1 Standards of Measuremen

nt
INTRODUCTION
As described in the previous chapter for every kind of quantity to be measured ther
m
unit to express the result of measurement and a standard to permit making the measUt bea
maintaining the uniformity through out the world. surement by
A standard is defined as something that is set up and established by authority as arulo.
measurement of quantity, weight, extent, value or quality etc. he
Any system of measurement must be related to a known standard otherwise the meaau.
has no meaning. Industry commerce, inter- national trade and in fact modern civilization itaaiement
be impossible without a good system of standards. The role of standards is to
support the would
syster
which makes uniform measurement throughout the world and helps to maintain interchaneen
in mass production.

SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT
A measuring system is based on few fundamental units. e.g,
length, mass, time, temperatura
etc. All the physical quantities can be ure,
expressed in terms of these fundamental units. The followin
systems of measurement are in use in different countries. wing
(a)F.P.S. System:
In this system unit of length is yard, unit of mass, weight or force is pound, unit of
time is
seconds and unit of temperature is degree Fahrenheit. This system being inconvenient is
loosing its popularity. steadily

(6) Metric System

Metric system is the predominant system in the world. It is a decimal system of
measure. It is based on metre as a unit of length kilogram as the unit of mass and
weight and
kilogram force
(kgf) as the unit of weight or force, unit of temperature is degree centigrade. This system is simple
for calculation purposes than F.P.S. system.

(c) S.I. System:

This system is extension and refinement of the metric system. It is more convenient and
superior other systems. This S.I. (System Inter- national) like traditional metric system is based
on decimal arithmetic. It
provides only one basic unit for each physical quantity. It is comprehensive,
because its seven basic units cover all disciplines. These seven basic unit are as follows:

Sr. No. Physical quantity Unit Symbol

1. Length metre m
2. Time second
3. Mass kilogram kg
4. Temperature Kelvin K
5. Electric Current A
ampere
6 Luminous intensity candela cd
7. Quantity of substance mole mol

(24)
STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENTS
23

Deriveu S.J. Units

Units that are a combinatlon of two or more quantities and which usually requires a compound
wor name them are called compound or derived units. Some of the derived units are as given

below

S.I. units (Derived)

S.No Physical quantity Unit Symbol

Force Newton N kgm/s
2. work, energy, quantity of heat Joule J Nm
3. Power Watt W=J/s
4. Electric charge Coloumb C AS
5. Electric potential Volt V W/A
6. Electric capacitance Farad F C/V
7. Electric resistance Ohm Q= V/A
8. Electric conductance Siemen S A/V
Magnetic flux Weber Wb V.S
9
10. Inductance Henry H V.S/A
11. Luminous flux Lumen im cd.sr

12 Magnetic flux density Teala T Wb/mn

13. Illumination Lux x lem/m
14 Frequency Hertz Hz eycles
15. Pressure Pascal Pa N/m
the
S.I. system of units iS now being adopted throughout the world. This system rationalises
standardizes their names and symbolie representation The
main metric units ot measurement and
main feature of this is that, the newton, the unit of force is independent of the earth's gravitation
and g need not be introduced in equations

DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL STANDARD

The need for establishing standard of length was arised primarily for determining agricultura!
The earliest standard of length was
land areas and for the erection of buildings and monuments.
unit was called a eubit It was equal to
established in terms of parts of hunan body. The Egyptian
the length of the forearm (fromn the elbow to the tip of the middle figure)

Rapid advancement made during nineteenth century were due to improved

in engineering

avilable and more accurate measuring techniques

developed it was not untal 1855 that
materials was known as imperial
standard yard. This was
accurate standard was made in England It
irst the year 1872 These two standards of
metre made in France in
Olowed by International Prototype hence they are called as material standards in
engths were made of materal (metal alloys) and
Contrast to wavelength standard adopted as length standard later on

IMPERIAL STANDARD YARD

cross-section bronze bar
(826 copper, 13%
standard yard is made of l inch square Each hole is
ne imperial diameter X 1/2 inch deep holes.
, % Zinc) 38 inches long The bar has two 1/2 inch
neutral axis of the
e d with inch diameter gold plug. The top
surface of these plugs lie on the
th
bronze bar
 ns OF MEASUREMENTS
S T A N D A R D SO p

this
According to this
standard, the
length of the metre is
ontre portions of pure 21
0C
between
defined
total
length and hav
length
platinum-irredium
aving a web cross-section
as the
straight line distance, at
alloy (90% platinum,
102cm The metri
standard when in use is as shown
in Fig. 1.2. 10% irredium) of
from2 iry's formula, according to supported at two
calculat
which the best points which are 58.9 cm
isgivenby distance between the apart as
supporting points
b

where,
Ttotal length of bar (assumed uniform)
b distancebetween points
n number is supports
For prototype metre, b = 0 2 58.9 cm.
Vc2y2 58,9 cm.

