ABLE OF CONTE INTRODUCTIO! Basic principles... MAGNETIC PROPERTIES .... Permeability ().. Retentivity nen Magnetic ux (a) and magnetic flux density (B).. Magnetic field strength (H)... Coercive force... Magnetic hysteresis... Penetration of magnetic flux Flux leakage Electromagnetism... CONSIDERATIONS WHEN USING MPI Limitations of MPI ... General considerations, Surface conditions.. MAGNETIZING METHODS & APPARATUS Continuous magnetisation method... Residual magnetisation method ... Permanent magnets .... Electromagnetic yokes Current flow ... Induction methods... THE DETECTING MEDIUM Dry powders... Inks. Health and safety consideration VIEWING CONDITIONS .. Non-fluorescent inks and powders. Fluorescent inks and powders Safety. Electromagnetic spectrum. DEMAGNETIZATION..... MAGNETIC FIELD INDICATORS. Portable magnetic field strength meters (magnetometers). Shim type/foil strips (trade name Castrol Strips/Ely Strips) ‘The ASME field indicator... ‘The Berthold penetrameter.... Hall effect meters... Performance checks Alternative test block(s) Ruane & TPONelOF CONTE REPORTING wns Interpretation definitions.. Preservation of indications CURRENT TYPES .... Alternating current Direct current... COSHH REGULATIONS... Scope Responsibilities .. se : ‘ Occupational Exposure Limits (EH40 ~ January 2002)... LIST OF APPLICABLE STANDARDS Ruane & TPONelFerromagnetic materials are those whick may be mmagnetied. eg. iron. eoball ickel ond many oftheir alls 2 ‘The area being tested is Inown asthe est area’ 20 0 50 7 UNIT MT1 Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is an NDT method which may only be used on ferromagnetic materials to detect surface breaking discontinuities and also, in certain ceases, slight sub-surface discontinuities up to 2 mm or 3 mm below the material's surface, BASIC PRINCIPLES ‘A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen to be tested, then fine particles of ‘ferromagnetic powder, or ferromagnetic particles in aliquid suspension, are applied to the area being tested. “Any discontinuity in the test area which cuts across the magnetic field creates a leakage field. leakage field has a north and south pole on either side of it, and therefore will attract the ferromagnetic particles in great numbers. It is common on site work to use black inks as the detecting medium; these are usually contrasted against a white paint background which has been pre-applied. In ‘workshops. and similar, it is more common to use fluorescent inks which are usually green/yellow. Fluorescent inks or powders are automatically contrasted against a deep violet background created by the use of an ultraviolet (UV-A) light, this is essential to ccause fluorescence of the particles, although the use of a darkened inspection area is required. A contrast paint is not required with fluorescent inks. Fluorescent inks or powders are more sensitive at detecting defects compared to non- fluorescent inks or powders, because of the greater contrast achieved between the detecting medium and the background. ‘There are many ways to apply a magnetic field, e.g. by the use of permanent magnets, electromagnetic yokes, coils, prods, cables and other devices. A basic sequence of operations for the examination of a weld using MPI with a permanent magnet and black ink is shown below: Clean area using a wire brush if required. Apply a thin layer of white contrast paint ‘When the pain is dry, straddle the magnet over the weld at 90° to the weld axis. Apply ink (typically 1.25% to 35% ferromagnetic particles toa paraffin base). Interpret the area. Look for indications with their length Iying along the same axis as the weld, Evaluate in accordance withthe relevant specification 6. To look for transverse weld defects, turn magnet approximately 90° and re-apply the ink. 7. Integpret the area, Look for indication with their length perpendicular to the weld axis, Evaluate in accordance with the relevant specification. ee? #30805 MTI-120 20 50 60 A more simple definition ‘would be the properties of certain metals to tractor rape certain other metals 0 80 The symbol (Pi) is used to represent magnetic lines of force. Magnet lines of force nay also be trmed magnetic fat 0 100 MAGNETISM. All materials consist of atoms and molecules which may or may not have a permanent ‘magnetic influence depending on the electron configuration within the material ‘Atoms in magnetic materials group together in regions called magnetic domains; cach domain has its ewn north and south pole. When these domains are randomly positioned, the material is unmagnetized. If the domains are aligned in a common direction, then the material will be magnetized and the material itself will have its own north and south pole. e” * Ag. @: a a “O. .g e.g. Figure 2.1 ~ Position of domains in unmagnetized material Figure 2.2 ~ Position of domains in magnetized material ‘The domains can be aligned by bringing them within an existing magnetic field. Ifthe domains remain aligned when they are removed from the influence of the magnetic field, then the material is said to be permanently magnetized. The poles of magnetized materials have an inherent attraction/repulsion effect. If two pieces of magnetized material are placed with their dissimilar poles end to end there is an attraction, but ifthe poles are alike then there isa repulsion, therefore like poles repel, unlike poles attract. LINES OF FORCE Faraday used the concept of lines of force to explain what happens in the space between two magnets, He suggested properties for these lines of force, which he imagined as spreading out from all magnetic poles into the surrounding space. ene? 86 MT24A ‘magnetograph is a letra lasration of 19 ‘magnetic ft 20 0 50 0 * Coo Figure 2.3 ~ Lines of force around a bar magnet y,\, By assuming the lines were in tension, like pieces of stretched elastic, he could account for the attraction of unlike poles, since the lines of forve stretch from one pole to another. Figure 2.4 ~ Lines of force for unlike potes But, the tension of the lines af force must increase as they shorten, since the repulsive force between two like poles increases as the poles approach. With like poles, the lines of force also tend to curve outwards, seeming to suggest that they repel each other. Faraday used this hypothesis to account for the repulsion of like poles. Figure 2.5 ~ Lines of force for lie poles ‘The properties of magnetic lines of force are as follows: ‘They form closed loops between north and south poles. They do not cross one another. ‘They seek paths of least magnetic resistance. ‘Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles, ic. the number of lines of foree in a unit area decreases. ce. They are considered to have direction, that is: from the north pole to south pole cexternal to the magnet, and from the south pole to the north pole within the ‘magnet. ssue7 os4ing . MT2-22» Examples of permeability Diamagnetic maerat: Gold - 09999640 Silver - 099998. Copper -0.9999912 30 Lead - 0.999983 Bismuth — 099983 0 Paramapnetc materials dir 10000036 ‘mini = 1.000020 50 Examples of permeability Ferromagnetic materials: 70 Cobalt 2502 Nickel 6004 Annealed iron 6000. (0.996 carbon see! ~ 100 Super mally 1x10" 59 Cold rolled iron - 20004 MU aly = 80,0004 70 100 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS ‘The degree to which materials are capable of being influenced by a magnetic field varies greatly ftom material to material, however, they fall into three specific categories defined by their behaviour in the magnetic field. Diamagnetic materials ‘These are, to a very slight degree, repelled by a magnetic field and include copper, titanium and most non-metal, Figure 2.6 ~ Lines of force for a diamagnetic material Paramagnetic materials ‘These are very weakly attracted by a magnetic field and include oxygen and most metals including austenitic stainless steel, magnesium, molybdenum, lithium and tentalum, Figure 2.7 — Lines of force for a paramagnetic material Ferromagnetic materials ‘These are strongly attracted by a magnetic field and include iron, cobalt, nickel and many of their alloys. ‘They also exhibit permanent magnetism and can themselves be magnetized. Figure 2.8 ~ Lines of force for a ferromagnetic material ene? a0U6 MT2-3Busnes FeO Neal 20 Magnetic force (H) may aso Be termed ‘magnetic field srengih 20 Fux density (2) may be {termed ‘magnetic induction 0 so Retuctonce tthe reiprocal Af permeatiiy, Le * ry BS BN 180 9934-1 +2001 Magnetic particle vesting ‘states a requirement of 1 trl in the component's surface achieved with 2 fangontal fd srongth of 2 hain om) 0 80 BS 6072 Magnet particle es dete, sees that MPI shail ony be cori out {the magnetic fax density level at he surface ofthe test area is equal 1,07 gy freater than, 0.720. This level offer density ‘approximately one third of that required 19 magnetically saturate moa steels, 100 T MT2- MA PERMEABILITY (}1) For magnetic patticle inspection, the only materials of interest are those which are ferromagnetic. Within this group, some materials are more easily magnetized than others, tha isto say, more permeable. To permeate means to spread through, In this content it refers to the ease by which the magnetic lines of force are spread through the material, Soft iron and low carbon steel have a high permeability ie. they are easy to magnetise. Hard iron and high carbon steel have a low permeability, ic. they are difficult to magnetise Permeability () may be calculated by diving the magnetic force (1) applicd into the flux density (B) achieved: ‘The permeability of a material may be given a value based on a ratio when compared with free space. These values vary depending on alloy composition, heat treatment and any working applied. RETENTIVITY When a magnetizing force is removed from a ferromagnetic material the amount of ‘magnetism remaining will vary between materials and depends upon the permeability of the material. ‘The remaining magnetism is termed residual magnetism and the material is said to have retentivity or retained magnetism, Ifa material has high permeability itis easily magnetized but it will ust as easily give up the magnetic force, therefore it has a low retentivity. Ifa material has low permeability it is very difficult to magnetise, that is to say it has hhigh magnetic reluctance, but once magnetization has been achieved then it does not give up the magnetic force easily, therefore it has high rete High permeability = low retentivity Low permeability = high retentivity MAGNETIC FLUX ()) AND MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY (B) When a specimen is magnetized, lines of force or flux exist within the specimen - the stronger the magnetizing force applied, the greater the amount of flux produced. The ‘magnetizing force may be applied by using a permanent magnet or clectrically ‘operated magnetic flow apparatus, or by passing an electric current through the specimen. Magnetic flux is measured in webers (Wb). ‘The number of lines of force (or flux) passing transversely through a given cross- sectional area is known as the flux density (8). Flux density is measured in tesla (1). 