- Derivatives OVERVIEW In Chapter 1 we defined the slope of a curve at a point a the limit of secant slopes. This limit, called a derivative, measures the rate at which a function changes and is one of the most important ideas in calculus. Derivatives are used widely in science, economics, medicine, and computer science to calculate velocity and acceleration, to explain the behavior of machinery, to estimate the drop in water levels as water is pumped out of a tank, and to predict the consequences of making errors in measurements. Finding derivatives by evaluating limits can be lengthy and difficult. In this chapter we develop techniques to make calculating derivatives easier The Derivative of a Function [At the end of Chapter 1, we defined the slope ofa cuve y = f(x) atthe point wvhere + = 0 be mn = im, LO0+H~ Fl) a We called this limit, when it existed, the desvative of fa x In his section, we investigate the derivative as a function derived from f by considering the limit at each point of f*s domain, Definition ‘The derivative of the function f with respect to the variable x is the function f” whose value at x is provided the limit exists. ‘The domain of’, the set of points in the domain of f for which the limit exists, ‘may be smaller than the domain of f If f(x) exists, we say that fhas a derivative (is differentiable) at x 109110 Chapter 2: Derivatives Why all these notations? ‘The “prime” notations y’ and f” come from notations that Newton used for derivatives. ‘The d/dx notations are similar to those used bby Leibniz, Each has its own strengths and weaknesses, ot op faction y= 0) Open eave y= ares & 2.1 Flow diagram for the operation of ‘aking a derivative with respect to x. Steps for Calculating /“(x) from the Definition of Derivative 1. Write expressions for f(x) and SO+h). 2 Expand and simplify the difference quotient fe+m~ fw 3. Using the simplified quotient, find F/G) by evaluating the limit, ce) = tim LEED Notation There are many ways to denote the derivative of a function y = f(x). Besides °C), the most common notations are these: y “y prime” Nice and brief but does not name the 1 independent variable Zz dy dx" Names the variables and uses d for derivative df . z “df av Emphasizes the function’s name a “ a f(s) “dds of fx)" Emphasizes the iden that differentiation * is an operation performed on f (Fig. 2.1) Df ‘A.common operator notation One of Newton's notations, now common for time derivatives a We also read dy/dx as “the derivative of y with respect to x." and dffdx and (d/dx) f(«) a8 “the derivative of f with respect to x" Calculating Derivatives from the Definition The process of calculating a derivative is called differentiation. Examples 2 and 3 of Section 1.6 illustrate the process for the functions y = mx +b and y = I/x. Example 2 shows that d seem td) = In Example 3, we see that Here are two more examples. EXAMPLE 1 a) Differentiate f(x i 1b) Where does the curve y = f(x) have slope —1? Solution ‘a) We take the three steps listed in the margin, Step 1: Here we have f(x) and (+h) (x +h) = FO L040 = Coy24. The Derivative of a Function 114 x+h La+h =f) _ xFh-1 x step 2; LE+W =f) ERAT AT 1 @+Ae— Dx th—-) “ i @th-Da- i 1 A i Geh-pe-y Step 3: £48) = lim, Gy b). The slope of y = f(x) will be —1 provided 1 oP “1 atx=0andx=2. This equation is equivalent to (x ~ 1)? = 1, so x =20r.x=0 (Fig. 2.2). Q & EXAMPLE 2 a) Find the derivative of y = Y/ for x > 0 'b) Find the tangent line to the curve y = VX atx = 4, Solution monde deawancoe Step H S()= VE and fixth)=vxth ‘You will often need to know the derivative of VF for x > 0: 1 LG +n = fix) _ ve Eh- VE sit Step 2. = Mutipy by thy Try to remember it he ths JO) 1 © Vath 1 1 Step 3: f'(x) = lim —— = 1 ep LO) = ha eR See Fig. 23, co} 2.3 The graphs of (a) y = J/% and (b) y' = W(2VR),x > 0 (Example 2). The function is defined at x =0, but its derivative is not112 Chapter 2: Derivatives x 1 2.4 The cure y = v¥ and its tangent at (4,2). The tangent’ slope is found by evaluating dyldx at x =4 (Example 2). The symbol for evaluation In addition 0 fat f@) 7. F(@) = fim, the value ofthe derivative of y = f(x) with respect to x at x =a ean be denoted in the following ways: dy asl, a wi) Y dene Here the symbo!|,-y, called an evaluation ‘symbol, tells us to evaluate the expression to its left at x =a. Daedalus's flight path on April 23, 1988, b) The slope of the curve at x = 4 is ay 1 VE leas ‘The tangent is the line through the point (4, 2) with slope 1/4 (Fi 1 ya2ttana tet yep a Graphing f’ from Estimated Values When we measure the values of a function y = f(x) in the laboratory or in the field (pressure vs. temperature, say, or population vs. time) we usually connect the data points with lines or curves to picture the graph of f- We can often make a reasonable plot of " by estimating slopes on this graph. The following examples show how this is done and what can be learned from the process. EXAMPLE 3 On April 23, 1988, the human-powered airplane Daedalus flew a record-breaking 119 km from Crete to the island of Santorini in the Aegean Sea, southeast of mainland Greece. During the 6-h endurance tests before the flight, researchers monitored the prospective pilots’ blood-sugar concentrations. ‘The concentration raph for one of the athlete-pilots is shown in Fig. 2.5(a), where the concentration in milligrams/deciliter is plotted against time in hours. The graph is made of line segments connecting data points. The constant slope of each segment gives an estimate of the derivative of the concentration between measurements. We calculated the slope of each segment from the coordinate grid and plotted the derivative asa step function in Fig. 2.5(b). To make the plot for the first hour, for instance, we observed that the concentration increased from about 79 mg/dL to 93 mg/dL. The net increase was Ay = 93 — 79 = 14 mg/dL. Dividing this by Ar =I h gave the rate of change as Ay _ 14 ar 1 Medicine a SANTORINI * 1 Sea of {Creteess Concentration, mg/L Time) @ 2.1. The Derivative of a Function 113 Notice that we can make no estimate of the concentration’s rate of change at times = 1,2,....5, where the graph we have drawn for the concentration has a comer and no slope. The derivative step function is not defined at these times. When we have so many data that the graph we get by connecting the data points resembles a smooth curve, we may wish to plot the derivative as a smooth curve, The next example shows how this is done. EXAMPLE 4 Graph the derivative of the function y = f(x) in Fig. 2.6(@). Solution We draw a pair of axes, marking the horizontal axis in x-units and the vertical axis in yunits (Fig. 2.6b). Next we sketch tangents to the graph of fat frequent intervais and use their slopes to estimate the values of y" = f"(x) at these points. We plot the corresponding (x, y) pairs and connect them with a smooth From the graph of y” F'G2) we see ata glance 1, where fs rate of change is postive, negative, or zero; 2. the rough size of the growth rate at any x an LO; 3. where the rate of change itself is increasing or decreasing, a zh Bop : 30 — 3 -0f Time © 25 (2) The sugar concentration in the blood of a Daedalus pilot during a 6-h preflight endurance test. (b) The derivative of the pilot's blood-sugar concentration shows how rapidly the concentration rose and fell during various portions of the test. (Source: The Daedalus Project: Physiological Problems and Solutions by Ethan R. Nadel and Steven R. Bussolari, American Scientist, Vol. 76, No. 4, July-August 1988, p. 358.) 2.6 We made the graph of y' = f(x) in (©) by plotting slopes from the graph of y= fl) in (a). The vertical coordinate of the slope at B, and so on. The graph of y’ =f") isa visual record of how the slope of f changes with x. leant = rani a i * co) z Siope ab | Slope 3 | anit 9 5 al erica coordinate 1 ®114 Chapter 2: Derivatives Slope tim £0+ 1) = fia) = 2.7. Derivatives at endpoints are ‘one-sided limits. >not defined: Fighthand derivative # lefehand derivative 28 Not differentiable at the origin. Differentiable on an Interval; One-sided Derivatives ‘A function y = f(x) is differentiable on an open interval (finite or infinite) if it has a derivative at each point of the interval Ii differentiable on a closed interval, [a,b] if itis differentiable on the interior (a, b) and if the limits sig LM = 0) ghana derivate a tig LOL =O Lathan derivative a b as h ‘exist at the endpoints (Fig. 2.7) Right-hand and left-hand derivatives may be defined at any point of a function's domain, The usual relation between one-sided and two-sided limits holds for these derivatives. Because of Theorem 5, Section 1.4, a function has a derivative at a point if and only if it has left-hand and right-hand derivatives there, and these one-sided derivatives are equal, EXAMPLE 5 The function y = || is differentiable on (—co, 0) and (0, 00) but thas no derivative at x = 0. To the right of the origin, 4 Zonet or=m a d d gtd = = 70-0 = To the left, d a d fp = 4-9 = S1-m == Ghd = GO) = Ala ol (Fig. 2.8), There can be no derivative atthe origin because the one-sided derivatives differ there 0+ Al~ 0) _ 4, tal ao Right-hand derivative of |x| at zero = im = Jim when > 0 =o = Jim ra . + 1-10 Lefand derivative ofa at ero = in A= 01 iy cae a When Does a Function Not Have a Derivative at a Point? ‘A funetion has a derivative at a point xy if the slopes of the secant lines through (xo, f (Xo) and a nearby point Q on the graph approach a limit as Q approaches P. Whenever the secants fail to take up a limiting position or become vertical as Q approaches P, the derivative does not exist. A function whose graph is otherwise2.1. The Derivative of a Function 115 smooth will fail to have a derivative at a point where the graph has 1. a comer, where the one-sided 2. a cusp, where the slope of PQ derivatives differ approaches co from one side and oo from the other 3. a vertical tangent, where the slope of PQ approaches oo from both sides or approaches —oo from both sides (here, 00) 4. a discontinuity.116 Chapter 2: Derivatives How rough can the graph of a continuous function be? ‘The absolute value function fails to be lifferentiable ata single point. Using a similar idea, we can use a sawtooth graph to define a continuous function that fils to have a derivative at infinitely many point y=se) 3 x But can a continuous function fail to have @ derivative at every point? ‘The answer, surprisingly enough, is yes, as Karl Weierstrass (1815-1897) found in 1872, One of his formulas (there are many like it) was p03 (2) worm. formula that expresses fas an infinite sum. ‘of cosines with increasingly higher frequencies. By adding wiggles to wiggles infinitely many times, so to speak, the oemula produces a graph that is (oo bumpy in the limit to have a tangent anywhere. Continuous curves that fail to have a tangent anywhere play a useful role in chaos theory, in part because there is no way to assign a finite length to such a curve. We will sce what length has to do with derivatives when we get to Section 5.5. 