This reference was asdesignated international Prototype Metre -M in 1899. It is preserved by

(BIP
Sevres in France. The BIPM is controlled by the International Committee of
Measure. Weights and
he imperial standard yard was found to be decreasing in
length at the rate of one-millionth of
an iinch for the past 50 years when compared with internal
standard meter. The prototype meter is
quite stable. Therefore, yard relationship had to be defined in
terms of metre as 1 yard
inch 25.4
0.9144 metre, mm.
=
or

Disadvantages of Material Standard

1. The material standards are infuenced by effects of variation of environmental conditiona like
temperature, pressure, humidity and ageing etc., and it thus changes in length.
2. These standards are required to be preserved or stored under security to prevent their
damage or distruction.
3. The replica of these standards were not available for use somewhere else.
4. These are not easily reproducible.
5. Conversion factor was to be used for changing over to metric working.
and verifying the sizes of gauges.
6. Considerable difficulty is experienced while comparing
Airy Points for measurements by
mm length are supported horizontally
straight bars above 125-200
When towards the centre,
middle. If the supports are provided
supports at its end, they will sag in the
EwO result in an error in
extremes would
measurement.
then the ends will bend down. Both these and the
at the ends is zero
providing the two supports the slope
This error can be by minimized
showed that this condition
was obtained

d laces of the bar a r e mutually parallel.

Sir G.B. Airy
number of supports, L length of =

L where n
When the distance between the supports 1s, 2 2-1
becomes
express1on
Ne bar. For a simply supported beam, the
L 0.577
0.577 L.
V(2-1 achieved when
the
are
Airy points
points. Thus above
known a s Airy marked for lengths
These points of su
upports a r e
of bar. Airy points
are
are
used
dista is 0.577 x length unsupported. Airy points
two supports be used distance of
125-200 een the length bars,
can
are
marked at a
125 m m length, meter airy points
for , Delow described. For prototype
length stands as already
58.9 cm.
 28

WAVELENGTH STANDARD METROLO

The
major drawback with the metalic standards meter and yard is that their ta
slightly with time. Secondly, considerable diffiulty is experienced while gth
ile comparingand chang
the
sizes of gauges by using materisl standards. This may lead to.errors of
magnitude. th refore became necessary to have standard of
It a
invariable. Jacques Babinet a French philosopher suggested that
unacceptabl
length which will h verorder.
ifyng
can be used as natural and invariable unit oflength. In 1907 the
wavelengt
gth of monochror curate and
was defined in terms of wavelength of red cadmium in dry air at International Angstrogomaticlig
15°C (6438.4696 A
of red cadmium). Seventh General Conference of A) unit
Weights and Measures approved
definition of standard of length relative to the metre in terms of in
1927 the
wavelength of the red cod
avelengh
an alternative to International
Prototype metre.
Orange radiation of isotope krypton-86 was chosen for new definition.of
Eleventh General Conference of Weights and Measures. The length in 1960
committee decided to recommenthe by
Krypton-86 was the most suitable element and that it should be used in a
maintained at a temperature of 63° kelvin. hot-cathode dischaw t
According to this standard meter was defined as equal to 1650763.73
orange radiation of Krypton isotope 86 gas. wavelengths of thoe red .