1 Whim’ = 1 tesla (1), ‘The old (ces) unit for flux density whichis stil widely encountered isthe gauss: 1 gauss = | line of force/em’. 10,000 (10°) gauss ~1 testa 1 gauss = 0.1 mT. tue? 30006 MI2420 0 0 0 80 100 MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH (H) ‘The magnetic field strength or magnetizing force is that which is needed to induce a ‘lux in 2 magnetic circuit and is measured in amperes per metre (A/m), or in old (cgs) units, the oersted (Oe) 1 oersted = 79,58 amperes per metre COERCIVE FORCE Coerce means to forcibly control; in ths context it relates to the reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove remnant or residual magnetism for demagnetization of a part MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS Most of the magnetic properties of materials of practical concern in MPI are defined by ‘the magnetic hysteresis loop or B&H curve, When an unmagnetized piece of ferromagnetic material is exposed to a gradually increasing positive magnetic force and the strength of the induced flux density (B) is plotted against the magnetizing force (L1), a B&H curve is produced, If the plot continues in the opposite direction a hysteresis loop evolves. Fig. 2.9 A ppical hysteresis loop generated by an a.c. current. AAs the magnetizing force (H) is increased, the induced magnetic field (B) also increases until it reaches its saturation point (b), at this point the material is said to be ‘magnetically saturated, that is the point when the maximum flux density has been reached, ‘When the magnetic force (H) is reduced, the flux density (B) also reduces but falls ‘behind the original curve so that when H is back to zero there is still some magnetic flux in the material (c). This is a measure of the material's retentivity. If the polarity of the magnetizing force is now reversed, B will return to zero (d). This point represents the coercive force required to remove the residual magnetism from the ‘material. ‘By continuing all the previous actions in the opposite direction a complete loop will be formed. ‘When ac. is used for magnetizing a specimen, a complete hysteresis loop is produced with each eycle of current; in the U.K. this is 50 times per second. MT2520 50 10 %0 ‘A material which exhibits a hysteresis loop with a wide appearance will have high retentivity and therefore may be useful for making permanent magnets, A material which exhibits a hysteresis loop with a narrow appearance will have low retentivity and therefore may by useful for making magnetic particles The gradient of the loop also gives information regarding on the usefulness of materials for use in magnetising apparatus, for making magnetic particles or for ‘magnetising purposes. For example, a material which exhibits a steep gradient will attain a high flux density when using a low magnetizing force. PENETRATION OF MAGNETIC FLUX ‘Magnetic particle inspection is primarily used for the detection of surface breaking discontinuities and only in ferromagnetic materials. This is because the magnetic fields induced are concentrated at the surface of the components. However, sub- surface discontinuities may be detected if using permanent magnets or electrical systems using direct or rectified current, because the magnetic field penetrates much further into the test specimen in comparison with MPI test methods which use alternating current, It is unlikely that any form of MPI would be used to detect defects deeper than 2 mm or 3 mm below the surface. Faity song concent x eae fl Wank 8 toes tn iakage fs ‘ No huxaatoge Fels vv itn Fig. 2.10 - Flux leakages around discontinuities at different depths using a standard permanent magnet used in MPI. (A) will not be detected, (B) may be detected ifthe ‘appropriate technique is used and (C) should easily be detected. (MPI test equipment using alternating current as an output produces a high density ‘magnetic flux at the surface of the test component. This phenomena, known as the skin effect, produces a far stronger flux leakage field on surface breaking, or near surface discontinuities, compared to permanent magnets or direct current test equipment. ‘The depth of flux penetration is governed by the wave frequency of the alternating curent, the conductivity of the test material and its permeability. If any of these variables increase, the depth of penetration will decrease. Itis difficult to try and interpret very weak and diffused MPI indications which could be from sources other than defects, e.g. caused by rougl/uneven surfaces or changes in permeability. Because of this problem, sub-surface, or body defects, would normally be located by other methods of NDT, assuming the detection of sub-surface defects is a requirement. FLUX LEAKAGE When a magnetic field is created within a ferromagnetic specimen, lines of magnetic flux are developed and flow through and around the material completing a cireuit Magnetic particle inspection relies on a leakage of flux occurring within this circuit, this may be caused by a break or discontinuity in the material tae? a9 8408 MI260 Ins a change in magnetic ppermeobitiy that causes a eahage fel 20 Cracks may have very Irregular contours, they ‘therefore may someines be detected using MPT when the lines of force are parallel, or ‘lose peraliel, othe crack’s major axis = A sharp change in contour ‘can also erate ofa leakage creating on MPI Indication ron as ‘urrng'. Furi ean also 40 acc enftceswhen of magnetic fx 50 ” "0 eo Because it is a change in magnetic permeability that causes a leakage field, fux leakages may also be caused by changes in metallurgy. Opposite poles attract, therefore any break or discontinuity causing a flux leakage will, because of the magnetic poles, attract a ferromagnetic matcrial such as iron powder. This would accumulate atthe area of the leakage field and give an indication of the defects existence ‘Where the flux leaves the circuit a north pole is created. Where the flux re-enters the circuit a south pole is created, For a defect to be detected by MPI it must interrupt the lines of force. Any linear defects running parallel withthe flux or small non-linear defects do not break the lines of force, they bend around these defects taking the path of least resistance; these efects therefore remain undetected MPI is most effective in detecting defects with their major axis at 90° to the lines of force, but will usually remain effective down to about 45° of this axis (BSEN 1290 : 1998 and BS EN ISO 9934 : 2001 quotes + 60°). Below that it is unlikely that the defect will be found, therefore in order to examine a specimen completely, the lines of force must be applied in different directions. ELECTROMAGNETISM ‘There is a fundamental relationship between electricity and magnetism; the movement ‘of an electric charge will create a magnetic force field around it, in a plane perpendicular to the direction of travel of the electric charge. Electrons that are moving in @ current carrying conductor set up a magnetic field, the direction and orientation of which are given by the right hand rule if we assume the current flow, by convention, is opposite to electron flow; or the left hand rule if we assume the direction of current flow isthe same direction asthe electron flow. Fig. 2.11 - Magnetic lines of force in relation to current flow (I) using the left hand rule. The symbol Tis used to indicate the current flow, ésymbolises magnetic flux flow. tee 0086 MT2-7upne 8 UNIT MT3 + CONSIDERATIONS WHEN USING MPI 1. Magnetic particle flaw detection is capable of detecting cracks, non-metallic inclusions and other discontinuities on or near the surface of ferromagnetic materials. 