2.9: The unit step function does not have the intermediate value property and. cannot be the derivative of a function on the real line. Differentiable Functions Are Continuous AA function is continuous at every point where it has a derivative. Theorem 1 If fhas a derivative at x = ¢, then f is continuous at x Proof Given that "(c) exists, we must show that limy..< f(x) = f(¢), of, equiv- alently, that lim .o f(c-+h) = f(c). If h #0, then Seth) = fl +(fle+h) — fo) fe+h)~ fo h = flo+ Now take limits as + 0. By Theorem 1 of Section 1.2, fim fle+ A) = fim fe)+ fin FEAL i =FfO+s1e-0 =f) +0 =f. a Similar arguments with one-sided limits show that if f has a derivative from one side (right or left) atx = c, then fis continuous from that side at x Caution The converse of Theorem 1 is false. A function need not have a deriva- tive at a point where itis continuous, as we saw in Example 5, The Intermediate Value Property of Derivatives ‘Not every function can be some function's derivative, as we see from the following theorem, Theorem 2 If @ and b are any two points in an interval on which fis differentiable, then takes on every value between f(a) and f"(b). Theorem 2 (which we will not prove) says that a function cannot be a deriva- tive on an interval unless it has the intermediate value property there (Fig. 2.9). ‘The question of when a function is a derivative is one of the central questions in all calculus, and Newton’s and Leibniz’s answer to this question revolutionized the ‘world of mathematics. We will see what their answer was when we reach Chapter 4,Exercises 2.1. 117 Exercises 2.1 Finding Derivative Functions and Values Using the definition, calculate the derivatives of the functions in Ex- cercises 1-6. Then find the values of the derivatives as specified. LfQy=4—7, /D. LOL 2 FQ) se -1P + PHD, FO), FQ) 1 Read: ed. F809) 4 = 4S KDE. R OD »| 5. p(@) = V3; pM), PB). 12/3) 6 r(9) =VBFT Or). r'A/2) In Exercises 7-12, find the indicated derivatives. dy a2! aa 1. it yaar < ds dy 9S ig 10, 2 a a dp az u, 2 ig vn, = ag aw Slopes and Tangent Lines In Exercises 13-16, differentiate the functions and find the slope of the tangent line at the given value of the independent variable. 16. y=Or+D, In Exercises 17-18, differentiate the functions. Then find an equation ofthe tangent line atthe indicated point on the graph of the function. 8 7. y=fey= A, YaSO= Fas Hy) = 64) 18. w +VI=%, &w)=6,2) In Exercises 19-22, find the values of the derivatives. vw. 4 2. An Alternative Formula for Calculating Derivatives ‘The formula for the secant slope whose limit leads to the derivative depends on how the points involved are labeled. In the notation of Fig. 2.10, the secant slope is (f(x) ~ f(@))/(x ~¢) and the slope of the curve at P is im £0- FO fo Gecan slope is fa) = fo, Derivative of fates ‘ley= tim LEB = SO a lim fe) = fle) 2.10 The way we write the difference quotient for the derivative of a function f depends on how we label the points involved. ‘The use ofthis formula simplifies some derivative calculations, Use it in Exercises 23-26 to find the derivative ofthe function atthe given value of c118 Chapter 2: Derivatives Graphs 'b) Graph the derivative of f; Call the vertical axis the y’-axis. “Match the functions graphed in Exercises 27-30 with the derivatives ‘The graph should show a step function, 32, Recovering a function from its derivative 48) Use the following information to graph the function f over the closed interval [~2, 5] 1) The graph of fis made of closed line segments joined end to end. i) The graph starts atthe point (~2, 3) lil) The derivative of fis the step function in Fig. 2.13. © @ 2.13 The derivative graph for Exercise 32. 2.11 The derivative graphs for Exercises 27-30. 2. 2 28, x ) Repeat part (a) assuming that the graph stats at (~2,0) instead of (~2, 3). 38, Growin the economy. The graph in Fig, 2.4 shows the ver =f = 540 age annual percentage change y (1) inthe US. gos rational . x. _ proc (GNP) forthe years 1983-i988, Gri dy ae (where de a 7] fined) Source: Stattical Abstracts ofthe United States, 110 / Eilon, US. Depatnent of Commerc, p. 427) 1% 2. , 2». y 6 =f) yeh ‘ * x 3 ol 2 1 7 | ‘31. a) The graph in Fig 2.12 is made of line segments joined end 983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 to end. At which points of the interval [4,6] is." not defined? Give reasons for your answer 2.14 The graph for Exercise 33. 34, Fruit fies. (Continuation of Example 3, Section 1.1.) Popula- tions starting out in closed environments grow slowly at frst, ‘when there are relatively few members, then more rapidly asthe ‘number of reproducing individuals increases and resources are still abundant, then slowly again as the population reaches the carrying capacity ofthe environment. a) Use the graphical technique of Example 4 to graph the aa a2 derivative of the fruit fly population introduced in Section LLL. The graph of the population is reproduced here as Fig, 2.15, What units should be used on the horizontal and ver 212 The graph for Exercise 31 tical axes for the derivative’s graph?° 020 Time (ys) oS 2.15 The graph for Exercise 34 'b) During what days does the population seem to be increasing fastest? slowest? Compare the right-hand and leftchand derivatives to show that the functions in Exercises 35-38 are not differentiable atthe point P. = Each figure in Exercises 39-4 shows the graph of a function over a closed interval D. At what domain points does the function appear to be a) differentiable? ) continuous but not differentiable? ©) neither continuous nor differentiable? 19 Exercises 2.1 Give reasons for your answers. 3. yo D.-3ex22 2 a1. 2. y= so) D:2sx53 Theory and Examples In Exercises 45-48, 1) Find the derivative »’ = x) of the given function y = f(x). 1) Graph y = f(x) and y’ = #"() side by side using separate sets ‘of coordinate axes, and answer the following questions. ©) For what values of x if any is y’ positive? zero? negative? 4) Over what intervals of s-values, if any, does the funetion y = 3) increase as x increases? decrease as x increases? How is this related to what you found in (c)? (We will say more about this relationship in Chapter 3.) 45, y=? 46, y= —I/s yap 48, yaxt4 49, Does the curve y =x ever have a negative slope? If so, where? Give reasons for your answer. 50. Does the curve y =2/% have any horizontal tangents? If so, where? Give reasons for your answer.120 Chapter 2: Derivatives SI, Does the parabola y = 2x? ~ 13x +5 have a tangent whose slope {is ~17 Ifo find an equation forthe line and the point of tangency. If not, why not? ‘52, Does any tangent tothe curve y = /F cross the x-axis at x = —1? [If so, find an equation for the ine and the point of tangeney. If not, why not? 53, Does any function differentiable on (—c0, 00) have y= [xJ as its derivative? Give reasons for your answer ‘54, Graph the derivative of f(x) = |x|. Then graph y = ({x|~0)/ (e=0) = [x]/x. What can you conclude? 58. Does knowing that a function f(x) is differentiable at x = x9 ‘61, Weierstrass’s nowhere differentiable continuous function, ‘The sum of the first eight terms of the Weierstrass function F2) = EX 92/3)" cos(9"ar4) is 10) =) + (2) coe + (2) antes 2 coa(9 2 ’ +(2) son 2 (2) snore Graph this sum. Zoom in several times. How wigely and bumpy is this graph? Specify a viewing window in which the displayed Portion of the graph is smooth, tell you anything about the differentiability of the function ~ ¢ 3 CAS Explorations and Projects at 4%? Give reasons for your answer, 6. Does knowing that a function g(t) is differentiable at ¢ = 7 tell ‘you anything about the differentability of the function 3g at "Give reasons for your answer, 57. Suppose that functions g(#) and h(t) are defined for all values fof rand that ¢(0) = h(0) =O. Can lim, .o(g(#))/((@)) exist? IF it does exist, must it equal zero? Give reasons for your answers. $8 a) Let f(x) be a function satisfying |f(2)| 0. What formula does this give? 4) Substitute the value x = xy and plot the function together with its tangent line at that point ©) Substitute various values for x larger and smaller than xy into the formula obtained in part (c). Do the numbers make sense with your picture? {) Grapi the formula obtained in part (c). What does it mean when its values are negative? zero? positive? Does this make sense with your plot from part (a)? Give reasons for your answer 2. fox) 6. £6) ol 64. £09) 6 so-so 66. f(2) 67. $0) =P eos, w= H/422 Differentiation Rules 121 wo wth, ht 7 2.16 The rule (did)(Q) = 0 is another ‘way to say that the values of constant. functions never change and that the slope of a horizontal line is zero at every point. Differentiation Rules This section shows how to differentiate functions without having to apply the definition each time. Powers, Multiples, Sums, and Differences ‘The first rule of differentiation is that the derivative of every constant function is Rule 1 Derivative of a Constant a If is constant, then ° examete1 8) =0, is (4) ae Proof of Rule 1. We apply the definition of derivative to f(x) = c, the function ‘whose outputs have the constant value ¢ (Fig. 2.16). At every value of x, we find that LE+M=FO) ing h a S') = jim lim 0=0, hase a The next rule tells how to differentiate x" if n is a positive integer. Rule 2 Power Rule for Positive Integers If mis a positive integer, then To apply the Power Rule, we subtract 1 from the original exponent (n) and multiply the result by n. EXAMPLE 2 ffx|- x f 2x | ae | ae a Proof of Rule 2 If f(x) =x", then f(x +h) integer, we can use the fact that ("b= (a— bya” (r+ A)" Since m is a positive Fa" be bab $b)122 Chapter 2: Derivatives 2.17 The