The standard as now defined be

The metre and yard were
1 metre 1650763.73
=
can
reproduced to an accuracy of about 110,part in
redefined in terms of wave length of
orange Kr-86 radiation as.

wavelengths, and
1 yard =
0.9144 metre
=
0.9144 x 1650763.73
wavelengths
1509458.3 wavelengths.
Metre as of Today
Although Krypton-86 standard served well,
standards. It was through that a definition based technologically increasing demands more acurate
on the
and practically
advantageous. Seventeenth
speed of light would be technically feasible
a fundamental
General Conference of Weights and Measures
change in the definition of the meter on20th October 1983. agreed to
Accordingly, metre is know defined as the
tength of the path travelled by light in
1/299792458 seconds. This can be realised in
helium-neon laser. vacuum in
practice through the use of an iodine-stabilised
The reproducibility is 3 parts in
circumference to an accuracy of about10 , which may be compared to
1 mm. measuring the earth's mean
With this definition of metre, one standard
new
yard will be the length of the path travelled 9y
light travelled in 0.9144 1
x0o7094ER
sec. i.e., in 3 x 10
seconds.
Advantages of Wavelength Standard
The advantages of wavelength standard are
1. It is not a material
standard
environmental conditions like and hence it is not influenced by effects of varia
temperature, pressure, humidity and
preserved or stored under security and thus there isageing
2. It need not be
fbeing
destroyed as in case of metre and yard. no fear o

3. It is not
subjected to destruction by wear and tear.
 os OF MEASUREMENTS

sTANDARDsO F ,

29
unit of length which can be produced
4. I tg i v e s
It gtances, at all the places. In other wordsconsistently at all the times in all the
c i r c u m s t a n

it is easily
ntical standards are available with all.
i d e n t i c a l
reproducible and thus

ndard is easily available to all standardising laboratories and industries.

5. is no problem of
transferring this standard to other standards meter and yard.
n
can beused for making comparative measurements of very high accuracy. The error
use

7. It
r e p r o d u c t i o n is only of the order of3 parts in 10.
of
Subdivision o f S t a n d a r d s

ational standard yard and the international prototype meter cannot be used for
eneral
The 1enses. For practical measurement there is a hierarchy of working standards. Thus
purposes

tepending upon their importance of accuracy required, for the work the standards are subdivided
these are
grades;
intofour 1. Primary standards 3. Tertiary standards
2. Secondary standards 4. Working standards.

PrimaryS t a n d a r d s

material standard, which is

warorecise definition of the unit, there shall be one, and only one
under most careful conditions. It is called as primary standard. International yard
to be preserved
at
metre are examples of primary standards. Primary standard is used only
the
and International after 10 to 20 years) solely for comparison with secondary standards.
It has no
rare intervals (say
application to a measuring problem encountered in engineering.
direct
Secondary Standards

Secondary standards are possible exactly similar to primary standards as

made as nearly as
standards after long intervals
design, material and length. They a r e compared with primary
regards standards a r e kept at number of places for safe custody.
and the records of deviation a r e noted. These
with tertiary standards whenever required.
They are used for occasionai comparison
Tertiary Standards
a s ultimate control. Tertiary stan-
The primary and secondary standards are applicable only
in laboratories and workshops. They
dards are the first standard to be used for reference purposes with
are used for comparison at intervals
are as true copy of the secondary standards. They
made
working standards.
Working Standards
and workshops. They a r e usually
Working standards used morefrequently in laboratories
and tertiary standards, for the
are
made grade of material as compared to primary, secondary Both line and end working
standards.
eConomy. They derived from fundamental
k are
H-cross-sectional form.
L a r d s are used. Line standards are made from
Most of the precision measurements involves
the distance between two surfaces and not with
Suit
th n between two lines. End standards are Neutral plane
suitable for this purpose. For shorter lengths upto
12625 mm
slip gauges are used and for longer
lengths
The end bars of circular cross-section are used.
distance between of slip gauges
or
end bars is controlledtheto end faces high degree of
ensure a
accuracy. line standard
Fig. 1.3. Working
 are also
classified as
Some times the standards
tor reterence purposes.
(a) Reference standards- Used
Used for calibration of inspection and workine orking standards
(6) Calibration standards
-

standards Used by - inspectors.