10 2. The sensitivity of the inspection is not greatly impaired by the presence of foreign matter within the laws, unless the contaminate has magnetic properties similar to the test piece (which is highly unlikely). spspiecenohen 3. Itis possible to inspect components that have been coated, e.g. with cadmium plate pe or pain, providing the coating is not too thick (usually not greater than SO m) ‘mesimm tnessof yp with only a slight loss of sensitivity tmbroen pan of 50m ‘LIMITATIONS OF MPI 1, MPT cannot be used on non-magnetic material 2. The presence of surface coatings may reduce the sensitivity of the test. » 3. Flaws that do not break the surface give diffused indications; these indications from flaws become increasingly diffused with an increase in distance below the surface, 4. Dimensional and/or structural variations, rough surfaces and certain types of segregation or metallurgical changes associated with test items may give rise to » misleading indications, This could include non-relevant indications caused by a change of section, too high amperage, a drilled hole near the surface ot @ difference in hardness GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS: @) BSEN S091; 5 2001 refers 0 1. All persons associated with magnetic flaw detection should be adequately trained ascii {oan agreed level appropriate to their esponsibility and have adequate eyesight. ‘ndcortfeaion Ths | 2. It is necessary for operators and supervisors to observe the requirements of the decument requires Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 and the COSHH Regulations; see Dersnne tread Unit MTH. jcgerdt or mes 6) Roman N43 aca 3. Post cleaning may be necessary in circumstances where the magnetic particles or distance oft test any background paint used, may be deleterious to the successful use of the than 0.3m eae ) BS6072 sated @ ‘minima reparement fepromeiereii 9 | SURFACE CONDITIONS ‘han 03m. ‘The better the surface condition, the more sensitive and reliable the fest will be Therefore all contaminants such as paint, dit, grease, oil, scale etc. should be removed, Contras: pint should normally] leaving if possible a smooth surface dressed to bright metal fn accent Pee Where dressing is not possible and when black inks are being used, a coating of a 4) 858N 18099242 Nowy | suitable white background contrast paint should be applied. When testing machined Destructive testing . parts with black ink, a contrast aid paint is not required due to the bright metal finish Magnetic partite ae giving a good contrast. Part 2:Charectersaion | Contrast paint should be applied thinly. Thick coats reduce the sensitivity of the of products process and take longer to dry. oo | Contrast paints that are water based are not as toxic as those containing volatile solvents (aerosol cans). treme MrsBUOY 20 40 30 0 1AGNETIZING ME Rar CONTINUOUS MAGNETISATION METHOD. “The continuous method is a testing method by which the magnetic ink or powder is applied and the test area is viewed whilst the magnetising force is applied. This is always considered to be the most sensitive method, whatever apparatus is used 10 ragnetise, due tothe fat thatthe induced magnetic field is always the strongest whilst the magnetising force is being applied. RESIDUAL MAGNETISATION METHOD ‘The residual method is testing method where the magnetic ink or powder is applied and the test area is viewed after the magnetising force has been removed. The testis performed using the residual magnetism left in the sample. This method is generally only used on materials with a high retentivity. When multiple items are being tested by the residual method, care nnust be taken to ensure thatthe components do not come into contact with each other before the detecting media is applied, otherwise a phenomena known as magnetic writing will occur. PERMANENT MAGNETS Permanent magnets are so called because they are able to maintain a magnetic field in the surrounding space. The field strength can vary considerably, depending on the flux density in the magnet and its shape. ‘The simplest form of permanent magnet is a bar magnet, which is basically a piece of ferromagnetic material with a magnetic pole at each end. If the bar was formed into a closed loop, then the magnetic field would be fully contained within a closed circuit and no external field would exist. If a defect was present in the loop, a flux leakage would still occur. Neither bar magnets or ring (looped) magnets have any use in MPI. But, if a bar ‘magnet is simply formed into a U shape, the magnetic lines of force will be concentrated in the gap between the magnetic poles; this provides an ideal ‘configuration for magnetic particle inspection. Fig. 4.1 ~ Permanent magnets positioned for examining a weld we? 886 MT4-1” » 10 20 BS EN 180 9934-1 doce not specially cover permanent megs. 18S 6072 ated hot permanent magnett ‘all have a power ‘capable of ting 18 ke with pote spacing 75- 130mm The ll off force shalt have a value equivalent tot leaet 9 ke 0 © 70 80 90 100 Permanent magnets provide magnetic flow only in the specimen and produce a Tongitudinal magnetic field between the poles. The degree of magnetization in permanent magnets is determined by the emount of ull required to lift the magnet clear of the workpiece, or by its difting power. ‘The pull off force isthe force that has to be applied to one pole to break its attraction to the surface, whilst leaving the other pole attracted. ‘The lifing power is the ability of the magnet to lift a piece of ferromagnetic material by attraction alone, Certain specifications will state the minimum requirements for the strengths of permanent magnets, When notin use a permanent magnet should have a Keeper placed across the poles to prevent loss of magnetism. ‘Some permanent magnets may have adjustable arms, others may have rollers attached to the poles; the rollers are set to Keep the magnet just clear of the surface and enable it tobe moved over the workpiece with relative ease. Advantages of permanent magnets include: ‘© No power supply required. + Inexpensive, ‘© No damage tothe test piece from arcing, ‘© Relatively lightweight (easily portable). ‘They cling to vertical and overhead surfaces. ‘© Both hands fie after the magnet is placed onto the surface. ‘+ Ideal for explosive environments. Disadvantages include: ‘+ Deterioration with wear. ‘¢ Have to be pulled from the test surface. ‘+ Magnetic particles attracted to poles. ‘Limited application on awkward shapes. * No control over field strength (unless adjustable arms are used). Only small areas examined in each position Keeper required when not in use + Not recommended to be used in conjunction with Mux indicators. ~ © Toxic material when machined, © Very hard. ELECTROMAGNETIC YOKES (MF) Blectromagnetic yokes or electromagnets require a source of electrical energy which may be ac. or d¢., The test method used is sometimes referred to as the magnetic flow lor magnetic flux path method, producing a longitudinal magnetic field. ae? 086 MT4-2A510 BSEN ISO 9934-1, the field sreneth available from the equipment may be dererained via ater: 20 9) practically eting an example ttjeet with eiter a natural or farafcial flaw. 9) measuring the tangential ld strength a close othe surface as possible. Note: permanent and 30 ‘de electromagnets are not recommended for use i his Stondard. 6) BS EN 150 99343 requires the above or ait test of 43g oF a 500. 230. 10 mm plate using Ihe tangential eld srengih 40 meter to measure the ld seneth 886072 steve for ae yokes if test of 45 hg and @. pull off test 0f 225 kg for apote spacing of 5300'mm ares, de yoker hed the some requirements as permanent magnets 0 BS EN 150 9994-1 sates 6p the aren acent ofthe Dole (25 a) tobe ‘gnored 0 30 NG METHODS & APPARATUS Fig, 4.2 - An electromagnetic yoke ‘The yoke is made from highly permeable, low retentive steel, which is laminated to reduce induction caused by eddy current flow (associated only with alternating current) ‘his also helps to prevent the yoke becoming permanently magnetized. ‘Magnetism is induced into the yoke by encircling it with a coil through which a current is passed, the strength of the field produced can be varied in one of two ways: 1. By adjusting the current (amperage) flowing through the yoke - only certain clectromagnets allow for this 2. By varying the distance between the pole pieces - most electromagnets allow for this but not al. Electromagnets may operate direct from the mains supply of 240V but are available at TOV when required for site use. ‘The field produced from an electromagnetic yoke is longitudinal, travelling from pole to pole as with permanent magnets, however the depth of the field within the test piece will depend upon the type of current used to induce magnetism. Surface discontinuities will be more readily found using a.c., sub-surface defects will bbe more easily located using d.c.. The magnet will have a much greater pull on d.c ‘but the fTux will be less at the surface of the component being tested. ‘The area of inspection for permanent and electromagnets is a rectangular area between the poles of the magnet(s) Advantages of electromagnetic yokes include: # Acc orrectified dc. operation. ‘© Controllable field strength (not in all cases). ‘© Can be switched on/off as required No damage done to test piece Relatively lightweight, # Acc. yokes can be used to demagnetise Disadvantages include: © Power supply required. ‘© Only small areas can be examined at each magnet location, * Leaves only one hand free. © De. yokes are not recommended to be used in conjunction with flux indicators. (CURRENT FLOW (CF) Current flow techniques produce a circular magnetic field by passing a current through the test piece, i.e. concentric rings of magnetic lines of force radiate at 90° to the current flow. Fig. 4.3 Current flow method on bar Ie 7 an MT430 2» 20 0 Because ofthe risk of are strles, many specications {do nt alow the ure ofthe rod technique. so © 0 80 %0 100 APPARATUS The current flow is normally obtained from a transformer supplying a.c. or a transformer rectifier for de. The output voltage of current flow equipment is so low that there is no risk of electrical shack to the operator from the equipment's specimen contact points or test specimen, ‘The choice of power supply depends on the test requirements, i.e. using a.c, will reveal scontinuities ee An ammeter is usually incorporated in the equipment to indicate the amount of current flowing through the workpiece. In fixed installations, ie. bench equipment, the component is firmly clamped between ‘contact heads. With portable equipment, electrical contact is made by the use of prods and/or clamps. Prod technique (CFP) ‘With this technique the current