graphs of y =? and y = 3x2 ‘Tripling the y-coordinates triples the slope (Example 3). to simplify the difference quotient for f- Taking x +h =a and x =b, we have a—b=h. Thus L@+h—f@) _ @+ht—x i 7h NG HAY + AY pt EA EY - i SW 4 Hh tt Ea pt ‘terms, each with limit °°! ash» Hence Loe) a a ‘The next rule says that when a differentiable function is multiplied by a constant, its derivative is multiplied by the same constant. Rule 3 The Constant Multiple Rule If wis a differentiable function of x, and c is a constant, then a zw = In particular, if n is a positive integer, then 8 ex") m cna! Fyn") = ene EXAMPLE 3 The derivative formula Jor) = 3+ 2x =6r says that if we rescale the graph of y =x? by multiplying each y-coordinate by 3, then we multiply the slope at each point by 3 (Fig. 2.17) a EXAMPLE 4 — A useful special case ‘The derivative of the negative of a differentiable function is the negative of the function's derivative, Rule 3 with ¢ = —1 gives Q Proof of Rule 3 ca = tm CHEE = UC) Deriatnedtnion axe! = jim 5 ear =a im wee Limit property 1s ier. Q2.2. Differentiation Rules 123 ‘The next rule says that the derivative of the sum of two differentiable functions is the sum of their derivatives. Denoting functions by u and v ‘The functions we are working with when we need a differentiation formula are likely to be denoted by leters lke f and g. When we apply the formula, we do not want to find it wing these same letters in some other way. ‘To guard against this, we denote the functions in differentiation rues by letes like w and v that aze not likely to be already in use. Rule 4 The Sum Rule Ifu and v are differentiable functions of x, then their sum u + vis differen- tiable at every point where u and v ae both differentiable. At such points, a du dv quia ere. Combining the Sum Rule with the Constant Multiple Rule gives the equivalent Difference Rule, which says that the derivative of a difference of differentiable funetions is the difference of their derivatives. a a du dv _du_ dv get 9 = Get l= Ee = ‘The Sum Rule also extends to sums of more than two functions, as long as there are only finitely many functions in the sum. If uj, 2, ..-, uy are differentiable at x, then $0 is 1 + u2 +--+ ty, and Fu tunte tug = ey Me dx Ct fe i) = oe dx ° d: EXAMPLE 5 a) yaxt+12y by sede set dyn #4044 (4)- fond a et gs dea +E 3 oot gE a4 412 WF. -540 8 eae Bt 4 5x5 Q Notice that we can differentiate any polynomial term by term, the way we differentiated the polynomials in Example 5. Proof of Rule 4 We apply the definition of derivative to f(x) = u(x) + v(x): 4 sue) + ve =f, HEED Hv = +H) u(x +h) = u(x) v(x) =p [oe ] tim MEE HMO) pg ME HM = VO) _ ae | dv = i ca i ae de a124 Chapter 2: Derivatives Proof by mathematical induction ‘Many formulas can be shown to hold for every postive integer m greater than oF equal to some lowest integer my by applying an axiom called the mathematical induction principle. 8 proof using this axiom is called 1 proof by mathematical induction ota proof dy induction. The steps in proving a formula by induction are 1k. Check that it holds for n =o, 2 Prove that if it holds for any positive integer n = k = mp, then it holds for +1 ‘Once these steps ate completed, the axiom says, we know thatthe formula holds for all ‘n> no, For more mathematical induction, see Appendix 1 (0.2) 2.18 The curve y= x! ~ 2x2 +2 and its horizontal tangents (Example 6). Proof of the Sum Rule for Sums of More Than Two Functions statement We prove the du dus dx dx duy dx fin tit tu Seu tua toot) = by mathematical induction, The statement is true for n = This is step 1 of the induction proof. Step 2 is to show that if the statement is true for any positive integer n where k > no = 2, then itis also true for n = k + 1. So suppose that ads yds die dx) dx dx” , aS was just proved. o eatin tu Seu bust tm d gy Wie te tg + test) Call he function Call his eine by this sum u. funeton » dss a a = qi tart ta + Role 4 for Fu +9) dx da z dis ax Fa. (0) With these steps verified, the mathematical induction principle now guarantees the Sum Rule for every integer n > 2. a EXAMPLE 6 If so, where? Does the curve y = x*— 2x? + 2 have any horizontal tangents? Solution The horizontal tangents, if any, occur where the slope dy/dx is zero, To find these points, we 1. Caleulate dy/dx: & = 4 (4252-42) Be 2. Solve the equation & =o for: 4x3 — ax a 4x2 =D) ‘The curve y =x 2x? +2 has horizontal tangents at x =0, 1, and —1. The corresponding points on the curve are (0, 2), (1, 1) and (—1, 1). See Fig. 2.18, Products and Quotients While the derivative of the sum of two functions is the sum of their derivatives, the derivative of the product of two functions is nor the product of their derivatives. For instance, seen as ‘The derivative of a product of two functions is the sum of nvo products, as we now explain, 4 yar GoadPicturing the product rule If u(x) and v(x) are positive and increase when x increases, and if h > 0, yea dv 7 mt ua) we A) the total shaded area inthe picture is lx + Rute +h) — uCxyutx) = u(x + A)Av + v(x + hau Audn, Dividing both sides ofthis equation by h ives Gx + Avo + A) — we) i au Au Scr A) SE + vt ty ,teaving 2.2 Differentiation Rules 125 Rule 5 The Product Rule If w and v are differentiable at x, then so is their product wv, and ‘The derivative of the product uv is u times the derivative of v plus v times the derivative of u. In prime notation, (uv)' = uv’ + vu’. Proof of Rule 5 (x + Aula +h) i ao ome) ag t)) = fim ‘To change this fraction into an equivalent one that contains difference quotients for the derivatives of w and v, we subtract and add u(x + h)u(x) in the numerator: u(x + h)uca +h) — u(x + hyve) + ule + hola) = wGeyv(a) ~~ h +! a a) = fim vx +h) = va) h vO +h) = v6 an “1 _ u(x +h) — w(x) = fim [uce +0 enh fim woe h) » fim, As hh approaches zero, w(x +h) approaches u(x) because u, being differentiable at x, is continuous at x. The two fractions approach the values of dv/dx at x and du/dx at x. In short, dv du de as a a ie EXAMPLE 7 Find the derivative of y = (x? + 1)(x° +3). Solution From the Product Rule with uw =x? +1 and v= x9 +3, we find a Gl? + DE? +3 = 07+ DB) + +920, = 3x8 43x? 2x4 + Or 3x4 + 3x? + 6x. a Example 7 can be done as well (perhaps better) by multiplying out the original expression for y and differentiating the resulting polynomial. We now check: Y= OPHDG 43) aa $39 3743 dy Ge = Sxt + 3x? + 64, ‘This is in agreement with our first calculation.126 Chapter 2: Derivatives ‘There are times, however, when the Product Rule must be used. In the following, ‘example, we have only numerical values to work with, EXAMPLE 8 Let y = uv be the product of the functions u and v, Find y’(2) if HQ) wQ)=-4, ¥@) and VQ) Solution From the Product Rule, in the form y= (wy = uv! +’, we have YQ) = w2)v'2) + vQu'2) = BQ) + (D4) = 6-4 =2. a Quotients Just as the derivative of the product of two differentiable functions isnot the product oftheir derivatives, the derivative of the quotient of two functions is not the quotient of their derivatives. What happens instead is this Rule 6 The Quotient Rule If w and v are differentiable at x, and v(x) #0, then the quotient u/v is differentiable at x, and dv of a()-8S8 Proof of Rule 6 uix+h) _ ls) d yu v(xt+h) v(x) &() = ig iy WDM + M) = wave +h) mh hue + hyo) To change the last fraction into an equivalent one that contains the difference quotients for the derivatives of w and v, we subtract and add v(x)u(x) in the ‘numerator, We then get (x) (a) + vlx)u(a) — weer +h) d (*) = tim v(xdu(x +A) de so Tue + hyve) wot ” HHO) cy bet " =v) = lim ra) ve + Hoe) ‘Taking the limit in the numerator and denominator now gives the Quotient Rule. a2.19 The tangent to the curve +(x) at (1, 3). The curve has a third-quadrant portion not shown here. We will see how to graph functions like this in Chapter 3 2.2. Differentiation Rules 127 Pol EXAMPLE 9 Find the derivative of y = PH Solution We apply the Quotient Rule with w=? — I and v= +1 dy HMMA (Hy _ sds -nitrtn ae ery ay W+— WI ery 4 err a The Power Rule for Negative Integers ‘The Power Rule for negative integers isthe same as the rule for positive integers. Rule 7 Power Rule for Negative Integers If mis a negative integer and x # 0, then a ae (x!) = nx! Proof of Rule 7 The proof uses the Quotient Rule ina clever way. Ifm isa negative integer, then n = —m where m isa positive integer. Hence, x" =x-" = 1/x™ and don afd KO? * a (=) 4 4 x ‘gh ‘at Quotient Rule with = volane= aes oye met am ae =x"! Since -m =n EXAMPLE 10 &() #(3) EXAMPLE 11 Find an equation for the tangent to the curve 2 yertS at the point (1, 3) (Fig. 2.19).128 Chapter 2: Derivatives [Notice that z() does not mean multiplication. It means “the derivative ofthe derivative Solution The slope of the curve is dy da d RRO rE: The slope at x = 1 is a ax ‘The line through (1, 3) with slope m = —1 is (DG = 1) Poim-sope equation yeort143 yore t4. a Choosing Which Rules to Use ‘The choice of which rules to use in solving a differentiation problem can make a difference in how much work you have to do. Here is an example. EXAMPLE 12 Rather than using the Quotient Rule to find the derivative of (= 1)? = 2x) expand the numerator and divide by x*: (= D@?