal manures are valuable when used carefully
as fertilizer for crop production and maintenance/improvement of soil quality. Most of the nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) in livestock diets is excreted in dung and urine. Manures contain useful
amounts of these plant available nutrients, as well as other major nutrients sulphur (S), magnesium (Mg)
and trace elements. Animal manure is a nutrient resource containing most of the essential elements required
for plant growth and can be a significant source of nutrients in both intensive and subsistence production
systems. Application of manure to cropland increases soil OM, microbial biomass, and mineralization rate
(Spiehs et al, 2010; Langmeier et al, 2002) and improves a number of soil properties. Thus, dairy and other
livestock producers can use manure as a valuable source of fertilizer nutrients for crops.
Nutrient content of manure from dairy cattle is affected by various factors, many of which are related to
specific livestock farming and management operations. Some of these factors include method of storage
and manure application system, housing and bedding system, die of the cattle and environmental condition
in the shed. All of these factors affect the amount of major and minor nutrients n the manure as well as is
net nutrient value. Livestock manures represent a valuable resource that, if used appropriately, can replace
significant amounts of chemical fertilizers (Bouwman et al, 1998 and Le, 1998). Livestock typically excrete
50 to 90 % of the nutrients they are fed, depending on the animal species, stage of growth and the ration
provided (feed source and supplements). Fully-grown animals that are not gaining weight, gestating or
producing milk or eggs, however, excrete almost all of the nutrients they are fed. Feeding nutrients in excess
of what the animal requires increases the amounts that are excreted in the feces and urine. Knowledge of
manure composition is an important part of good management, either when importing manure onto the
farm or transferring nutrients around the farm. Possible causes of decline in soil fertility and grain yield
of crops are: (1) a decrease in soil organic matter content and related chemical and physical soil quality

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parameters, and (2) negative balances and deficiencies of P, K and other secondary and micronutrients
(Dawe et al, 2000). Proper use of livestock manures on crop land may solve these problems and reverse the
yield decline observed.
The objective of this paper is to examine the factors influencing the nutrient composition of the livestock
manures and identify feeding and management strategies for increasing the nutrient content in the livestock
excretions illustrating various examples and cases relevant to Nepalese farming practices.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Relevant literatures required for this paper were collected from journal articles, review papers, books and
available literatures on feeding and other management strategies for increasing nutrient content of livestock
manures as review materials. Web pages were visited and the relevant information was collected. Author's
experience in livestock farming and its integral role in sustainable farming and organic agriculture are also
internalized in the paper. Some of the formal and informal communications with experts and technicians are
also the source of information documented in the paper. Finally, different findings, information collected
and cited from different sources were also presented and analyzed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Livestock manures
Organic manures applied to agricultural land arise mainly from livestock production (liquid slurries,
litter-based farmyard manures (FYM) and poultry manures) and also from other sources such as treated
sewage sludge (commonly called bio-solids), composts and industrial ‘wastes’ such as paper crumble, food
industry by-products etc. These materials are valuable sources of most major plant nutrients and organic
matter. Careful recycling to land allows their nutrients to be used to enhance crop growth and maintain or
improve soil fertility, which will usually result in large savings in the use of inorganic fertilizers.
Manure is composed of animal feces and urine and may contain livestock bedding, additional water
and wasted feed. It is a valuable fertilizer that contains a broad range of nutrients such as nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) as well as micronutrients such as copper (Cu), manganese (Mn) and
zinc (Zn). Manures with added bedding are also an excellent source of organic matter which improves soil
quality when applied to land. The water, nutrient and organic matter contents of manures, however, vary
greatly making them more difficult to manage than synthetic fertilizers.

Figure 1: Manure is composed of faeces, urine, bedding, additional water and wasted feed
The primary factors that affect nutrient composition of manure are livestock type, stage of growth and
feeding practices (all of which determine nutrient excretion rates) as well as the amount of bedding or
water added to the manure, type of manure storage, time that the manure spends in storage and weather
conditions.
Factors affecting the nutrient content of livestock manures

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Animal manures are an important source of organic matter and plant nutrients. Knowledge of manure
composition is an important part of good management, either when importing manure onto the farm or
transferring nutrients around the farm. The availability of manure N is influenced both by the chemical
composition of the manure and by N losses that occur before and after application in the field. The chemical
composition of the manure is influenced by livestock species, feed composition, additions to the manure
such as bedding material, chemical transformations during storage (including losses of N in buildings and
storage) and with some manure management systems, the partitioning of urine and faeces into solid and
liquid manure fractions. Chemical composition can also be influenced by manure treatment.