is introduced into the item under test by using electrical contacts known as prods. Prods induce a cireular magnetie field within the specimen using current values typically in the tegion of 1000 amps; at this current level arcing can occur between the electrodes and the test surface causing damage. To prevent this possible damage, the prod contact tips and the test surface must be kept clear of any contamination and the current must not be switched on until firm contact has been established, likewise, the current should be switched off before lifting the prods. ‘Areaof inspection Fig, 4.4 - Current flow using prods Precautions when using current flow in respect to prods/clamps shall be taken to prevent excessive heating, burning or arcing. Certain metals including copper and zinc {including galvanised prod tips) may, if used as prod material, contaminate and cause ‘metallurgical damage to the component if arcing occurs. For this reason and the fact, that perfect contact is difficult to achieve with prods, ideally they shall be made of steel fr aluminium, Zine shall not be used and copper or copper-tipped prods shall be used only in applications where complete assurance can be given that metallurgical damage ‘will not occur. The cleantiness of both prod contact faces and the component shall be such to ensure good electrical contact. Prods shall have @ minimum dimension of 10 mm and shall have as large a contact area as possible. Arcing or excessive heating shall be regarded as a defect requiring a verdict of acceptability. If further testing is required on such affected areas, it shall be carried out using a different technique. Note: Lead contact pads may be used, but only in well ventilated conditions, because they may generate harmful vapour which may cause headaches and/or dizziness. te? 030006 MTs4” rods depending on the 20 required area of inspection, 1=23Htd: or Hd Where 20 1 = ampsac. rms = prod spacing in bons = tangential ft strength in kam 2) The BS 6072 specifies the ‘muninuan amperage for the red technique as 75 amps Deak current volue per Imm ef pre snc 3a ‘These apply to flat areas orsightyeurved surfaces, 30 i. the radius of curvature of the ingpection surface cexeceds lf the prod spacing 70 + Magnetizing methods other than the use of prods 80 may leave residual ftds, bt generally speaking, these flee are lose likel) 10 oppose or destructively Interfere wih the fll ‘ntroduced by the next ‘magnetizing postion. gg MT4 + MAGNETIZING METHODS & APPARA’ Since the lines of force radiate from prods, correct positioning is essential to ensure that all possible defects are located. Ideally the prods should be in a tine parallel to, and on the same axis, as the defects being sought. Prods Weld Fig, 4.5 - Position of prods should ideally be parallel to defects being sought ‘When using prods the field strength should normally be checked by the use of flux indicators. Advantages of the prod technique include: * Ac.orde. fields. «© Acc. energised equipment may be used for demagnetisation operations. + Low voltage output. ‘© No poles to attract magnetic particles. © Variable field strength © Can be used in confined spaces. ‘* Relatively fast coverage of area under test. Disadvantages include: + Risk of ereating are strikes. ‘+ Heavy transformer required * Classed as a two man operation, ‘© Contacts and small test items can overheat. + Careful positioning and spacing of prods required. ‘Possible to switch on without creating a field ‘© May leave residual field which interfere with next prod positions (see side note) ‘© Expensive equipment, tet anine resUNIT MT4« MAGNETIZING M) BS BN 150 9936-1 states the required amperage willbe er by 0 Where 1 = amperage nis. b= components Derimeter i mnt = tangent 20 ‘ld siength in em BS 6072 stated 75 amps peak er mim of diameier or 1.7 lamps ae Fs. per mm of peripheral dimension and 3.3 ae rms permm ofa. 30 Both document stated if there asa erss sectional change of TIS: 1 ormore, the object wll be tesied section by secion. 40 50 LNB, When using anon ferrous ‘headed bar, the fed in a ferrous elindr would be sreater than in the conductor. o BS EN 180 9914-1 quotes for ‘central conductors the sane tadues ar current low wil be ‘plied, whist noncentrat ‘conductors wil be asessel, ‘measuring he tangonial ld ‘Svength Separate values wil by applied for the inside and outside surfaces. 856072 sated ether 0 we the same values as eurrent powor:R=hort 80 15°" 56 Where R= Radius of inspection (nm) 1 = current pplid(pead) 1$= constant for general engineering applications Sib= constant for iia inspection ‘ppicatons %0 NA When acurrent is passed through conductors, ‘ne of which magnet Ihe other non magnet he ld surrounding them ‘would Be he same Contact heads (bench equipment technique, alternative name head shot) Current flow can also be achieved in regularly shaped items, e.g. bar or tube, by applying contacts to the ends of a test piece and passing a high amperage, low voltage ‘current through it. This sets up a cireular field in the ferromagnetic material in a direction at 90° to the current flow, therefore the technique is used for detecting defects parallel to, and up to 45°, ofthe current flow, e.g. longitudinal defects in bar. Copper ‘gauze is usually placed between the contacts and the test piece to increase the contact ‘area and reduce the possibility of burning, Irregular shaped items may also be tested by contact heads, although, depending on the ‘component's shape and dimensions, it may be preferable to use an alternative method. Peripheral dimension = 7£ x diameter (equivatent) “Therefore, diameter (equivalent) = PenPheral dimension Sere to tea ©. on a test Saye ‘mm diameter, the same current value would be used whether it was 10 cm long or I m long, therefore, if two test pieces of differing diameters were tested using the same current, the magnetic field ‘would be stronger in the smaller diameter test piece INDUCTION METHODS Induction MPI methods do not necessarily require any contact between the magnetizing apparatus and the test specimen, ‘Threader bar (TB) Sometimes known as the central conductor method, although the conductor need not always be central, ‘The object being examined must be of hollow section and access must be available to both ends, providing these limitations are met, then a conductor - typically made of bbrass, copper or aluminium - is threaded through the bore, or aperture, and a current passed through it. ‘This sets up a cireular field in the surrounding ferromagnetic material in a direction at 90° to the current flow, therefore the technique is used for detecting defects parallel to, and up to 45°, ofthe current flow, e.g. longitudinal pipe defects Fig. 4.6 - Threader bar method. ‘The conductor may be located centrally to the specimen, but on larger diameters the conductor is often placed to one side to ensure sufficient flux strength and the test piece rotated to allow for surface inspection. Alternatively, two conductors may be used on larger diameter test pieces. tue? ene MTS-620 30 0 Curent values forthe rigid col ochnique maybe aleulted from BS EN ISO 59 D034-1 using: O4HxK UD) Where N= anpereswns 60 Lids length to diameter ratio of he at piece, in 3:1, mas 20°, ealy between 12 a5 = tengential field sirensts (Edin) og K= 22000ae. source (ems) and for PWR (mean) oF 11,000 for HR (mean) Whereas BS 6072 stated ie * Gow 80 Where 1 = exrront required LiD= Tengen odometer ‘ato ofthe a prece, ‘min 3:1, ma 20:1, ideally between 12 99 e151 N= umber of tars the cot k= 2200006 source (ms) and for FR (mean) oF 11,000 FIR (ream, 32000, ‘de source and peadtOO ‘ale fr any swavejorm Both standards reference ‘the abject should only ‘occupy 1086 or les of the frase sectional arca ofthe ‘coll il factor. ‘The threader bar technique is ideal for the testing of ring like specimens, especially because numerous samples may be tested at the same time; lengths of pipe may also be examined by this method. On site work, this technique is not widely encountered, but could be modified by using a flexible cable instead of rigid conductor. ‘When using a threader bar that is not covered with insulating material, care should be taken fo ensure that components in contact with the threader bar cannot touch any part of the magnetic equipment at earth potential. Fig. 4.7- Threader bar method using non-central conductor Encircling coils (R.C. = Rigid Coil) ‘This technique consists of placing the specimen inside a coil of tubular or solid construction, through which a low voltage, high amperage current is passed. The magnetic field passing through the centre of the coil - typically three or five tums - creates longitudinal magnetization and is therefore used to detect defects which lie transverse to the components major axis, e.g, good for detecting circumferential defects in shafs or the bores of tubes Fire Specigen Fig. 4.8 - Encircling coils produce longitudinal magnetism in the specimen which is used to detect transverse flaws. The coil may be flexible or rigid. This may also be referred to as a ‘solenoid For practical purposes only defects which lie within the confines of the coil should be interpreted although the field will extend for 100 to 150 mm beyond either end. If the specimen being tested has a small diameter in relation to the inside diameter of the coil, it should ideally be positioned close to one side of the coil and rotated to obtain the best results. When using any of the current flow or threader bar methods, the field strength is largely determined by the current (amperes) flowing in the circuit. When using any form of coil the field strength is determined by the current flowing in the cieuit and by the number of turns in that eo, thereby obtaining ampere/turs. te a6 MTS-720 30 “0 50 o BS BN 180 9034-1 quotes d ‘as half the inspection area, Whereas BS 6072 