= 2x) _ P= 3x7 42x = = Be? $20, ‘Then use the Sum and Power Rules: ay gt aaa Pi 3(—2)x* + 2(-3), eee Spt x a Second and Higher Order Derivatives ‘The derivative y’ = dy/dx is the first (first order) derivative of y with respect to x This derivative may itself be a differentiable function of x; if so, its derivative aamnen( 2) 0 ax ~ ax (ax) ~ ae is called the second (second order) derivative of y with respect to x If y" is differentiable, its derivative, y"" = dy" /dx = d°y/dx* is the third (third order) derivative of y with respect to x. The names continue as you imagine, with d ym oy denoting the nth (nth order) derivative of y with respect t0 x, for any positive imeger n.Exercises 2.2 129 EXAMPLE 13. The first four derivatives of y = x? — 3x? +2 are How to read the symbols for derivatives First derivative: 3x? 6x yi “yprime” ——y""“y double prime” Second derivative: fy Third derivative "d squared y de squared” & Fourth derivative: y" =0. y" —“y triple prime” ‘The function has derivatives of all orders, the fifth and later derivatives all being yy super n” zero. a ay 5 S24 10 the mot y by dr to the a Exercises 2.2 Derivative Calculations In Exercises 1-12, find the first and second derivatives. In Exercises 13-16, find y' (a) by applying the Product Rule and (b) by multiplying the factors to produce a sum of simpler terms to differentiate Bey=G-0-14) ys Deter ty tsyauren(cese2) y= (e+2) (2) Find the derivatives of the functions in Exercises 17-28 245 241 ny Be 1, = 54 mw r= shah av -pd+eyt 22, w = (2x — 7) "x +5) fai sett Vari ee oe 1 +0) (at L (e+ Dee +2) Det Find the derivatives ofall orders of the functions in Exercises 29 and 390, 44, x Dyn dnx w= Find the first and second derivatives of the functions in Exercises, 31-38, B47 @- e400 tf aya | Oa De red 4, UevernstD gga h tint My= Br 36. w= @+DE-DE+D g+3 P= Gaye @e Using Numerical Values 39, Suppose w and v are functions of x that are differentiable at x =O and that 40) =5, WO) Find the values of the following derivatives at x 40) v@=2 0. » fu» Z(%) 0 £(2) @ Zov-2w 40. Suppose w and v are differentiable functions of x and that Md=2 #=0, =5, va Find the vals ofthe following deve tx = fi 4) 9 40) w 4 » 40 » £2) 0 £0) © Lor-m130 Chapter 2: Derivatives Slopes and Tangents 41) Find an equation forthe line perpendicular tothe tangent 10 the curve y =x? —4x-+1 atthe point (2 1). ) What isthe smallest slope on the curve? At whet point on the curve does the curve have this slope? ©) Find equations for the tangents to the curve at the poins| where the slope of the curve is 8 42, a) Find equations for the horizontal tangents to the curve y=x!~3r—2. Also find equations for the lines that ate perpendicular 1 these tangents atthe points of angency >) What isthe smallest slope on the curve? At what point on te curve does the curve have this slope? Find an equation for the line thts perpendicular tothe curves tangent a this point 43, Find the tangents to Newton's Serpentine (graphed here) atthe oxigin and the point (1,2) 4: 44, Find the tangent to the Witch of Agnesi (graphed here) at the Point (2, 1). There is a nice story about the name of this curve in the marginal note on Agnesi in Section 9.4 45. The curve y = ax? + bx +c passes through the point (1, 2) and is tangent to the line y =x at the origin. Find a 6, and, 46. The curves y =x? +ax +b and y = ox ~x? have a common tangent line atthe point (1, 0). Find a, and c 47. a) To) Find an equation for the line that is tangent to the curve y= ax? =r atthe point (~1,0). GRAPHER Graph the curve and tangent line together. The tangent intersects the curve at another point. Use ZOOM and TRACE to estimate the poin's coordinates. GRAPHER Confirm your estimates of the coordinates of the second intersection point by solving the equations for the curve and tangent simultaneously (SOLVER key). Find an equation for the line that is tangent to the curve y=x°— 6x! + 5x at the origin GRAPHER Graph the curve and tangent together. The tan- {ent intersects the curve at another point, Use ZOOM and ‘TRACE to estimate the points coordinates. Be 48. a) 82.6) GRAPHER Contr your estates of the coordinates of th second intersection pin by solving the equations for the curve and tangent simultaneously (SOLVER key). Physical Applications 49, Pressure and volume. If te gas ina closed container is main tained at a constant temperature 7; the pressure P is tlated to the volume Vby a formula ofthe form mRT an? Vom VE in which o, &,n, and R are constants. Find dP/AV. 50, The body’ reaction to medicine. The reaction of the body to a dose of medicine can sometimes be represented by an equation of the form ) 3)" Where C is positive constant and M is the amount of medicine absorbed in the blood. If the reaction is a change in blood pres- sure, R is measured in millimeters of mercury. Ifthe reaction is ‘change in temperature, R is measured in degrees, and so on. Find d R/dIM. This derivative, asa function of M, is called the sensitivity of the body to the medicine. In Section 3.6, we will see how to find the amount of medicine to which the body is ‘most sensitive. (Source: Some Mathematical Models in Biology, Revised Edition, R. M Thrall, J. A. Mortimer, K. R. Rebman, R. F. Baum, eds., December 1967, PB-202 364, p. 221; distributed by NTIS, U.S. Department of Commerce.) Theory and Examples 51, Suppose thatthe function vin the Product Rule has a constant value c, What does the Product Roe then say? What does this say about the Constant Multiple Rule? 52, The Reciprocal Rule 8) ‘The Reciprocal Rule says that at any point where the fue tion u(x is differentiable and different from zero, a( Ldv dx \v) ~ ae ‘Show that the Reciprocal Rule isa special case of the Quo- tient Rule b) Show that the Reciprocal Rule and the Product Rule together Imply the Quotient Rule. 53, Another proof of the Power Rule for positive integers. Use the algebra formula bebe ely together withthe derivative formula $60) = tim LO- = 00"148 Chapter 2: Derivatives Rest Position Position at r= 2.36 The body in Example 5. 2.37 ‘The graphs of the position and velocity of the body in Example 5. ° T=sinx a d dy _ (1—sinx)-(cosx) — cosx-F(1 — sins) a aC (1 = sin a)(= sin) = 08 x(0 = c08 2) (1=sinx? Motion ‘The motion of a body bobbing up and down on the end of a spring is an example of simple harmonic motion. The next example describes a case in which there are no opposing forces like friction or buoyancy to slow the motion down, EXAMPLE 5 A body hanging from a spring (Fig. 2.36) is stretched 5 units beyond its rest position and released at time ¢ = 0 to bob up and down. Its position at any later time ris 5 = Scost. ‘What ate its velocity and acceleration at time 1? Solution We have Position: s Velocity 4 (Seost) = 54 (cost) int felocity v Gq Seos) = 55 (oss) = ~Ssin d d ration: ees so 7 Acceleration: gn gy Sind) = ~Seoss Here is what we can learn from these equations: 1. As time passes, the body moves up and down between s = 5 ands = ~5 on the s-axis, The amplitude of the motion is 5. The period of the motion is 27, the period of cos: 2 The function sin ¢ attains its greatest magnitude (1) when cost = 0, as the graphs of the sine and cosine show (Fig. 2.37). Hence, the body's speed, [v| = 5] sin‘|, is greatest every time cost = 0, i, every time the body passes its rest position ‘The body’s speed is zero when sin¢ = 0. This occurs at the endpoints of the interval of motion, when cost = £1 The acceleration, a = —Scost, is zero only at the rest position, where the cosine is zero. When the body is anywhere else, the spring is either pulling on it or pushing on it. The acceleration is greatest in magnitude at the points farthest from the origin, where cost = +1 a2.4 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 149 Jerk ‘A sudden change in acceleration is called a “jerk.” When a ride in a car or a bus, is jerky, it is not that the accelerations involved are necessarily large but that the changes in acceleration are abrupt. Jerk is what spills your soft drink. ‘The derivative responsible for jerk is d°s/de°. Definition Jerk is the derivative of acceleration. If a body's position at time t is s = £(O), the body's jerk at time ¢ is da_ d's a ae Recent tests have shown that motion sickness comes from accelerations whose changes in magnitude or direction take us by surprise. Keeping an eye on the road helps us to see the changes coming. A driver is less likely to become sick than a passenger reading in the backseat. EXAMPLE 6 a) The jerk of the constant acceleration of gravity (g = 32 fusec*) is zero: d j= GH =0. We don’t experience motion sickness if we are just siting around, ) The jerk of the simple harmonic motion in Example 5 is da a a i Sl Se0s) = Ssing It has its greatest magnitude when sin = £1, not at the extremes of the displacement but at the origin, where the acceleration changes direction and sign, a The Derivatives of the Other Basic Functions Because sin.x and cos.x are differentiable functions of x, the related functions sinx 1 tang = St seex = —— e cosx cosx 1 cotx = 8% esex = —— sing Sing are differentiable at every value of x at which they are defined. Their derivatives, calculated from the Quotient Rule, are given by the following formulas.150 Chapter 2: Derivatives $ an) = see? 4 (ceo) = seextanx Stans) = ses 6) Acces) =seextns a a [Notice the minus signs inthe derivative loots) =—exx Fee) = esexcotx 8) Tormulas for the cofunctions a ss To show how a typical calculation goes, we derive Eq. (6). The other derivations are left to Exercises 67 and 68. EXAMPLE 7 Find dy/dx if Solution Stans. dy de a dg a ) cos.x—(sin.x) ~sinx—(C0Sx) Quoin = cote 4 any = 4 ax" = ax (cose 08.x 608 x — si x (=sinx) cost cos?x + sin? x cost L sects a EXAMPLE 8 Find y" if y =seex. Solution yaseex y’ =seextanx ea » = oe. gy see tan) = seex A (ans) +tanx4 (eee) rots Ru = seer Zsee) roan te seex (sec? x) + tanx (see xtan x) sec? x + see x tan? a EXAMPLE 9 a d e a) FGr boots) =3+ H(cotx) = 3—eserx a4(2)_4 » 4 (s) = Foxes) =2(-esexcotx)238 The graph of ‘2cr0ss the y-axis at 2.4 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 151 Continuity of Trigonometric Functions Since the six basic trigonometric functions are differentiable throughout their do- rains they are also continuous throughout their domains by Theorem 1, Section 2.1. This means that sin.x and cos x are continuous forall x, that sec.x and tanx are continuous except when x is a nonzero integer multiple of x /2, and that esc x and cot.x are continuous except when x is an integer multiple of 7. For each function, Time f(x) = f(©) whenever f(c) is defined. As a result, we can calculate the limits of many algebraic combinations and composites of trigonometric functions by direct substitution. EXAMPLE 10 im 252 _ VPFwO IFT Sg #0 cos( —tanx) — cos(—tan0) cos 0) 1 a Other Limits Calculated with Theorem 4 ‘The equation lims_.o(sin8)/@ = 1 holds no matter how 6 may be expressed: sinx sin 7x mG Th eas ee ale Asx+0,020 Asx 0.0-+0 aioe 1, 6 = (2/3)x hOB Asx3000 Knowing this helps us calculate related limits involving angles in radian measure. EXAMPLE 11 tim 982 jig, 2/50 sind fron My needa 2 the denote 9) im Salim eee ha Meaney Now Ea, (2 applies Pat (a) and comity of con 9 See Fig. 2.38. a152. Chapter 2: Derivatives EXAMPLE 12 Applications ‘The occurrence of the function (sinx)/x in caleulus is not an isolated event. The function arses in such diverse fields as quantum physics (where it appears in solutions of the ‘wave equation) and eletrcal engineering (in signal analysis and signal filter design) 3s well asin the mathematical fields of ferential equations and probability theory. (3) epee 1p = lim a Exercises 2.4 Derivatives In Exercises 1-12, find dy/ds. 3 A y= 10x + 3008 Ry=+Ssing 3. yesex—4yF +7 4 y= Heotx 5. y= (ex +tanay(seex tan) (ing +0082) seer * TF eotx & Tyne 44 coss oo Sex * ine Wy + oer A x sinx +2xcosx —2sinx 1, y= sos ~ 2x sinx ~ 2eosx In Exercises 13-16, find ds/dr 13. stant ts so tect Tose In Exercises 17-20, find did 1. =4—6%sind 18, r = 8sind + cos 19, r =secb sed 20. r= (1-4 sec8)sin8 In Exercises 21-24, find dp/da. 2 p=s+ 2p 1 ese g) cos eae ese g) cosq sing +e0sq tang 2, p= Bat 4 Pe cos PTF tang 25, Find y" if (a) y = csex, (b) y=seex, 26, Find y= dy/dx* if (a) y =—2sinx, (b) y =9eos-. Limits Find the limits in Exercises 27-32. mig(!