Many factors affect the nutrient content of animal manure:
• Species, age, and condition of the animal from which the dung is drawn
• Nutrition-composition of diets affects the amount and quality of nutrients excreted
• Feed quality—influences the partitioning of excreted nutrients between faeces and urine
• Environmental factors
• Bedding material type and quality
Nutrient excretion and manure quality strongly vary, due to variation in feed quality and intake, addition of
organic material, nutrient losses and contamination with soil. Total nitrogen content of manure on a dry
matter basis ranges from below 0.5 to over 4%. The variation in N content in urine is even larger than in
FYM. It may vary from well below 5 to more than 10 g N per l (mainly mineral N), depending on ration
composition, dilution with water, and storage and weather conditions (Bannink et al, 1999; Rufino et al,
2006). Animal manures can therefore vary greatly in composition. It is important to know the nutrient
content of manure before land application. We should measure or estimate manure nutrients, not rely on
‘experience’ or guess work. The chemical composition of poultry manure vary because of several factors
such as source of manure, feed of animals, age and condition of animals, storage and handling of manure
and litter used (Mariakulandai and Manickam, 1975).
1. Species, age, and condition of the animal from which the dung is drawn
Nutrient content on farm yard manure
Farmyard manure refers to the decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along with litter
and left over material from roughages or fodder fed to the cattle. On an average, well decomposed FYM
contains 0.5% N, 0.15% P2O5 and 0.55% K2O (Gaur et al., 1995). Similarly, Alam and Khan (2001) found
that FYM contained 0.55% N, 0.26% P2O5 and 0.55% K2O and acted as slow releasing nitrogen source
while Dahama (1999) reported FYM contents were 0.3% N, 0.15% P2O5 and 0.3 % K2O. It is reported
that 40% of the nitrogen was available to the crop in the 1st year, 30% in 2nd year, 20% in 3rd year and 10 %
in 4th year after application of the FYM. Sankaranarayanan (2004) found that on average well decomposed
farmyard manure contained 0.5 per cent N, 0.2 per cent P2O5 and 0.5 percent K2O. The entire amount of
nutrients present in farmyard manure is not available immediately. About 30 per cent of nitrogen, 60 to 70
per cent of phosphorus and 70 per cent of potassium are available to the first crop.
Table 1: Nutrients contents collected from various sources of livestock manures
S/N Manures/composts N (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%) Reference
1 Farm yard manure 0.80 0.41 0.74 Palaniappan (2010), India
2 Poultry manure 2.87 2.93 2.35 Palaniappan (2010), India
3 Cattle manure 1.41 0.53 1.54 Onduru et al, 2008, Kenya
4 FYM 0.3-2.2 0.04-0.92 0.4-1.2 Harris, 2002, W. Africa
5 FYM 0.97 0.50 0.92 Rawal, 2013, Nepal
6 Poultry manure 2.13 1.42 3.75 Rawal, 2013, Nepal
Using the traditional feeding system and farm yard manure (FYM) preparation method, a large adult

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ruminant provides approximately 1,140 kg of FYM and potentially approximately 29 kg of nitrogen (N) per
year. Livestock manure is a critical component of hill farming. Farmers indicate that two adult buffaloes give
enough manure to fertilize approximately 0.25 hectares of land. Buffaloes give 75 per cent more manure
than cows.
Nutrient contents on poultry manure
Poultry manure contains all the essential plant nutrients that are used by plants. These include nitrogen (N),
phosphorous (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulphur (S), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu),
zinc (Zn), chlorine (Cl), boron (B), iron (Fe) and molybdenum (Mo). The amounts of these nutrients can
vary depending upon many factors including the age and diet of the flock, as well as the moisture content
and age of the manure. Broiler house manure is similar to deep litter poultry manure but the litter is changed
more frequently and there is less ammonia loss because of restricted decomposition. This results in manure
richer in N than deep litter manure (Mariakulandai and Manickam, 1975).