stated d as the wih ofthe inspection 0 80 100 UNIT MT4 - MAGNETIZING METHODS & APPARATUS ‘The number of ampere/turns can be applied to the specimen length in metres to give the field strength unit for coils as ampere turns/metre (AT/m). Flexible cables (FC) When a single conductor is used, the magnetic field reduces rapidly at increasing distance from the conductor, this restricts the production of an adequate test arca with «sufficiently constant magnetic field, If the current is made 10 flow in the same direction through conductors spaced some distance apart, a relatively constant field is produced. Flexible cable techniques can be used on a considerable variety of component shepes. Configurations used are normally obtained with a heavy insulated flexible cable which is placed through, on, or around the specimen. A current passed through the cable will then induce a magnetic field into the test pices Fig. 4.9 - Threader cable technique Defects lying parallel to the cable will be the most readily detected. On complex shapes the position and method in which the cable is wound may have to be found by experimentation to ensure an adequate field in all areas. One method of test utilising flexible cables is the adjacent cable technique. This ‘method of magnetization requires the material being tested to be in close proximity to 2 current flowing in one direction. ‘The retum cable for the electric current must be arranged to be as far removed from the inspection zone as possible and, in all cases, this distance should be greater than 10d. Fig. 4.10 - Adjacent cable technique (alternative names include parallel conductors ‘and the kettle element technique). fer enn MrsBS EN 954-1 quote: Watt 0 Where INE ~ ampere urns 1H = angenta! id strength Wherens BS 6072 stcted a= Nao » Where NI = ampere tums 30 = constant (peak value) 0 40 0 0 70 0 oy TON IZING METHODS & APPARA When testing radiused comers on cylindrical components o branch joints, e.g. stub to header welds, the cable may be wrapped round the surface of the component or the ‘branch, and several tums may be bunched up in the form of a closely-wrapped coil. In this case, the surface inspected shall be within a distance, d, of the winding”, Advantages of flexible cable techniques include: * Ac.orde. fields # Acc. energised equipment may be used for demagnetisation operations. Large areas inspected with each set-up, + No poles to attract magnetic particles, Ficld strength can be altered. ‘+ Predictable field strengths Disadvantages include + Cumbersome fong heavy cables required © Longer setting up times. + Heavy transformers required for large amperages. «Expensive equipment. omeatr ona MT4-9BS BN 180 9934.2 : 2002 or inks sates benvean 115 pn and 40m, whereas powders are generally Sau RS 4069 stated a maxirs (100 ym jor inks and 200 um for powders. 29 30 “0 +A maxtnum of 115°C (600°F), owover, at hese temperatures convection eurrontsfrom the fot ree make application diffi. BS EN 180 9034.2 » 2002 no longer specifies a slid Content range and states the ‘supplier ll give this, information ing. To ‘hook the overall a performance thee are two ‘reference blocks refered to 1m Appendix B ofthis standard BS 4069 stated the solid ‘contents for inks as 125-33%%fornon 80 Phuorecont inks and (01-03% for fluorescent fas, The carir fu shall make the volume up 10 100%. %0 NIT MT AIoLt ‘The detecting media should normally be in accordance with BS EN ISO 9934-2 : 2002 Detection Media. When inks are used for MPI the test may be referred to as a wer ‘method; when powders are used the test may be referred to as a dry method. ‘The basie requirements for magnetic particles are as follows: a. Fine grains to reduce the gravitational effect. However, ifthe grains are too fine, this could coagulate the particles. b, Elongated shape for easier polarization. Spherical particles are also needed to ensure dispersal over the surface. c. High permeability for magnetization in weak flux leakage fields, Low retentivity if particles are to be removed from the test surface after the test, High contrast against the background of the test surface, DRY POWDERS Dry powders consist of finely divided ferromagnetic particles available in a variety of colours, e.g. black, grey, red, orange or yellow, some dry powders may also be fluorescent. Dry powders are usually applied to a surface by means of a puffer device (insuffulator), they should be floated, not blasted, onto the area under test. Dry powders should ideally be used with a,c. or half-wave rectified current (h.w.rc.) because of the extra mobility that these current types impart onto the powder, Dry powders must be used when MPI is being carried out on hot surfaces*, a situation ‘where inks would obviously not be suitable. Dry powders are also encountered for use ‘on rough surfaces and for better indications for slight sub-surface discontinuities. INKS Ferromagnetic particles suspended in a suitable carrier Quid should have the same basic properties as the dry powders. There are two distinct divisions when dealing with MPI inks, these being fluorescent inks and non-fluorescent inks. Non-fluorescent inks are usually black and referred to as black inks If water is used as a carrier fluid for the ferrous oxide particles, it should contain additives 10 prevent corrosion of the surface or particles, and improve the wetting action, Paraffin based products have good wetting action, are odourless, have a relative tolerance to oil or grease on the surface and are not corrosive. A typical method of test for assessing the solid content of magnetic inks: Maximum volume of magnetic ink for test should not exceed 5 litres. Agitate container for not less than 5 minutes. Pour sample of ink into 100 ml settlement flask (centrifuge type or Sutherland flask), 4, Allow to settle for 60 minutes. 5. Read off the solid content to nearest 0.1 ml. ‘The solid content range is very important as too high a concentration will cause excessive background and too low a concentration will cause weak indications to be missed. ier one Mqs.1TIN 20 30 50 BS EN 9934-2 quotes a ‘asin suphar ond halogen conten of 200 ppm 10 for designated low sulphur oy ‘and halogen consumables 7 BS EN 180 9994-2 simply states the fash pot wil be assessed ban opon cup ‘method ond the flash potnt reported. bi BS 4069 stated for olf based lnk 1 be arexeed in closed eup test and should hot be tes than 65°C Flask a or Crow Receiver 5 Fig, 5.1 - Settlement flasks used to determine the solid content of MPI inks ‘An additional test for fluorescent inks after settling is to check the suspension fluid with UV-A light, if a yellow-green fluorescence is observed, the ink should be discarded and replaced with a fresh solution. In general itis stated for all inks that: ‘8, They shall form a uniform suspension when agitated. b, They shall not contain any other ingredients that are likely to cause injury to the ‘operator either during or after use c. The inks shall not corrode or otherwise adversely affect the surfaces of the workpieces, 4. They may contain small quantities of other ingredients at the manufacturers discretion providing the solid content remains within the specified proportions. HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS ‘The supplier of MPI consumables is obliged to make available to the purchaser, all relevant health and safety data applicable to the supplied goods. ‘The user also has an ‘obligation to comply with the health and safety requirements. See also the COSHH Regulations in Unit MTL Specific health and safety considerations are: Flammability: Read container labels for flash points. Asthmatic: Do not use in confined spaces without masks or adequate ventilation. ‘Skin hazard: Use protective clothing, ue eins MYs-2The darker the ambient lighting conditions, he 1g higher the operator eye strain becomes, warraning ‘more regular breaks to reduce operaior fatigue. 20 BS EN 180 9934-1 refers 0 [BS EN ISO 309 for UY-A condliions which quotes ininam UPA irradiance (9 1000 Wien? and axina 20 ls ambient Dackground fighing. Whereas BS 6072 sted 30 1 mins UP-A ‘rradionce of 800 em” fad masimurs 10 Lee fmblent background fighang « The tempertire alters the pressure inside the quarts pst cape whlch a inom aters he spectrum of * ‘ited wavolngthe Ontyhigh pressure mercury vapour lamps are ws for irradiating the fluorescent des. Low pressure discharge lamps are only 6) ted for ambient lighting conditions. {BS £150 3059 2001 ‘uote 2 minima warm up persed of 10 minutes: 0 0 BS EN 9936-3 quotes a UVeA intensity of 10004I¥/em? ct 400mm ‘The old Bish Standard for checking OFA toms waar BS 4489 Method for Assessing UPA Light wed in NDT DTC ii CONDITION: All areas under test using non-fluorescent inks should be adequately illuminated using arifcial light if necessary. For fluorescent inks, 2 UV-A light with subdued background lighting should be used, the darker the better, to increase the overall contrast ratio, NON-FLUORESCENT INKS AND POWDERS ‘The area under inspection should be evenly illuminated. Most commonly used standards quote a minimum illumination level of 500 lux in daylight or under artificial light FLUORESCENT INKS AND POWDERS ‘The area under inspection should be irradiated with UV-A light. ‘The levels of UV-A irradiation are quoted in the relevant standards (see side note), together with the ‘maximum permitted background illumination, Fluorescence degrades with exposure to ordinary light over a period of several hours, ‘moreover, it can be arrested entirely at high temperatures. As the intensity of the ultraviolet light is increased, the amount of fluorescence increases. UV-A light Ultraviolet light is generated by a 100/12SW hand held high pressure mercury vapour lamp (NB. 400W flood lights are also available). The mercury is vaporised inside a quartz capsule by a small low current