-) 28, tim, FCO RERY 2 i some rnin (2) 30. tim on( Se) #3 "Ganz —2secx 21 tig on (— 222) 1 22 tn (2%, wn (Z) sin v20 sinkt 2 ln 34g MH consan iy % Jin » 38 ig $82 0. in 624.0820 x+xCOsK 2 x + sinx 4 i SEE im ery me 1 = cos) ro 1 cost sind 23 Sind (sini)unde 4 Ty Sing indy cot 48, im Sin 3e0t5y 8 yeatay Tangent Lines In Exercises 49-52, graph the curves over the given intervals, together with their tangents at the given values of x. Label each curve and tangent with its equation. 49. y=sinx, ~3n/2 O°? as > 0-7 ‘What phenomenon is being illustrated here? 70. Graph y = ~sinx for = 0°? as ht» 0°? ‘What phenomenon is being illustrated here? ‘7, Centered difference quotients. The centered difference quo- tient L+H) ~fix-) oh is used to approximate ”(x) in numerical work because (1) its limit as h > O equals f(x) when (x) exists, and (2) it usually gives a better approximation of f'(x) fora given value of Fe than. Fermat's difference quotient feeth) fo) we.154 Chapter 2: Derivatives See the figure below, x Slope = fa) n 8) To see how rapidly the centered difference quotient for F(x) = sin converges to f'(x) = eos, graph y = cos.x together with sine +h) ~ sin (x =f) 2h ‘over the interval [—, 2] for h = 1,0.5, and 0:3. Compare ‘the results with those obtained in Exercise 69 for the same values off b) To see how rapidly the centered difference quotient for F(x) = cosx converges to f'(x)=—sinx, graph y= sins together with 0s (x +) — cos x — hi) oh cover the interval [—, 2] for h = 1.0.5, and 0.3. Compare the results with those obtained in Exercise 70 forthe same values of h, A caution about centered difference quotients. (Continua: tion of Exercise 71.) The quotient foath Ih ray have a limit as > 0 when f has no derivative at x As a case in point, take f(x) = [x] and calculate jim OFAL=10~ Al om oh TB ™ 15. 16. ‘As you will se, the limit exists even though f(x) = [x| has no derivative at x Graph y = tan x and its derivative together on (—7 /2, =/2).Does the graph ofthe tangent function appear to have a smallest slope? a largest slope? Is the slope ever negative? Give reasons for your Graph y = cotx and its derivative together for 0 < x ay dy du dx du dx Q Is it an accident that dy _dy du dx du’ dx If we think of the derivative as a rate of change, our intuition allows us to see that this relationship is reasonable, For y= f(u) and w = g(x), if y changes twice as fast as w and 1 changes three times as fast as x, then we expect y to change six times as fast as x. This is much like the effect of a multiple gear train (Fig. 2.39). Let us try this again on another function, EXAMPLE 2 y= 98467 $1 = Bx? + 1P wand uw dy du is the composite of y 3x? +1. Calculating derivatives, we see that au" dy =" = 2Gx" +1) 6x = 36x + Ie and 4.954 4642 +1) dx dx = 36r' + 12s. ‘Once again, dy du _ dy du" dx dx a ‘The derivative of the composite function f(g(x)) at x is the derivative of fat g(x) times the derivative of g at x. This is known as the Chain Rule (Fig. 2.40), Composite fog Rate of change is f(g) - £13) f re + aa tetas atxis gtx) a at g(a) is Fe) —156 Chapter 2: Derivatives Theorem 5 The Chain Rule If f (uw) is differentiable at the point w= g(x), and g(x) is differentiable at 4% then the composite function (f 0 g)(x) = f(g(x)) is differentiable atx, and (fogy') = feta) - 2"). a) In Leibniz notation, if y = f(u) and u = g(x), then dy _ dy dw Fen de ae (2) where dy/du is evaluated at u = g(x). It would be tempting to try to prove the Chain Rule by writing Ay _ Ay Au Ar Au” Bx and taking the limit as Ax — 0, This would work if we knew that Aw, the change in u, was nonzero, but we do not know this. A small change in x could conceivably produce no change in u. The proof requires a different approach, using ideas in Section 3.7. We will return to it when the time comes. EXAMPLE 3 Find the derivative of y = Vx" +1. Solution Here y= f(g(x)), where f(u) = Jit and g(x) =x?+1, Since the Aerivatves of fand g are Fw and g(x) = 2s, the Chain Rule gives dy_d ay F B= Freon = Feo) +) =e w= ayes 8 = ret © VFI a The “Outside-Inside” Rule 1 sometimes helps to think about the Chain Rule the following way. If y = f(g()), Eq, (2) tells us that dy x = FEO 80). @) In words, Eq. (3) says: To find dy/dx, differentiate the “outside” function f and leave the “inside” g(x) alone; then multiply by the derivative of the inside.25 The Chain Rule 157 EXAMPLE 4 eine of A sina? +2) = c0s(e? +2) - Get) a“ tetae of ee a Repeated Use of the Chain Rule ‘We sometimes have to use the Chain Rule two or more times to find a derivative. Here is an example, EXAMPLE 5 Find the derivative of g(t) = tan (5 ~ sin2r, Solution a Spltan = sin20)) . , Deane of = se0%5 = sin21) « £05 — si tou 9th seo%S ~ sin24) « 5 (5 —sin2) ah sec'(S ~ sin2t) « (0- cosa - £0) Same at ‘with w= 2 = sec%(5 ~ sin 21) « (—cos21) +2 ~2(c0s 21) sec*(5 — sin21) a Differentiation Formulas That Include the Chain Rule Many of the differentiation formulas you will encounter in your scientific work already include the Chain Rule. If fis a differentiable function of u, and w is a differentiable function of x, then substituting y = f(u) in the Chain Rule formula dy _dy du dx du dx leads to the formula a du qi a=fwr @ For example, if w isa differentiable function of x, m is an integer, and y =u", then the Chain Rule gives dy 4 yyy de be a ae nut !44,——bieemining «ih spec ax to w tel gives na158 Chapter 2: Derivatives sin’ x is short for (sin 2)", — Power Chain Rule If w(x) is differentiable function and n is an integer, then wis differentiable and ©) EXAMPLE 6 do. ad sin’ x = Ssint x (i Eq (5) with a) J; sin’ x = Ssin' x 7Gin) a. (5) = Ssin* xcos.x a a by Ort DF = 32x + FOr +) 9. (5) with w = 32x +142) = 62x +1) ° Aor — xt) = 180 - 4° Zs x4 Bg. (5) with w = Sx =n = 7 (Sx3 — x4)6(5 «3x? — 4x) (Sx3 — x46 (15x? — 4x") df. a 4 . w #(=5) aor? Bg. (5) with w = 3 = -1Gx-2) 2 Zar-2 = 1x -2)7(3) 2 In part (4) we could also have found the derivative with the Quotient Rule. EXAMPLE 7 — Radians vs. degrees It is important to remember that the formulas for the derivatives of sin.x and cos x were obtained under the assumption that x is measured in radians, not degrees. The Chain Rule brings new understanding to the difference between the two. Since 180° = x radians, x" = 7x/180 radians. By the Chain Rule, egy = Lin (F*) = cos (7) = 7 cos en Syn) = sin (EE) = FE 008 (TE) = Fp cos. See Fig. 2.41. Similarly, the derivative of cos (x°) is ~(r/180) sin (x*). ‘The factor 7/180, annoying in the first derivative, would compound with re- peated differentiation. We see at a glance the compelling reason for the use of radian measure a2.41 sin (x) oscillates only 2/180 times as Often as sin x oscillates. Its maximum slope is 7/180. 25 The Chain Rule 159 Melting Ice Cubes In mathematics, we tend to use letters like f, g, x, y, and u for functions and variables. However, other fields use leters like V, for volume, ands, fr side, that ‘come from the names of the things being modeled. The letters in the Chain Rule then change too, as in the next example EXAMPLE 8 — The melting ice cube How long will it take an ice cube to melt? Solution As with all applications to science, we start with a mathematical model. We assume that the cube retains its cubical shape as it melts. We call its side length 5, s0 its volume is V = s°. We assume that V and s are differentiable functions of time & We assume also thatthe cube’s volume decreases ata rate that is proportional to its surface area. This later assumption seems reasonable enough when we think that the melting takes place atthe surface: Changing the amount of surface changes the amount of ice exposed to melt. In mathematical terms, av y Fp =n KG), > 0. ‘The minus sign indicates that the volume is decreasing. We assume that the pro- portionality factor is constant. (It probably depends on many things, however, such as the relative humidity of the surrounding air, the air temperature, and the incidence or absence of sunlight, to name only a few.) Finally, we need at least one more piece of information: How long will it take a specific percentage of the ice cube to melt? We have nothing to guide us unless we make one or more observations, but now let us assume a particular set of conditions in which the cube lost 1/4 of its volume during the first hour. (You could use letters instead of particular numbers: say n% in r hours. Then your answer would be in terms of n andr) Mathematically, we now have the following problem. Given: Vo when V=(/4)Vo when 1=1h Find: The value of ¢ when V =0160 Chapter 2: Derivatives We apply the Chain Rule to differentiate V dv _ ads wv Lads. 7 a with respect to £: We set this equal to the given rate, —k(6s*), to get ds 2 30, = — 6s? ds S = 2K. a ‘The side length is decreasing at the constant rate of 2k units per hour, Thus, if the initial length of the cube’s side is so, the length of its side one hour later is 5) = 59 — 2k. This equation tells us that 2k =%—s1 ‘The melting time is the value of r that makes 2kr = sy. Hence, But Therefore, Th. rt 1-091 If 1/4 of the cube melts in I h, it will take about 10 h more for the rest of it to melt. a If we were natural scientists interested in testing the assumptions on which ‘our mathematical model is based, our next step would be to run a number of experiments and compare their outcomes with the model's predictions. One practical application might lie in analyzing the proposal to tow large icebergs from polar ‘waters to offshore locations near southern California, where the melting ice could provide fresh water. As a fist approximation, we might imagine the iceberg to be 4 large cube or rectangular solid, or perhaps a pyramid. We will say more about mathematical modeling in Section 4.2 Exercises 2.5 Derivative Calculations In Exercises 1-8, given y= f(u) and F(@(a))e'o. 1 y=6u-9, w= (1/2)x4 3 yasinu, w=3x41 5. y sc0su, w= sine 6 y=sinu, w= x—cosx 7. y Stanu, w= Or ~5 By =—seeu, wae 4 78In Exercises 9-18, write the function in the form y = f(u) and u = _3(2). Then find dy/de as a function of x. 9%. y= Ors) 10. y= (4-31 mya (02)7 mya (E-1)" (: 15, y =sec(tanx) tn y=(F4e-5 16 y=en(x-2) 1. in? x 18. y = Scos*x Fine aes of te ts in a 19.38 Wait mer Soret thse dnsrs Last an _ a coae(*2) sou(*2) 23. r = (esc + cotd) Sint cos" a 1) aye hora +(1- 3h) me yae-ayt (2) a 2% y= (4x +3) tI) 31. A(x) = xtan QVE)-+7 38. r = sin 6?) cos (28) (aa) In Exercises 39-48, find dy/dt. 39, y = sint(ar ~2) aL y aq 40. y= sec at + 60821) y= (1 +00t0/2)? 