(c) Inspection
Used by operators, during working.
(d) Working standards
-

MEASUREMENTS
LINE AND END
as the distance between two lines or asthe distanee
A length may be measured
direct measurement of linear dimengios betw t
the instruments for
parallel faces. So, into
categories.
1. Line standards.
2. End standards.
is measured as the distance between ccentres
Line Standards. When the length
ar

line standard. Both material standards yard and metre are linee
engraved lines, it is called measurements is the rule with divisions shown asas lin
The most common example ofline lines marked
on it.
Characteristics of Line Standards
1. Scales can be accurately engreved but the engraved lines themselves possessthicb
and it is not possible to take measurements with high accuracy.
kness
wide range.
2. A scale is a quick and easy to use over a
3. The scale markings are not subjected to wear. However, the leading ends are subierts
to wear and this may lead to undersize measurements.
4. A scale does not possess a "built in'" datum. Therefore it is not possible to align thescal
with the axis of measurement.

5. Scales are subjected to parallax error.

6. Also, the assistance of magnifying glass or microscope is required if sufñicient accuray
is to be achieved.
End standards: When length is expressed as the distance between two flat parallel faces,it
is known as end standard. Examples: Measurement by slip gauges, end bars, ends of micrometer
anvils, vernier callipers etc. The end faces are hardened, lapped flat and parallel to a very high
degree ofaccuracy.
Characteristics of End Standards
1. These standards are highly accurate and used for measurement of close tolerances
precision engineering as well as in standard laboratories, tool rooms, inspection departments ec
2. They require more time for measurements and measure only one dimension at a time

3. They are subjected to wear on their measuring faces. eless

anu
4. Group ofslips can be "wrung" together to build up a given size; faulty wringing
use may lead to inaccurate results.
parallel
and ean
5. End standards have built in datum since their measuring faces are flat and
and para
be positively locked on datum surface.
6. They are not subjected to parallax effect as their use depends on feel. igainall

The accuracy of both these standards is affected by temperature change and Do thar
e n s u r e

r e to
calibrated at 20 +c. It is also necessaryto take utmost case in their manufactu
the change of shape with time, secular change is reduced to negligible.
 OF MEASUREMENTS
31
STANDARDS

arison between Line Standards and End Standards

C o m p a r i s o n .

Sr. No.Characteristics Line Standard End Standard

Principle Length 1s expressed as the distance Length is expressed as the distance
1 between two lines between two flat parallel face.
Limited to t 0.2 mm for
.
Accuracy Highly accurate for measurement
high| of|
aceuraey, scales have to be used in close tolerances up to t 0.001 mm.
conjunction with magnifying glass or
microscope.
Ease and time | Measurement is quick and easy. Use of end standard requires skill
.
ofmeasurement and is time consuming.
Effect of wear Scale markings are not subject to These are subjected to wear on their
wear. However, significant wear may | measuring surfaces.
occur on leading ends. Thus
it may be |
difficult to assume zero of scale as
datum.
Cannot be easily aligned with the Can be easily aligned with the axis of
5. Alignment
axis of measurement. measurement.

manufacture at low cost. Manufacturing pro-cess is complex|

6.
Manufacture Simple to
and cost
and cost is high.

parallax error. They are not subjected to parallax

7. Parallax effect They are subjected to
error.

Slip gauges, end bars, V. calliper,|

Scale (yard, metre etc.)
8. Examples micro-meters etc.

and Traceability
Classification of Standards
manufactured by various
and interchangeability in the items
to maintain accuracy
In order followed by
standards of units and measurements
in the country, it is essential that the the
National Standards of the country. Further,
industries
i.e., the
them must be traceable to single
a source, and
linked with International Standard to maintain accuracy
Standards must also be
National countries.
items manufactured by the various
interchangeability in the
tolerance with Interna-
countries maintain close
The national labroatories of well-developed manufactured to identical
is that the items
and Measures, there
assurance

tional Bureau of Weights

in different countries will be compatible.
dimensions
an extent that it is not practicable
has increased to such
measurement standardizations required
Application ofprecise
directly all the calibrations and
to perform technique needs
or a single national laboratory become necessary
that the process oftraceability
etc. need to be
It has therefore standardizing laboratories,
y alarge country. that is, National
laboratories,
source as shown
traceable toa single
tollowed in stages, industries but all must be

established for country, states, and

in Fig. 1.4. standards to the standard
from the defining
in passing number of times it has
degradation accuracy
there is of combination of the
early, depends on a
the care with
particular standard recentness of
such comparisons,
T h e accuracy of a the
of higher order,
compared with a standard particularstandard
itself.

whic
Was done, and the stability of the