arc from an auxiliary electrode. After about 5 tninutes there is sufficient mercury vapour in the capsule to initiate an arc between the rain electrodes. The lamp should not be used for approximately 15 minutes to allow sufficient time fori to attain fll working intensity Medium scrow base -Auiliary stating electrode Uy. for Fig, 6.1 - Ultraviolet (UV-A) lamp Assessment of UV-A intensity ‘The efficiency of the mercury vapour lamp can deteriorate quickly without any obvious effect, therefore the lamp's intensity should be checked regularly with an ultraviolet light monitor, such as that specified in BS EN ISO 3059 : 2001 Non- Destructive Testing ~ Penetrant Testing and Magnetic Particle Testing ~ Viewing Conditions. BS EN ISO 3059 : 2001 gives information and recommendations for the testing of UV- ‘A light sources, in particular the assessment of emission from new lamps and the regular testing of any lamps in service which may produce a drop in output after ‘approximately three months use. The testis carried out using a radiometer. ion omens MT6-1uane & UNIT MT6 TR ONE! 0 20 Letuocescent serven . with biack frame 20 Fig. 6.2~ Analogue style radiometer 0 00 Fig. 63 Digital syle combined radiometer and photometer x0 SAFETY UV-A lights operate with wavelengths between 315-400 nm (3150-4000 A), shorter ‘wavelengths than this can cause injuries tothe eyes, To prevent injury, a filter should be used which cuts out wavelengths below 315 nm. £0 | Looking into @ UV-A light will cause temporary clouding of vision due tothe fuid in the eyeball fluorescing, it wll normalise with no permanent effects after a few seconds, although itis important to note that prolonged exposure may cause cataracts. 10 we 7 080006 MT6-210 x0 0 o 0 80 m0 Visible emissions Violet Indigo Blue Green Orange Red soo 600 700 ais | i ¥ y 365 nm 520-580 am ‘The working" wavelength | | The dyes Nuorsee, ie give usd to rade the off vse omissions within orescent dyes this bandwith between the colours Bae/green and sgreen/yellow. This is deliberately chosen since the human eye is most sensitive to the colour green and will therefore enable a greater speed of inspection. we e806 MT6-3Demagnetization of a specimen may be required before testing, between successive shots/magnetizing positions, and/or after testing in order to remove any residual ‘magnetism in the specimen. to | Demagnetization may be carried out for the following reasons: 1, To remove any residual magnetism which may remain from previous MPI procedures or other sources, which may interfere with the subsequent test 2. To remove any residual magnetism between successive MPI shots in the test procedute. 2) 3, To remove any residual fields after MPI has been carried out so not to interfere ‘with other work processes, e.g. a residual magnetic field may attract cutting sw? uring machining operations and may also interfere with subsequent welding ‘operations causing are-blow. 30 40 so Fig. 7.1 Hysteresis loop showing demagnetization « ‘There are several methods of demagnetization: a, Aperture coil with a.c.. This is a coil of several hundred turns which is connected to the mains. The object to be demagnetized is placed inside the coil and slowly withdrawn to a ” distance of at least 1.5 metres away from the coil, or the object is left stationary in the coil and the current gradually tumed down to zero, D. Aperture coil with reversing dc. ‘This method is similar to the ac. coil but the demagnetizing field penetrates further in the test piece, ‘The current direction is reversed periodically, but at = decreasing amplitude until the residual magnetism is removed. ‘Acc electromagnetic yokes. (wiper brush) ‘These can be used to demagnetize large areas in situ. The yoke is stroked over the surface, lifting is well clear (450 mm to BS 6072) between strokes, d. Ac. current flow ‘When using a current flow crack detector, demagnetization can be carried out by using a.c, current and slowly reducing the current flowing to zero. A variation on this method is the peak and drop technique where the current is initially introduced at a higher value than the magnetizing current then reduced to zero, the peak current is then re-introduced at successively decreased values whilst returning to zero current after each peak current. ae? 8 MT7-1uone & LOE MAGNETIZATION Teo RES fe. Flexible cable (induction system). Ifa portable induction type crack detector is available, demagnetization can be carried out by wrapping 2 or 3 tums of the cable around the object to be demagnetized and gradually reducing the ac, current to zero, If magnetization is i carried out using the induction coil, the object under test is automatically demagnetized if the current is reduced to zero before the unit is switched off. Heat treatment. tis not necessary to demagnetize ifa heat treatment process is to follow magnetic particle inspection and the specimen is to be heated beyond its curie point, which au is approximately two thirds of the material's melting point, e.g. 358°C for nickel, * These temperanres are 870°C for iron* and 1127°C for cobalt. Above this level ferromagnetic materials gui RMS ac lose their magnetism, ic, the magnetic domains become randomly orientated. temperature oftran more | When a material is to be demagnetized, by methods other than heat treatment, the often quoed around 750°C | pital demagnetizing field strength must be stronger than the residual field 30] Demagnetisation may be easy or hard, depending on the test piece material, ic. is the ‘material soft or hard? 40] To fully demagnetise a test piece it should be carried out in an east-west direction so that the earth's magnetic field will not interfere. By laying a test piece north-south, the carth's magnetic field will weakly magnetise it. ‘The level to which a specimen must be demagnetized may be laid down in an MPI test procedure or specification. 50 | The amount of residual magnetism remaining may be checked with a calibrated field strength meter or existence may be confirmed with other types of field indicator. 70 %0 100 me 0886 MI72Buane & TPONe| SOS 0 20 30 183 6072 quoted two techniques forthe presence of eresidual field which sing @ compass 2. paperclip on a thread 0 50 © 70 % %0 100 FIELD INDICATORS Magnetic field indicators, e.g. flux indicators and field strength meters are used to assess the presence, intensity and/or direction of a magnetic flux either before, during, or after testing. Specific uses of these instruments are as follows: © To cnsure MPI test machines are functioning correctly. ‘© Toensure that the specified field strength and field direction are apparent ‘© To check for the presence of residual magnetism before testing. ‘© To check for the presence of residual magnetism after testing. Magnetic field strength meters and portable flux indicators should not be used in conjunction with permanent magnets or with d.c. electromagnets for determining adequate flux density. A flux indicator may be used with these magnets but only to verify the suitability or correct application of an ink or powder. Circular fields may be contained completely within a specimen, if this is the case, the field will not be detected. Many terminologies are encountered when referring to types of magnetic field indicators, which can be confusing. There are also alternative methods other than those listed below to check for residual fields. PORTABLE MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH METERS (MAGNETOMETERS) ‘To measure residual magnetism, calibrated magnetic field strength indicators of the type which contains a soft iron vane are commonly used. The vane aligns itself with the magnetic field, the strength and direction of the field is measured by the meter calibrated in gauss or tesla's; similar non-calibrated instruments also exist. Neither of these instruments should be brought into close contact with any strong magnetic fields, as this may cause damage to the instrument. Fig, 8.1 - Field strength meter SHIM TYPE/FOIL STRIPS (TRADE NAME CASTROL STRIPS/ELY STRIPS) “These are small brass or silver finish strips containing artificial defects (3 slots) in Mu metal; Mu metal is a highly permeable material containing nickel, manganese and iron. ‘The brass finish strips are commonly used in general engineering applications and indicate low field strengths. The silver finish strips will show higher field strengths ‘and are used in aerospace industries or areas that require a more critical examination let eet MT8-1An aliernative collctive {erm for penerrameiers, eg ASME, Berthold Castrol Type 3 0 ple eure 20 » 0 0 IT MT8 - MAGNETIC FIELD INDICATORS In either case, if the field is strong enough, three linear indications will show on the strip; they should be rotated on the specimen surface to define field direction, SS ===-- S\ = in ae at @D) Fig, 8.2 - Castrol strip With reference to the brass finish strip (type 1), if no indications are apparent the field is too weak for inspection and it is below 3 amps ac. rm.s/mm (240 Oe). Three indications show that the field strength is greater than 5 amps a.c. r.n.s./mm (400 Oe). With reference tothe silver finish strip (type 2), if no indications are apparent the field is below $ amps ac. rms/mm (400 Oe). Three indications show that the field strength is greater than 15 amps a.c. rm.s/mm (1200 Oe) and the field is suitable for critical inspection. Note: The above figures are based on a mild steel bar THE ASME FIELD INDICATOR This consists of eight sections of mild steel brazed together, the separating lines between the sections forming artificial defects. One side also has chromium coating applied, this has a greater sensitivity than the opposite side which shows surface breaking defects. ‘When the indicator is placed on a magnetized component the magnetic field passes through the indicator. ‘The separating lines