48, y = sin(c0s 2 —5)) 45. y (+0 (4))) 46. y= 2 (1 4eos'an)? ts yan VT) My Find "in Exercises 49-52, noa(et) (Teo) 50. y=(1- yey" Exercises 2.5 164 st y=heaar-n 2. y=91n(3) Finding Numerical Values of Derivatives In Exercises $3-S8, find the value of (f © g) at the given value of x. 53 fW) =u +1, wae sve, x=) 34. fw 55. flu) = cot =, Perea eam, x= 1/4 3h. fw (0) 10? +041, ss w= (1), ut am=4 59, Suppose that functions f and g and their derivatives with respect to.x have the following values at x = 2 and x =3, x ee) ae) re ge 2 8 2 13 3 3 3 4 2x 3 Find the deivatives with respect to x of the following combina- fons athe given vale of ®) 24, x=2 » OD fix)- gi), x oO flga), x ge) 1/s%(x), hy) VPODFER). v=? 64, Suppose thatthe functions f and g and their deivaies ith resect or have the following wales at = O and = 1 FO) +g, x @ feo/aco. D VFe. x=3 x Ste) ae) fe) ge) o 1 1 5 13 1 3 -4 -13 83 Find the derivatives with respect to x ofthe following combina- tions atthe given value of x, a) 5fQ)- gi, r=1 » fa) wor * 8 8(fe), © 8) fete), fee), x=0 @ fig). Date fey x 1 ° x=0CHAPTER Applications of Derivatives OVERVIEW This chapter shows how to draw conclusions from derivatives. We use derivatives to find extreme values of functions, to predict and analyze the shapes of ‘graphs, to find replacements for complicated formulas, to determine how sensitive formulas are to errors in measurement, and to find the zeros of functions numerically ‘The key to many of these accomplishments is the Mean Value Theorem, a theorem whose corollaries provide the gateway to integral calculus in Chapter 4. Extreme Values of Functions This section shows how to locate and identify extreme values of continuous fune- tions. The Max-Min Theorem ‘A function that is continuous at every point of a closed interval has an absolute ‘maximum and an absolute minimum value on the interval. We always look for these values when we graph a function, and we will see the role they play in problem solving (this chapter) and in the development ofthe integral calculus (Chapters 4 and 5), Theorem 1 ‘The Max-Min Theorem for Continuous Functions If fis continuous at every point of a closed interval J, then f assumes both an absolute maximum value M and an absolute minimum value m somewhere in J, That is, there are numbers x; and x2 in f with f (x1) =m, f(a) = M, and m < f(x) < M for every other x in I (Fig. 3.1 on the following page). ‘The proof of Theorem 1 requires a detailed knowledge of the real number system and we will not give it here 1893.1 Typical arrangements of a continuous function's absolute maxima and minima ‘on a closed interval [a, 6. a >? ‘Maximum and minim stendponts, em me Maxim and minimom a ine pins | \vero A ia y=say er as @ mF @ Fo > “Maximum at interior point, Minimum at incre point, ‘minimom at endpoint ‘maximum a endpoint EXAMPLE 1 On [—/2,7/2), f(x) = 008 takes on a maximum value of 1 (once) and a minimum value of 0 (twice). The function g(x) = sinx takes on a maximum value of 1 and a minimum value of —1 (Fig. 3.2) a ‘AS Figs. 3.3 and 3.4 show, the requirements that the interval be closed and the function continuous are key ingredients of Theorem 1. Without them, the conclusion Of the theorem need not hold, | Graph has no highest point 3.2 Figure for Example 1. No largest value Sarat beret Z Graph nas no lowest point 3.4 Even a single point of discontinuity can keep a function from having either @ No smallest vale ‘maximum or a minimum value on a closed interval. The function xe, -1ex<0 3.3 Onan open interval, a continuous 0 x=0 function need not have either a xo 0 FO forall xin D. Absolute maximum and minimum values are called absolute extrema (plural of the Latin extremum). Absolute extrema are also called global extrema, 15 with the same defining rule can have different extrema, depending ‘on the domain, EXAMPLE 2 (See Fig. 3.6) Function Domain _ Absolute extrema rule D on D (if any) a) (00,00) No absolute maximum. Absolute minimum of 0 at x =0. b) (0.2) Absolute maximum of (2)? 2 Absolute minimum of 0 at x ° 0,2 Absolute maximum of 4 at x = 2. No absolute minimum, 4) 0.2) No absolute extrema. a192 Chapter 3: Appl {Local maximum value fearon 3.7 Accurve with a local maximum value. The slope at ¢, simultaneously the limit of nonpositive numbers and nonnegative numbers, is zero. ions of Derivatives Definition Local Extreme Values ‘A function f has a local maximum value at an interior point ¢ of its domain if F(8) < fl) forall x in some open interval containing « ‘A function f has a local minimum value at an interior point c ofits domain if F(x) = fC for all x in some open interval containing c. We can extend the definitions of local extrema to the endpoints of intervals by defining f to have a local maximum or local minimum value at an endpoint c if the appropriate inequality holds for all.x in some half-open interval in its domain containing c, In Fig. 3.5, the function f has local maxima at c and d and local ‘minima at a, e, and b ‘An absolute maximum is also a local maximum. Being the largest value overall, itis also the largest value in its immediate neighborhood. Hence, a list of all local ‘maxima will automatically include the absolute maximum if there is one. Similarly, 4 list of all local minima will include the absolute minimum if there is one. Finding Extrema ‘The next theorem explains why we usually need to investigate only a few values to find a function’s extrema. Theorem 2 The First Derivative Theorem for Local Extreme Values If f bas a local maximum or minimum value at an interior point ¢ of its domain, and if f is defined at c, then FO =0. Proof To show that f"(c) is zero at a local extremum, we show first that /"(c) cannot be positive and second that f'(c) cannot be negative, The only number that is neither positive nor negative is zero, so that is what f”(c) must be. ‘To begin, suppose that has @ local maximum value at x = ¢ (Fig. 3.7) so that F(x) ~ fle) £0 for all values of x near enough to c. Since c isan interior point of f's domain, f'(c) is defined by the two-sided limit tim L2-FO mane ‘This means that the right-hand and left-hand limits both exist at x = ¢ and equal (6). When we examine these limits separately, we find that £@) jecause (x —c) > 0 FO = lim Tae Sayer |How to Find the Absolute Extrema of a Continuous Function f on a Closed interval 1. Evaluate f at all critical points and endpoints. 2 Take the largest and smallest of these values. 3.1 Extreme Values of Functions" 193 Similarly, FO ne 28 ani fane se @ ‘Together, (1) and (2) imply f’(c) = 0. ‘This proves the theorem for local maximum values. To prove it for local ‘minimum values, we simply use f(x) = (c), which reverses the inequalities in (1) and Q) a ‘Theorem 2 says that a function's fist derivative is always zero at an interior point where the function has a local extreme value and the derivative is defined. Hence the only places where a function can possibly have an extreme value (local or global) are 1. interior points where f’ = 0, 2. interior points where f" is undefined, 3. endpoints of the domain of f. ‘The following definition helps us to summarize. Definition An interior point of the domain of a function f where f’ is zero or undefined is a critical point of f. Summary The only domain points where a function can assume extreme values are critical points and endpoints Most quests for extreme values call for finding the absolute extrema of a continuous function on a closed interval. Theorem I assures us that such values exist; Theorem 2 tells us that they are taken on only at critical points and endpoints ‘These points are ofien so few in number that we can simply list them and calculate the corresponding function values to see what the largest and smallest are. EXAMPLE 3 Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of f(x) on [-2, 1). Solution The function is differentiable over its entire domain, so the only critical point is where f’(x) = 2x = 0, namely x =0. We need to check the function’s values at x = 0 and at the endpoints x = —2 and x = L Critical point value: FO) =0 Endpoint values: f(-2)=4 f= ‘The function has an absolute maximum value of 4 at x =—2 and an absolute minimum value of 0 at x = 0. a194 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives 3.8 The extreme values of g(t) = 8t ~ t* fon {-2,1] (Example 4). yer teres Absote maximums Local also logal maximum 3.9. The extreme values of h(x) = x" on [22,3] occur at x= 0 and x = 3 (Exam- ple 5). 3.10 f(x) =x" has no extremum at x =0, even though F(x) = (1/3)x-#" is undefined at x EXAMPLE 4 Find the absolute extrema values of g(¢) = 8 on [-2, 1] Solution The function is differentiable on its entire domain, so the only critical points occur where '(r) = 0. Solving this equation gives, 28, 4 point not in the given domain, The function's local extrema therefore occur at the endpoints, where we find a(-2) (1) =7. (Absolute maximum) 38, a 32 (Absolute minimum) See Fi EXAMPLE 5 Find the absolute extrema of h(x} 2° on [-2, 3}. Solution The first derivative us _ 2 3 a W(x) hhas no zeros but is undefined at x =0. The values of / at this one critical point and atthe endpoints x = —2 and x =3 are nO) =0 h(—2) = (29 = 488 4) = BP? = 917. The absolute maximum value is 9", assumed at x = 3; the absolute minimum is 0, assumed at x = 0 (Fig. 3.9, a While a function’s extrema can occur only at critical points and endpoints, not every critical point or endpoint signals the presence of an extreme value. Figures 3.10 and 3.11 illustrate this for interior points, and Exercise 34 asks you for a function that fails to assume an extreme value at an endpoint of its domain. 