Gopal (1997) reported that poultry manure contains 2.00, 1.97, 4.29% of nitrogen, phosphorous, and
potassium respectively and 113.2, 71.0, 140.6, 310.5 mg/kg of total Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn, respectively. However
the other workers reported that, the poultry manure contained 1.5-3.0%N, 1.02-2.63% phosphorous and
1.42-2.0% potassium (Prasad, 1994). A tonne of deep litter was estimated to contain 29.48 kg N (equivalent to
about 136.08-147.42 kg ammonium sulphate), 20.41 kg phosphorous (equivalent 113.40-136.08 kg ordinary
super phosphate), 20.41 kg potassium (equivalent to about 45.36 kg muriate of potash), together with 6.80 kg
magnesium, 680 kg sodium and 27.21 kg C (Sharma and Rao, 1996). Stephenson et al (1990) and Oladotun
(2002) reported that poultry manure contains macro and micro nutrients such as N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg, Cu, Mn,
Zn, Bo and Fe. Poultry waste usually the fresh ones contained twice as much nitrogen as other farmyard
manure (Barth, 1985). The main N compound in poultry excreta is uric acid. Generally, total N in droppings
(fresh excreta) of laying hens consists of 60–75% uric acid, 0–3% urea, 0–3% NH4+ nitrogen and 25–34%
undigested proteins (Groot Koerkamp, 1994).
The amount of manure produced by animals is very variable, even within species, partly due to differences
in dry matter content of the manure. Broadly similar estimates of manure-N availability among manure
types, availability decreased in the order: Pig slurry > cattle slurry > poultry manure > FYM.
Table 2: Percentage of dietary nitrogen and phosphorus excreted by livestock
P excretion
N excretion (% of intake)
Animal Category (% of intake)
Rysers et al Tammings et al Ryser et al
Dairy cow 65-80 79 65-80
Growing cattle 75-80 77-891 70-85
Sow with piglets 75-80 76 75-85
Growing finishing pigs 70-80 66 75-85
Laying hen 65-80 65 85-90
Broiler 55-65 56 50-65
1
Low values for steers (3-16 months), higher values for suckler cows
The value of animal manures in terms of crop nutrients depends on the type of animal the manure comes
from, its age, physical condition and the food that it eats. Within species, the exact proportion excreted
varies according to a range of factors including diet composition, animal performance (e.g. amount of milk
produced, live weight gain), size, age, sex and husbandry. Manure from some species of animal is richer
in plant nutrients than is the manure from other animal species. It is clear that diet composition, feed
conversion and animal size and performance are the factors with the most important impact on manure
production and composition (Ryser et al, 2001 and Tamminga et al, 2000).

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2. Nutrition - composition of diets

Livestock convert crop residues and fodder/forage to soil nutrients through manure. Application of manure
helps to improve soil texture and decompose litter more easily. It also contributes to increased productivity.
The quality of the feed eaten by the animal will also affect the quality of the manure provided by that animal.
The main factor that influences the total amount of N and P in animal excreta is diet. In fact, 55–90% of the
N and P content of animal feed is excreted in faeces and urine (Ryser, 2001 and Tamminga et al, 2000) (Table
2). Utilization of N and P by livestock and poultry is influenced by many factors associated with the feeds
themselves, the method of feeding and the performance of the animals to which they are fed. Undigested N
and P are excreted, by definition, in faeces; digested N and P, which is not utilized by the animal (i.e. retained
in animal products), is excreted in urine. Kirchmann and Witter (1992) recorded N and S concentrations in
animal wastes amount to 1.9–10% N (mean: 3.2% N) and 0.6– 0.7% S on a dry matter basis which is similar
with findings of Steineck et al (1999). This is equivalent to 70–80% of the amount present in fodder.
Variation in ration digestibility and protein content can result in large variations in nitrogen excretion in
urine (from below 10% to over 70% of total excreta N) and N contents of dung and urine (Delve et al.,
2001; Broderick, 2003). The levels of nutrients and the presence or absence of certain feed additives in
livestock rations will be reflected in the nutrient composition of manure. For example, changing the levels
of inorganic salts (sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphate, and chloride) and feed additives
(copper, arsenic compounds, sulfa drugs, antibiotics, or enzymes) in rations will change the concentrations
of these elements and possibly the rate of decomposition of organic matter in the manure. For instance,
the use of a phytase enzyme in poultry and swine rations can reduce the phosphorus content of manure by
25 to 40%. Reducing crude protein levels and supplementing with specific synthetic amino acids to balance
the ration can reduce the N content of manure by 22 to 41%.