between the sections become visible when the detecting media is applied. To determine the ditection of the magnetic field the indicator should be rotated until one of the lines is perfectly visible, at this point the direction of the field is at 90° to the line. THE BERTHOLD PENETRAMETER ‘This field indicator contains two artificial defects at 90° to one another, ‘There is a sensitivity adjustment consisting of a cover plate which can be tured to one of four setting which vary the distance of the cover plate and detecting media from the artificial defects; the greater the gap the higher the field strength necessary to render the lines visible. ‘They are used in a manner similar to the ASME indicator. A = Sy Niersras Fig. 8.4 - Berthold penetrameter tae? 048 Mrs-2Buane & Tee Feo Nell HALL EFFECT METERS ‘These instruments are usually used in laboratory type environments to measure tangential, normal, or axial fields depending on the probe design. Hall effect meters, 10 | use, as their name suggests, the Hall effect principle. ‘An cleetric current is passed through a small semi-conducting crystal contained within a probe. A voltage is generated across the crystal, when the probe is placed in a ‘magnetic field, the magnitude of this voltage is directly proportional to the magnetic flux density within the probe. The relative permeability of the semi-conducting crystal is very close to one, so the voltage generated is proportional to the magnetic field strength at the point where the probe is placed. ‘The voltage generated by the probe is measured by an electronic circuit and indicated on a meter marked in units of field strength, ‘The Hall effect meter is calibrated with a series of standard magnets which provide known values of field strength within the working range of the instrument. 30 | Manufacturers supply a zero-field chamber which is required to set the zero. If the peak value of a time varying field is required, the meter reading is multiplied by a conversion factor, the vaiue of which depends upon the shape of the waveform and ‘upon the measuring principle employed by the instrument. 20 40 | PERFORMANCE CHECKS Performance checks are used to cnsure an MPI fest system is functioning correctly, i. a magnetic field is capable of being produced and reproduced so that test results ean be ‘maintained at a consistent level. Typical reference blocks are given below. so | Current flow (headshots) When current flow techniques are used on bench units, the following test should be carried out for each wave form available for use: a, Ensure the test piece is thoroughly demagnetized and pre-cleaned satisfactorily. b. Position the test piece (see diagram below) between the head and tailstock of the bench equipment. © |. Slowly introduce a current and apply ink until the first hole (closest to the extemal surface ) is visible. 4. Note the applied amperage and continue to apply the current progressively until the second and third holes are noted, nm 3 tes mdi uh trent tanto tue eter a3 copes onan ‘0 0 100 Fig, 8.5 - Test piece for current flow technique tee? we MT83wo 2» 30 «0 so « 0 80 %0 1C FIELD INDICATORS. Magnetic flow If magnetic flow is being used, a similar procedure to the above would stil apply except thatthe dal eadings/switch settings would be taken instead of amperage values and the following test piece would be used. 1 Smm Dianeter fe sim al Fig. 8.6 - Test piece for magnetic flow and rigid coil techniques Rigid coil Ifa rigid coil is being used, the procedure in the section above for Current flow (headshots) would still apply, except that the test piece used would be as shown in previous section for Magnetic Flow. ALTERNATIVE TEST BLOCK(S) As to BS EN ISO 9934 : Part 2 for type testing, batch testing and in-service testing of fluorescent inks, reference block no.1 should be used, 9 iting ects ese soeaon eke 4 orsom fo ‘Al imonions nee 0606 M84PEBSEH 10 Fo 40 50 Co 0 «0 NU REPORTING INTERPRETATION DEFINITIONS Discontinuity — an interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration of a part. Noncrelevant — indications from something on the test piece which is expected, icc brazed joints, intemal splines or drilled holes. Indication ~ particles accumulated and held ata site by a leakage field of relevant and correct information formation required by the relevant Adequate reporting is essential forthe transmiss after the test. Any test report should include th specification for the work being performed A typical report would require the following: ‘name of the company; ‘work location; description and identity of the part tested; stage of test (e.g, before or after heat treatment, before or after final machining); reference to the written test procedure and the technique sheets used; description of equipment used; ‘magnetising technique, including (as appropriate) indicated current values, tangential field strengths, waveform, contact or pole spacing, coil dimensions etc.; detecting media used and contrast paint if used; surface preparation; viewing conditions; method of recording or marking of indications; date of test; ‘m, name, qualification and signature of the person performing the test crores enpaose ‘The test report shall then contain the test results, including a detailed description of the indications and a statement as to whether they meet the acceptance criteria. ‘A common method of recording indications is to reproduce indications on « scaled diagram. Indications should be drawn with references to a datum on the test piece. ‘The diagram(s) should not be overloaded with too much information; use two diagrams if necessary. A separate diagram showing magnetizing techniques should ideally be inchided where itis not obvious which technique has been applied. PRESERVATION OF INDICATIONS. Prior to the recording of indications, it is essential to ensure thatthe test conditions, and in particular the magnetizing levels, are as near as possible to the level recommended for the technique. If dry powder reparation is necessar} nother poss ic ink made with a volatile cartier lui. y is to retest the workpiece using a magi It is essential that a common datum be established on both the workpiece and the record and that care be taken not to distur’ the indications, Other methods of recording indications are: 1. Photographs When a photographic record is made, the resulting photograph of the tested surface should, if possible, be actual size. If the surface of the workpiece is highly polished, care should be taken to avoid highlights. The use of a matt-contrast medium applied prior to testing may be desirable. 2. Clear sticky tape ‘This is used to peel the dried magnetic particle indication from the test piece. tne? eine MotBuone & OG e) TP ON 2, Cover the indications with a transparent adhesive film. Carefully peel off the film and the adhering indications and reapply to either paper or card of contrasting colour. b. Degrease the test surface, cover with a white matt adhesive film and retest. After drying, if necessary, cover the indications with a clear film in the manner described in (a) and transfer together the pair of films to the record card. 3. Proprietary coatings sprayed on wet; when dry, the resultant film is then peeled away with the indication, zo | & Spray the tested area with a quick-drying, stippable coating. Stip off this coating and view the face previously in contact with the workpiece, to which the indications will be transferred. . Heat the workpiece to an approved temperature and, without delay, slowly immerse in a powdered plastic material and slowly withdraw. Allow i 0 drain BS EV 1290; 1998 aso and cure it in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. Strip off the tit: 6 coating complete with indications from the workpiece and view the face 2. Transparent varnish previously in contact with it. Se eine ©. Degrease the test surface and coat with a proprietary, strippable, magnetic oxide ae paint. Magnetise the part to saturation and peel off the coating. If itis dipped in & “Tosrtoume, agitated magnetic ink, it will reveal the flaw indications on the oxide film. © Epuxyorehemeal 4, Degrease the test area and coat with a proprietary self curing magnetic silicone- magnetic particle rubber compound. Magnetise to saturation and allow the compound to cure. The eine oxide in the compound will migrate to the position of any flaw and, when 4 Magnetic topes _Blecwronic scanning removed from the workpiece, the rubber previously in contact with the surface will show the flaw. BSENISOS03¢1 2001 4. agntic sachets with light sensitive paper backings. techniques ber snes & agnosis indlealons shoe be 39 reconded aster oF ania ‘ Limitations of preservation methods rounded, te Lincar~the lengths more | Methods 1 and 2 above are generally restricted to surfaces of simple geometric form ‘han thre mes the wi because of the difficulties involved in removing the films. Method 3b does not Rounded ~ the length is generally produce satisfactory results from fluorescent magnetic inks as compared with ‘equal oor les than three black magnetic inks. times the width o %0 %0 100 ie MT9-2FOS The flloming waveforms’ ower supplies are shown 10 fac single phase power supplies, however, MPI puipmen wil often use three phase power supplies danger erent are available 20 1 swinging fields ar also how possible, te. the Dench equipment is ‘awomatieelly changing from CF to MF and ice ‘ers, allowing the ‘operator to view i ll directions inane" ‘operation NB. Also referred wo as sequential field ofall directional tating Littonger day cytes onthe ‘equipment. 