3.11 g(x) =x? has no extremum at x = 0 even though g'(x) = 3x? is zero at x = 0Exercises 3.1 195 As we will se in Section 3.3, we can determine the behavior of a function fat 4 cfticl point c by further examining f’, but we must look beyond what f" does atc itself. Exercises 3.1 Finding Extrema from Graphs In Exercises 1-6, determine from the graph whether the function has any absolute extreme values on [a,b]. Then explain how your answer is consistent with Theorem 1 L put 1., 14 i ope op «ee % a 7 » y= ses po poi, ope ra) 5 6 x x yeaa) oo — rot Loy op ae op ae > Absolute Extrema on Closed Intervals In Exercises 7-22, find the absolute maximum and minimum values of ‘each function onthe given interval. Then graph the function, Identify the points onthe graph where the absolute extrema occur, and include their coordinates, 7. fw) & fuy= . f(@) = sind, and, In Exercises 23-26, find the function's absolute maximum and mini ‘mum values and say where they are assumed 2 fax, —1srs8 WW. fo) =x, —1sxe8 25. 9(@)=8"8, 3250.51 26, Wo) = 36, -27 50 <8 Local Extrema in the Domain In Exercises 27 and 28, find the values of any local maxima and ‘minima the functions may have on the given domains, and say where they are assumed. Which extrema, if any, are absolute for the given domain? 21. a) -2sx52 » -2ex22 ° f(x) < f(r). 2. f decreases on if xy<2x. => f(a) < fla). Corollary 3 The First Derivative Test for Increasing and Decreasing Suppose that fis continuous on (a, 6] and differentiable on (a, b). If f" > 0 at each point of (a, 6), then f increases on (a, 6] If f” <0 at each point of (a,b), then f decreases on (a,b. Proof Let x and.x3 be two points in [a,b] with x; < x2. The Mean Value Theorem applied to f on [xi, x2] says that F(x) — fr) = fOb2—m) © for some ¢ between x, and x2. The sign of the right-hand side of Eq. (6) is the same as the sign of f'(c) because x2 — x; is positive. Therefore, f(x2) > f(a) if £ is positive on (a, b), and f(x:) < f(x) iff’ is negative on (a, 6). Qa EXAMPLE 5 The function f(x) = x? decreases on (—00, 0), where f’(x) 2x < 0, It increases on (0,00), where f'(x) = 2x > 0 (Fig. 322), a x Function Fonction desresing increasing yo yoo 3.22 The graph for Example 5.Exercises 32 203 Exercises 3.2 Finding c in the Mean Value Theorem Find the value or values of ¢ that satisfy the equation £0) _ > in the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem for the functions and intervals in Exereises 1-4 1 fi) =42x-1, (0.1) 2 fe) =e, 01) 3. f(x) oe i racer’ [a] 4 f=vE=1, (3) Checking and Using Hypotheses ‘Which ofthe functions in Exercises 5-8 satisfy the hypotheses of the ‘Mean Value Theorem on the given interval, and which do not? Give reasons for your answers. 5 fixy=0?, [-1,8] 6 flo "5, (0,1) 7. f(x) = vxT=), [0,1] 8 fe) [= aaa 0 rao 9. The function so= {a is ceo atx =0 and x = 1 and diferentiable on (0,1, but its derivative on (0, 1) is never zero. How can this be? Doesn't Rolle’s theorem say the derivative has to be zero somewhere in (0, 1)? Give reasons for your answer 10, For what values of a, m, and b does the function x 70 joo= [Paar Oo) meth Venea slisfy the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem on the interval ga 0.27 Roots (Zeros) 11, a) Plot the zeros of each polynomial on a line together with the zeros ofits fst derivative ) yet-a yaa ties =3P +4= (r+ DO -2 io y= Bee ne ae —29 ) Use Rolle’s theorem to prove that between every two 2210s Of Fay p2 Fo + aya + ay there lies a zer0 of at! (= Daytona 12, Suppose that is continuous on [a, 6) and that f has three zet0s in the interval. Show that ” has at least one zero in (a,b), Generalize this result 13, Show that if f” > 0 throughout an interval [a, b] then f* has at most one Zero in [a, 5]. What if f” <0 throughout [a, 5] instead? 14, Show that a cubic polynomial can have at most three real zeros. Theory and Examples 15, Show that at some instant daring a 2-h automobile tip the cat's speedometer reading will equal the average speed for the trip. 16, Temperature change. It took 14 sec for a thermometer to rise from —19°C to 100°C when it was taken from a freezer and placed in boiling water. Show that somewhere along the way the mercury was rising at exactly 8.5°Cisec. 17, Suppose tht fis differentiable on [0,1] and that its derivative is never zero. Show that f(0) # f(I). 18. Show that [sind — sina] < Jo —a for any numbers a and b 19. Suppose that fis differentiable on [a,b] and that f(b) < f(a). ‘Can you then say anything about the values of f” on (a, 6]? 20, Suppose that fad g are differentiable on [a,b] and that f(a) = (a) and f(b) = g(b). Show that there is at least one point be- tween a and b where the tangents to the graphs of f and g are parallel 21. Let f be differentiable at every value of x and suppose that F(L) = 1, that f’< 0 on (—o0, 1), and that f’ > 0 on (1, 00). 4) Show that f(x) = 1 forall x b) Must f'(1) = 0? Explain, 22, Let f(x) = pr? tgx-+r be a quadratic function defined on a closed interval {a,b}. Show that there is exactly one point ¢ in (a, b) at which f satisfies the conclusion ofthe Mean Value ‘Theorem. A surprising graph. Graph the function F(x) = sin x sin(x + 2) —sin®(x + 1). What does the graph do? Why does the function behave this way? Give reasons for your answers. 24, Ifthe graphs of two functions f(x) and g(x) start atthe same point in the plane and the funetions have the same rate of change at every point, do the graphs have to be identical? Give reasons for your answer. 25. a) Show that g(x) domain, | fx decreases on every interval in its220 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives @ Grapher Explorations In Exercises 85-88, find the inflection points (if any) onthe graph ‘ofthe function and the coordinates ofthe points on the graph where the function has a local maximum or local minimum value. Then sah the function in a region large enough to show all these points ke does " have two zeras? one or no zeros? Now explain ‘what the value of k has to do with the shape of the graph of f. ©) Experiment with other values of k, What appears to happen as k > 20? as k > 00? simultaneously. Add to your picture the graphs of the function’s first 92. a) On a common screen, graph f(x) = x4 + kx? + 6x2, -1 s and second derivatives. How are the values at which these graphs x <4 for k = ~4, and some nearby values of & How does intersect the x-axis related tothe graph ofthe function? In what oer the value of & seem to affect the shape of the graph? ways are the graphs of the derivatives related to the graph of the —-b)_ Find f"(x). As you willse, "(x isa quadratic function of function? 4 What isthe discriminant of this quadratic (see Exercise eee 918)? For what values of k isthe discriminant postive? , 2010? negative? For what values of & does f(x) have two 86, y= 2 - 12x zeros? one oF no zeros? Now explain what the value of k eres has to.do with the shape of the graph of 5 93, a) Graph y = x22" — 2) for —3 00. Among the tools we use are asymptotes and dominant terms. Limits as x — +00 ‘The function f(x) = 1/ is defined for all x # 0 (Fig. 3.33). When x is positive and becomes increasingly large, 1/x becomes increasingly small. When « is negative and its magnitude becomes increasingly large, 1/x again becomes small. We summarize these observations by saying that f(x) = 1/x has limit 0 as. x £00.3.33 The graph of, ‘The symbol infinity (oo) As always, the symbol o0 does not represent ‘areal number and we cannot use it in arithmetic in the usual way. 4 Nomater what postive number eis, the graph ener thisband t= ad says No mater what postive number es the graph enters this banda tnd sys 3.34 The geometry behind the argument Example 1 3.5. Limits as x -> #0, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 221 Definitions 1. We say that f(x) has the limit L as x approaches infinity and write lim fo) =L if, for every number € > 0, there exists a corresponding number M such that for all x x>M = If)-Li 0, there exists a comesponding number N such that for all x x 0 be given, We must find a number M such that for all x xoM > ‘The implication will hold if M = 1/e or any larger positive number (Fig. 3.34). This proves lim... (I/x) = 0. b) Let € > 0 be given. We must find a number NV such that for all x z|=[I<< The implication will hold if N = —1/e or any number less than —1/e (Fig. 3.34), This proves lim,.2o (1/x) =0. x222 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives ‘The following theorem enables us to build on Eqs. (1) to calculate other limits Theorem 6 Properties of Limits as x —> +00 ‘The following rules hold if lim, se. f(x) = L and lim, 90 8(%) (Land M real numbers). 1. Sum Rule lim LF) + (01 = b+ M 2. Difference Rule: Jim (f@) = g@))=L~M 3. Product Rule: “im, (02) « 4G) = LM eaten es ML, 5. Quotient Rule: in SO a ifMso 6 Power Rule: mand mare integers, then im f(x)" L™ provided L" is a real number. ‘These properties are just like the properties in Theorem 1, Section 1,2, and we use them the same way. EXAMPLE 2 a) lim (5+2) = Jim $+ im 2 Sum Rae Koon aes Proc ule Keown aes a 2 yortoscare 3.35 The function in Example 3. To determine the limit of a rational function as x > +00, we can divide the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x in the denominator. What hhappens then depends on the degrees of the polynomials involved. EXAMPLE 3. Numerator and denominator of same degree ‘The degree ofthe polynomial agar! 5x2 + 8x—3 54 8/x) — GB/s?) Divide mera BX Fae EF ae Sao lim “S sim . toca denon <4, #0, 8m, the largest exponent. iia cereal) nator by S+0-0_5 7 033 See Fig 33 a3.36 The graph of the function in Example 4. The graph approaches the axis a5 [x increases. 