The conversion of dietary N into animal protein typically ranges from 5 to 20% and is generally lower for
legumes than grasses (Ulyatt et al, 1988). Balancing the supply of N in animal diets can be easily achieved
by using legumes or well-fertilized non-legumes as fodder, but the intake of S by animals may often be
limited by a low S content of the fodder. Also, cattle diets in areas with low S deposition may be short of
S (Aaes and Thogersen, 1999). Under such conditions, the S content of the manure will be relatively low
and mainly in the organic form, which is not readily available to crops after soil application. Furthermore,
more efficient fodder utilization may also affect amounts of N and S excreted per unit of animal or milk
produced, which may affect the composition of animal wastes. A greater portion of N and S will probably
be present in organic forms in animal wastes and less will be present in urine (Kyvsgaard et al, 2000). Annual
application of manure will increase the soil organic N and S content in the long term, although the extent
of this increase depends on soil type, cropping system and management. The feed composition influences
the relation between excreted urine and faeces N and also the availability of manure N. The N content
of manures ex-storage, changes in composition due to feeding are likely to be maintained throughout the
manure management cycle. Important factors are the protein and fiber composition of the feed (Sorensen
et al, 2003). It is estimated that 75-90% of the nutrients in the feed of livestock is excreted in the manure.
This indicates how valuable the correct use of manure can be to recycling nutrients on the farm - nutrients
that can significantly contribute to crop growth and yields. Because of the amount of nutrients excreted by
livestock and contained in their manure, the poor handling and storage of animal manures represents not
only an agronomic loss but also an economic loss to the farmer (Canadian Organic Growers Inc., 2001).
3. Environmental factors
Nitrogen losses by NH3 volatilization from livestock buildings and stored manure reduce the fertilizer value
of livestock manures. Ammonia volatilization takes place when animal manure is exposed to the air. The
main factors affecting NH3 volatilization from manure are the content of total ammonical nitrogen (TAN =
NH4+ + NH3), emitting surface area, animal behavior, manure pH and temperature, and weather conditions
(Monteny et al, 1998 and Sommer et al, 2006). Rapid drying of excreta is a method employed widely to
reduce NH3 emission from poultry buildings and stored manure (Groot, 1994).

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Table 3: Factors influencing NH3 emissions from buildings housing livestock
Factor NH3 emissions decrease with
Livestock category Cattle < pig < poultry
Feeding Low protein diets
Manure removal frequency Frequent removal
Area fouled with manure Small areas
Cleanliness of the house Clean house
Temperature Low temperature
Design of the storage tank Small surface, large volume
Manure pH Low pH
Slurry dry matter content Low dry matter content
Weather factors stimulating water evaporation like temperature, radiation, relative humidity, and wind speed
generally stimulate NH3 volatilization. Degradation of uric acid present poultry manure to NH4+ nitrogen
is influenced by temperature, pH, moisture content, and oxygen supply (Groot Koerkamp, 1994). The
degradation is strongly limited at manure temperatures < 20oC, pH values < 6.0, moisture contents < 40%,
and lack of oxygen. In general, degradation of uric acid requires much more time than hydrolysis of urea.
Decomposition rates of 8 and 40% of the amount of uric acid per day have been reported for dry and
liquid poultry manure, respectively (Burnett and Dondero, 1969). The excreta of birds ferment very quickly.
If left exposed, 50 percent of its nitrogen is lost within 30 days. Poultry manure contains higher nitrogen
and phosphorus compared to other bulky organic manures. The average nutrient content is 3.03 per cent N;
2.63 per cent P2O5 and 1.4 per cent K2O (Reddy, 2005). N volatilization, de-nitrification and leaching occur
in open manure pits that render FYM exposed to sun and rain. FYM is often only partially decomposed.
This reduces the amount of humified organic matter and can lead to the immobilization of FYM when it
is applied to the soil. Phosphorus and potassium losses during spreading are negligible because they do not
escape to the air (volatilize) and, thus, are not affected by method of application. However, incorporation
of manure would minimize P and K losses due to rainfall runoff (erosion) from the land. Nitrogen loss by
ammonia volatilization from surface applications is greater on dry, warm, windy days than on days that are
humid and/or cold; therefore, loss is generally higher during spring and summer applications compared to
fall and winter.
4. The way the slurry is stored, treated and applied to the field (N loss from housing and
storage)
An important aspect of sustainable manure management is to develop housing and manure storage systems
that help to conserve the plant nutrients and maintain a high concentration of plant nutrients in the manure.