0 NB. BS EW 10.9934 Part 3 now quotes eurent [generators to have @ ‘rua ety cycle of 210% 30 0 80 Magnetic particle inspection using electrical apparatus can use several types of current, cach form has advantages and disadvantages. ALTERNATING CURRENT For all practical purposes altemating current (a.c.) is used to detect surface defects. ‘Acc, does not penetrate deeply into the metal but produces a high density field near the surface of a ferromagnetic conductor, this characteristic is called the skin effect and will emphasise surface breaking discontinuities, e.g. fatigue or stress induced cracks. ‘The skin effect is caused by the concentration of eddy currents near the surface of the specimen; eddy currents are only produced by an alternating current, Fig, 10.1 Alternating current (single phase) If surface breaking defects are the prime consideration for detection, then an additional advantage of a.c. is that less relevant indications from sub-surface discontinuities are rnot created by the low penetration capabilities of this type of current, which may “otherwise distract the inspector. (Other advantages of a.c. include: * Current at required values can normally be obtained directly from the mains supply, or via simple transformers. © Ac. machines are relatively inexpensive, are easy to maintain and have basic operating characteristics. + Due to the current form fluctuation (negative to positive), magnetic particles will vibrate and readily align themselves to flux leakages; this enhances the definition of defect indications. + If after magnetization the current is reduced to zero via a rheostat or step down device the component is automatically demagnetized. Disadvantages: ‘© The main disadvantage of ac. is that it will only detect surface defects with any degree of reliability. DIRECT CURRENT ‘A major advantage of de. for magnetization is its deeper penetration into the metal ‘thus enabling sub-surface discontinuities to be revealed. D.c. also leaves residual ‘magnetism which will hold an indication and allow more time for evaluation of the indication, however residual magnetism is not always an advantage and may present problems if complete demagnetization of the component is required. we 7430406 MTI0-1The technique known as desugcenploysade. 1g ‘current which initaly ‘stars with avery high value ‘ond rapidly reduces toa Tower value forthe mejor ofthe shor duration. The advantage ofthis: 1 less chance of damaging. 39 the obec rom a ‘contin high cwren {Improved particle idea for detection of deep hing dsconsnutis 30 0 80 7” Dec. current may be obtained in various forms, either from batteries or rectified ac., ‘each having their own advantages and disadvantages. Direct current from battery packs Time — Peak Fig. 10.2 Direct current from battery Advantages include: © Does not require mains electrical supply. © Sub-surface defects may be detected Disadvantages inchide: # Weight of batteries. Limited battery life (high current draw). © Continuous current flow does not produce particle vibration and will not therefore ‘enhance defect detection. Because of this, continuous d.c. should not be used with dry powders which require a pulsating magnetic field to provide mobility to the powder when it lands on the test surface. Half-wave rectified current H.w.rc. is achieved by removing all the negative current values from a.c. allowing the positive half cycles to remain, this current may be considered to be a form of dc. with all the associated characteristics of this current form with the added advantage of a pulsating wave. Fig, 10.3 Half-wave rectified current (single phase) tne Tenses MT10-2,Buane & TOT TE UEL ENT TYPE: TPONe! Since h.w.r.c. will leave a component partially magnetized it is usually packaged as an a.c./h.w-re. unit so that the ac. is available for demagnetization. Advantages include: "| Will detect sub-surface defects ‘© Will detect fine surface breaking defects. © Simple, effective and inexpensive current form to achieve. * Due to pulsating current the magnetic particles will vibrate and provide greater a attraction to flux leakages. Disadvantages: ‘¢ May leave the part partially magnetized. jo | Full-wave rectified current F.w.re. provides the most efficient conversion of a.c. power to d.c... With this current form the negative half eycle of an a.c. waveform is removed from below the zero line and reversed to make all values positive (or vice versa). 1 ny” % a a a eae aren pg ibntip ki & Ddsibaretsicaxicitlit 2 ‘Suga an stem of peut a a isa Was w: sere hay 3 Budiey see S Higher sneer ore = Can produce demagnetization problems. Three phase full wave rectified current . en ee Fig. 10.5 Three phase full wave rectified current tne Tomine Mri0-320 30 0 0 he occupational expasure anu for syne sa ‘ceupational exposure Standard (OES), tharejore the shor term OBL 100 ppm over a 15 minute reference period. The long term OBL is SO ppm over fn 8 hour time weighied tverage reference period. TSG mS GEET 'OSHH RE oN Score The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations, referred to as ‘The COSHH Regulations, define a substance hazardous to health as: a. a substance listed in part 1A of the approved list as dangerous for supply, see Hazard Information & Packaging for Supply Regulations 1994 (CHIP2) - nature of risk classified as very toxic, toxic, harmful, corrosive or iritant. b, one which has an MEL in Schedule 1 of COSHH or if the H & $ Commission has approved an OES. €. amiicro-organism which creates a hazard to health, 4. dustin air (when substantial). €. _a'substance comparable with the above. ‘The COSHH regulations are not applicable to the control of lead, radioactivity, explosive or flammable properties of materials, high or low temperatures, high pressures, medical treatment or below ground work (mining). RESPONSIBILITIES ‘The exposure of an employee to substances hazardous to health is under the control of the employer. A training organisation is responsible for exposure by trainees. Employers must prevent exposure to substances hazardous to health, or control ‘exposure when total prevention is not reasonably practicable. Personal protective ‘equipment, e.g. masks, are a second choice for control. Employees have a duty to report any problems in exposure control procedures or any defects found in protective equipment. Employers must keep records of examinations/monitoring tests carried out. These are kept for 5 years; 30 yeats for identifiable employees. OCCUPATIONAL ExPosuRE LiMITs (EH40 — JANUARY 2002) ‘The Guidance Note EH40, entitled Occupational Exposure Limits, is a document published by the Health and Safety Executive which gives occupational exposure limits for substances hazardous to health. 4A solvent, which is a substance hazardous to health, has its own occupational exposure limit as given in EH40, -¢ ‘The toxicity value of a solvent is expressed in parts per million (ppm), eg. the short term occupational exposute limit for xylene is 100 ppm, this means to say that ifthe air contained xylene exceeding 100 ppm, the air would be considered to be a significant hazard to health ‘There are two types of occupational exposure limit: Maximum exposure limit (MEL): “is the maximum concentration of an airbome substance, averaged over a reference period, to which employees may be exposed by inhalation under any circumstances and is specified, together with the appropriate reference period, in Schedule | of COSHH" 2. Occupational exposure standard (OES): "is the concentration of an airbome substance, averaged over a reference period, at which, according to current knowledge, there is no evidence that it is likely to be injurious to employees if they are exposed to inhalation, day after day to that concentration, and which is specified in a list approved by HSE”. ine amen MTL20 30 0 30 70 %0 %0 100 ‘When a MEL is specified, exposures must be kept as low as is reasonably practicable, but always below the specified value. As OES should not be exceeded, but, an exposure over the limit is acceptable, providing the reason for exceeding the OES has been identified and measures are taken to reduce the exposure below the OES as soon as is reasonably practicable. MTI1-22 0 0 o » BS EN 1290: 1998 BS EN 1291 : 1998 BS EN 1330-1 ; 1998 BS EN 1330-2: 1998 BS EN ISO 12707 cP 3012 BS EN ISO 3059 : 2001 BS 3683 BS 4069 BS 4489: BS 5044: Bs 6072 PD 6513 BS 7773 Part 2: 1985 1982 1984 1973 1981 1985 1995 BS EN 12062 : 1998 BS EN ISO 9934-1 : 2001 Non-Destructive Examination of Welds Magnetic Particle Examination of Welds Non-Destructive Examination of Welds Magnetic Particle Testing of Welds ~ Acceptance Levels ‘Non-Destructive Testing ~ Terminology Part 1: List of General Terms ‘Non-Destructive Testing ~ Terminology Part 2: Terms common to Non-Destructive Testing Methods Non-Destructive Testing ~ Terminology ‘Terms used in Magnetic Particle Testing Code of Practice for Cleaning and Preparation of Metal Surfaces [SUPERSEDED] ‘Non-Destructive Testing Penetrant Testing and Magnetic Particle Testing Viewing Conditions British Standard Glossary of Terms used in Non- Destructive Testing Part 2: Magnetic Particle Flaw Detection British Standard for Magnetic Flaw Detection Inks and Powders /SUPERSEDED] British Standard method for Measurement of UV-A Radiation (Black Light) used in Non-Destructive ‘Testing [SUPERSEDED] Specification for Contrast and Paints used in Magnetic Particle Flaw Detection [SUPERSEDED] Method for Magnetic Particle Flaw Detection [SUPERSEDED] Magnetic Particle Flaw Detection A Guide to the Principles and Practice of applying Magnetic Particle Flaw Detection in accordance with BS 6072 Code of Practice for Cleaning and Preparation of Metal Surfaces ‘Non-Destructive Examination of Welds General rules for Metallic Materials Non-Destructive Testing ~ Magnetic Particle Testing Part 1 : General Principles MTI2-120 20 so 0 %0 BS EN ISO 9934-2 :2001 Non-Destructive Testing ~ Magnetic Particle Testing Part 2 : Characterisation of Products BS EN ISO 9934-3:2001 Non-Destructive Testing - Magnetic Particle Testing Part 3 ; Equipment four? nite | Mri22