3.37 The function in Example 5(a) ‘The leading coefficient of the polynomial AX" agp AT! one ax A, dy HO, is 44, the coefficient of the highest-powered term, 3.5. Limits as x > #00, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 223 EXAMPLE 4 Degree of numerator less than degree of denominator Mx+2 _ gg (JH) + 2/a3) Dire numerator aor = 3a) asic oxo =Sp-0 See FA Gy EXAMPLE 5 Degree of numerator greater than degree of denominator ») BPH 3 iy =O) Divide merstor and mT a) Ssyomintn by 5 The mums 09 ap proaches 20 whe the 00 {nominator approche Sore io +30 Fig. 337 = tim a+) Dinide numerator ad li 3— yxy —COfxr) denominator by Nara + 0. Denon co inator > 2 Ratio > a Examples 3-5 reveal a pattem for finding limits of rational functions as x > £00) 1, If the numerator and the denominator have the same degree, the limit is the ratio of the polynomials’ leading coefficients (Example 3). 2 If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, the limit is zero (Example 4), 3. If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, the limit is +00 or ~co, depending on the signs assumed by the numerator and denominator as |x| becomes large (Example 5). ‘Summary for Rational Functions 1. th deg (/) = deg (g), tim, £02 = xorkoo g(x) by coefficients of f and g. fe) sae g(x) f@) £0 «400, depending onthe signs 2@) PX ag on the signs of numerator and denominator. the ratio of the leading 2 If deg (f) < deg (2), 3. I deg (f) > dee (),224 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives » 8 & 5 2 Horizontal 1 ssymptote OU] Horizonal asymptote, y=0 0 g z E £ 3.38 The coordinate axes are asymptotes ‘of both branches of the hyperbola yi 3.39. The graphs of sec x and tan x (Example 7). Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes If the distance between the graph of « function and some fixed line approaches zero as the graph moves increasingly far from the origin, we say that the graph approaches the line asymptotically and that the line isan asymptote ofthe graph EXAMPLE 6 The coordinate axes are asymptotes of the curve y = I/x (Fig. 3.38), The x-axis is an asymptote of the curve on the right because ‘and on the left because ‘The y-axis is an asymptote of the curve both above and below because tim 400 mnt in 2 ©. Notice that the denominator is zero at x = 0 and the function is undefined. ‘ions +b is ahorizontal asymptote of the graph of a function y = f(x) or tim f(x) =b. oo. EXAMPLE 7 The curves both have vertical asymptotes at odd-integer multiples of 1/2, where cos x =0 (Fig. 3.39).y Xeric rime |] 6 me L yest STR ar 1 Horizontal 3p and 2 3.41 The lines y= 1 and x = ~2 are asymptotes of the curve y = (x + 3/(x +2) (Example 8). y Verical Vertical asympiae asymptos,x=2 Hozontal agympeoe, y= 0 symp, 3.42 The graph of y = -8/(x? - 4) (Example 9). Notice that the curve approaches the x-axis from only one side, ‘Asymptotes do not have to be two-sided. 3.5. Limits as x—> +00, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 225 ‘The graphs of hhave vertical asymptotes at integer multiples of 2, where sin x = 0 (Fig. 3.40), x yee X ym eots 3.40 The graphs of cs x and cot x (Example 7). a EXAMPLE 8 Find the asymptotes of the curve x43 x42 Solution We are interested in the behavior as x > 00 and as x > —2, where the denominator is zero ‘The asymptotes are quickly revealed if we recast the rational function as a polynomial with a remainder, by dividing (x +2) into (x +3), This enables us to rewrite y: From this we see that the curve in question is the graph of y = 1/x shifted 1 unit up and 2 units left Fig. 3.41). The asymptotes, instead of being the coordinate axes, are now the lines y =I and x = 2 a EXAMPLE 9 Find the asymptotes of the graph of 8 {@=-3y Solution We are interested in the behavior asx —> soo and as x —> +2, where the denominator is zero. Notice that f is an even function of , so its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis The behavior as x > +00, Since lim... f(x) =0, the line y =0 is an asymptote of the graph to the right. By symmetry itis an asymptote to the left as well (Fig. 3.42),226 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives 3.43 The graph off) = (8 — 1/Ge — 1) has one vertical asymptote, not two. The discontinuity at x = 1 Is removable. ese Of eae oe 3.44 A curve may cross one ofits asymptotes infinitely often (Example 11). The behavior as x > £2. Since lim f(%)=~00 and im f(x) = 00, the line x = 2 is an asymptote both from the right and from the left. By symmetry, the same holds for the line x = —2. ‘There are no other asymptotes because f has a finite limit at every other point a We might be tempted at this point to say that rational functions have ver- tical asymptotes where their denominators are zero. That is nearly true, but not quite. What i true is that rational functions reduced to lowest terms have vertical asymptotes where their denominators are zero. EXAMPLE 10 Aremovable discontinuity at a zero of the denominator ‘The graph of Lo) has a vertical asymptote at x Bol @=D@Hr4D _ txt 17” @-De+D a+ the function has a finite limit (3/2) as x > 1 and the discontinuity is removable Fig. 3.43), 1 but not at x = 1. Since ‘The Sandwich Theorem (Section 1.2, Theorem 4) also holds for limits as x -> too. Here is a typical application. EXAMPLE 11 Using the Sandwich Theorem, find the asymptotes of the curve yore Solution We are interested in the behavior as x —> £00 and as x —> 0, where the denominator is zero. The behavior as x —> 0. We know that lim, .9 (sin.x)/x = 1, so there is no asymptote at the origin. The behavior as x > +00. Since sinx| _ [1 and lim... |1/x|=0, we have lim... (sin.x)/x = 0 by the Sandwich The- orem, Hence, Jim and the line y = 2 is an asymptote of the curve on both left and right (Fig. 3.44), aaa ‘The vertical distance between curve and Tine goes to zero as x» 2 Oblique ssymptote 3.45. The graph of f(x) = (x? — 392-4) (Example 12). 3.5. Limits as x > =0:, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 227 Oblique Asymptotes If the degree of the numerator of a rational function is one greater than the degree of the denominator, the graph has an oblique asymptote, that is, a linear asymptote that is neither vertical nor horizontal EXAMPLE 12 Find the asympiotes of the graph of eo3 f@) 2x4 Solution We are interested in the behavior as x —> +00 and also as x — 2, where the denominator is zero. We divide (2x — 4) into (x? — 3) pth ‘This tells us that Sait 2 Tincar reminder @) Since lim, .2- f(4) = 00 and lim,-2- f() =~ 0, the line x = 2 is a tworsided asymptote, As x —> 00, the remainder approaches O and f(x) > (x/2) +1. The line y = (x/2) + isan asymptote both tothe right and tothe left (Fig. 3.45). OD Graphing with Asymptotes and Dominant Terms Of all the observations we can make quickly about the function a3 fe =F in Example 12, probably the most useful is that see) This tells us immediately that FO) ® FZ +1 for numerically tage 1 FO) FA foramen? If we want to know how f behaves, this is the way to find out. It behaves like y = (4/2) +1 when x is numerically large and the contribution of 1/(2x — 4) to the total value of fis insignificant. It behaves like 1/(2x ~4) when x is so close to 2 that 1/(@x ~4) makes the dominant contribution. We say that (x/2) + 1 dominates when x is numerically large, and we say that 1/(2x ~ 4) dominates when x is near 2. Dominant terms like these are the key to predicting a function's behavior.Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives EXAMPLE 13 Graph the function Pal » Solution We investigate symmetry, dominant terms, asymptotes, rise, fall, extreme values, and concavity. Step 1: Symmetry. There is none. ‘Step 2: Find any dominant terms and asymptotes. We write the rational function as a polynomial plus remainder: e) For [x| large, y © x2, For x near zero, y ~ I/x. Equation (3) reveals @ vertical asymptote at x = 0, where the denominator of the remainder is zero. ‘Step 3: Find y' and analyze the function’s critical points. Where does the curve vise and fall? ‘The first derivative From Eq.) ‘Step 4: Find y” and determine the curve's concavity. The second derivative 2 _ 2 +2 perp habit is undefined at x = 0 and zero when 24220 wer - f+ le 2x8 +2=0 | up down up ian point3.5. Limits as x—> +00, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 229 Step 5: Summarize the information from the preceding steps and sketch the curve's general shape. ININEZ down | “up ee ee SU ENT Step 6: Plot the curve’s intercepts, mark any horizontal tangents, and graph the dominant terms. See Fig. 3.46. This provides a framework for graphing the curve. 3.46 ‘The dominant terms and horizontal tangent provide a framework for ‘graphing the function. Step 7: Now add the final curve 10 your figure, using the framework and the curve's general shape as guides. See Fig. 3.47. a 3.47 The function, graphed with the aid of the framework in Fig. 3.46.230 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives Hidden Behavior Sometimes graphing f* or "will suggest where to zoom in on a computer generated graph of f to reveal behavior hidden in the sgrapher’s original picture. 2 Checklist for Graphing a Function y = f(x) 1. Look for symmetry. Is the function even? odd? Is the function a shift of a known function? 3. Analyze dominant terms. Divide rational functions into polynomial + remainder. 4. Check for asymptotes and removable discontinuities. Is there a zero denominator at any point? ‘What happens as x > +00? 5. Compute f’ and solve " 0. Identify critical points and determine intervals of rise and fal. 6. Compute "to determine concavity and inflection points. 7. Sketch the graph’s general shape. 8. Evaluate f at special values (endpoints, critical points, intercepts). 9. Graph f, using dominant terms, general shape, and special points for guidance. Exercises 3.5 Calculating Limits as x — +00 In Exercises 1-6, find the limit of each function (a) as x —+ 00 and (b) as x» — oc. (You may wish to visualize your answer with a srapher) 2 1 foy=2-3 2 fayan-3 380) => 400-54 8 = TD) u 5+ (T/x) 5h) = PEO 6 Find the limits in Exercises 7-10 sind cost 7 & limo wo. tim sn OR ET Sane Limits of Rational Functions In Exercises 11-24, find the limit of each rational function (a) as X= oo and (b) a5 x —00, 2847 1. fos eect se Boe ereT 14 fay 4 2 foo 1B fo 15. fl) = slay vw. soy = SS lesa 21 gtx) 22h) = 5 cole PIII SS 2, h(x) = Limits with Noninteger or Negative Powers “The process by which we determine iit of rational functions applies equally well ratios containing noninlegeror negative powers of x tivde numerator and denominator by the highest power of in the denominator and proceed from there. Find the limits in Exercises 35-30 Levi 26, jim 2* 4% 28, lim