Manure value, in terms of crop nutrients, also crucially depends on how the manure is stored. Excreta from
animal houses can be handled as liquid or solid manure. The N and S contents of stored manures can vary, as
often they are mixtures of excreta of different age from animals fed different diets, and possibly come from
different animal species. On a global scale, S excretion from farm animals is estimated to be around 8 million
metric tons per year, corresponding to 80% of the world consumption of mineral S fertilizer (Eriksen,
2002). Most of the urine N is urea while most of the faeces N are in the organic form. The mineralization
of organic N in stored slurry can vary from 10-80% and is influenced by livestock species, feeding, storage
temperature and time (Sommer et al, 2007). A net faecal N mineralization of 30-40% during slurry storage
is considered to be typical (Petersen and Srensen, 2008). About 90% of the urine N has been reported to
be converted to NH4+ during anaerobic storage (Sorensen and Fernandej, 2003). Bedding materials such
as straw have a high C: N ratio and they cause significant N immobilization in soil, thus reducing the N
availability of manure N (Kirchmann, 1985).
In some animal houses, the manure may be removed mainly by hosing and slurry is produced containing
faeces, urine, water and some feed residues and bedding material. Generally, the animals require cooling,

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either by hosing, by misting the animals with a fine spray, or by spraying the roofs with sprinklers. Gaseous
losses from both livestock houses and storage occur by NH3 volatilization, nitrification and de-nitrification;
in addition, leaching losses may occur from solid manures. In practice nitrification and de-nitrification losses
are generally very small from buildings and stores where manure is handled as slurry, but can be large from
litter-based manures. From stored solid manures, total N losses of up to 50% from pig manure and 30%
from cattle manure have been reported (Chadwick, 2005; Petersen and Sorensen, 2008). Hansen et al. (2008)
assessed an average N emission of 15% of total N from uncovered solid cattle manure, 10% from uncovered
cattle deep litter and 40% from solid pig manure by more than 100 days storage under North European
conditions. Losses from solid manure occur by NH3 volatilization, nitrification, de-nitrification and N
leaching (Petersen et al., 1998). The losses can be significantly reduced by covering and/or compaction of
manure heaps (Chadwick, 2005). Manure N availability is increased by the prevention of such storage losses
(Sommer, 2001). Losses of N can occur via the leaching of manure accumulated or stored on unsealed
surface, or by surface runoff. The losses will be larger if the areas involved are not covered or roofed, since
rainfall will aggravate the problem. Urine, which is wasted, contains one per cent nitrogen and 1.35 per
cent potassium. Nitrogen present in urine is mostly in the form of urea which is subjected to volatilization
losses. Even during storage, nutrients are lost due to leaching and volatilization. Bedding and water added to
animal manure dilute its nutrient concentration, lessening its value per unit volume; whereas, feed wastage
will increase the manure's nutrient content. In liquid manure systems, however, feed spillage together with
inadequate agitation can cause sludge build-up, making removal difficult.
One adult cow or buffalo excretes about 29 kg of nitrogen (N) per annum. Up to 90 per cent of this may
be lost in the stall if too little bedding material is used. If urine is not collected in closed pits, rain and sun
cause leaching and volatilization of N from the urine, which contains 65 per cent of the nitrogen excreted.
Dung contains 35 per cent N, so loss of nitrogen through uncollected urine is greater. If bedding material
is not sufficient or is of low quality, it will not absorb moisture from dung and urine efficiently and will
not prevent nitrogen loss. During collection and processing, manure can be contaminated with soil, while
soil may be added on purpose, for instance during composting. Ash (and carbon) contents of manures can
vary strongly, due to variation in organic matter content, feed digestibility, and contamination of feeds and
excreta with soil, thereby also changing N content. Manure will lose some of its nutrients during handling
and storage. Many nutrients are lost when manure is left in kraals or in any place where it is uncovered.
When manure is left uncovered rain washes out the valuable nitrogen or it escapes via the air. If manure is
not properly stored, it may lose 25% of its nitrogen in just one day and 50% in two days as ammonia gas
(Canadian Organic Growers Inc., 2001).
CONCLUSION
Animal manure is an important natural resource in a sustainable livestock-crop farming system. To make
manure as a sustainable fertilizer source, livestock and/or crop farmers should undertake management
and feeding practices that can improve nutrient contents and composition in manures. To successfully
utilize manure as a fertilizer will require assessing the available nutrients in the manure and calculating the
appropriate application rates to ensure that the nutrient needed for the crop are met. We should adopt
feeding and management strategies that can increase manure content while maintaining animal performance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to show his gratitude to Nepal Agricultural Research Council (Livestock and Fisheries
Department) for providing opportunities to present my review paper in the workshop. I am also immensely
grateful to colleagues from NARC who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted and gave
encouraged me to write the paper.
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