BANGALORE UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY VISVESVARAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
K R CIRCLE, BENGALURU-01

COURSE: MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MAJOR: THERMAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
COURSE TITLE: ALTERNATIVE FUELS AND POLLUTION
COURSE CODE: 18TS1E2A
FACULTY INCHARGE: Dr. RAMESH D K , PROFESSOR

UNIT - 01

1. With suitable comparison briefly discuss the performance and emission of various alternate
fuels in terms of percentage differene with respective to conventional fuels.
2. Justify the statement : “ The use of the alternate fuels has not increased as rapidly as predicted”.
3. List out the various factors that drive the market for the alternate fuel vehicles and explain.
4. Asses the statement - Alternate fuels are the fuels of the present and future with the help of a
case study.
5. Discuss the alternate power trains play an imporatant role in emission mitigation and stand for
eco friendly mobility.
6. Discuss the various categories of alternative fuels and drivetrains based on its source of
propulsion systems.
UNIT - 02

7. With the help of a neat sketch explain the production of the DME.
8. Diffentiate between the methanol and DME in refernce to its properties, performance,
combustion and emission charcteristics.
9. With the help a of a flowchart explain the dry milling process of ethanol production.
10. Discuss the the growth of ethanol as a fuel additive for gasoline engine over years across the
globe and in India.

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11. Justify: Methanol offers important emission benefits when comapared with gasoline.
12. Support the statement : DEE is considered to be low emission and high quality diesel engine
fuel.
13. With an example of the alcohol blend discuss the properties, performance and emssion
characteristics in comparison to gasoline fuel.

UNIT - 03

14. Discuss the production, transmission and storage of the compressed natural gas in the industry.
15. Briefly explain the types of the CNG vehicles based on the fuel supply and modifications
required to convert the CI engine to CNG engine.
16. List out the various optimizations required to obtain complete combustion, minimize the
emissions and maximize the power and fuel efficiency in an CNG engine. Explain.
17. With the help of a neat charcteristic curve explain the nature and trend of the performance
parametres of the CNG in a gasoline and CI engine.
18. Justify the statements - “ the combustion variability of LPG fueled engine is higher than the
gasoline engine” and “ LPG has a potential to be mainstream fuel”.
19. Draw a brief comparison between the vehicular emmisions of the autogas LPG, petrol amd
diesel.
20. List out the various methods of production of hydrogen and briefly explain catalytic steam
reforming of natural gas process of production.
21. Substantiate “ Hydrogen has a bright future as an automotive fuel for conventional IC engine
driven vehicles and as well as hybrid and fuel cell vehicles”.
22. With respective to the various hazards of hydrogen briefly explain the various safety systems
for hydrogen.
UNIT - 04

23. List out & explain the biodiesel production processes.

24. List out the various engine modifications for biodiesel combustion in CI engine and explain
any one briefly.
25. Compare & explain the properties, performance and combustion charcteristics of the diesel,
B20 & B100.
26. Explain the production of the biodiesel from vegetable oils and waste cooking oil.
27. What are biofuels? Explain briefly the classification of biofuels.

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28. List out the various processes of extraction of biofuels and explain biochemical process in brief.
29. Define the following: (i) straight vegetable oils (ii) esterification (iii) transesterification.
Explain the transesterification of vegetable oils with an example.
30. Compare and discuss the properties and combustion characteristics of vegetable oils with the
conventional petroleum fuel.
UNIT - 05

31. Distinguish between the Battery EVs, Hybrid EVs and Fuel cell EVs.
32. Explain the construction and working of an EV with a neat diagram.
33. Compare and explain the force speed characteristics curve of the ICE and EV.
34. Discuss the methodology adopted for the development of the hybrid electric vehivle.
35. Write short notes on: (i) series hybrid vehicles (ii) hybrid electric vehicels.
36. Explain the working principle, construction and working of a fuel cell with a neat diagram.
37. The development of fuel cells for EVs has taken on an accelerated pace in recent years. Justify
the statement.
38. With a neat sketch dicuss the various fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle configurations.

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2) Though alternative fuels have a potential for excellent fuel economy and run
on existing Justify the statement: “The use of alternate fuels has not increased
as rapidly as predicted”.
 Supplies; their growth has not increased as rapidly as predicted.
 Biodiesel, though it is a renewable and fairly available source that can be burnt
seamlessly, it has its cons which have hindered its widespread usage. Using
vegetable oil involves a costly conversion process and a lot of effort. Quality of
biodiesel varies widely and the existing diesel engines can only accommodate a
certain range of quality to obtain similar performance characteristics compared
to diesel. Also, biodiesel costs more than petroleum diesel.
 E85 ethanol has 25% lower fuel economy than gasoline. Ethanol made from any
food crop can adversely affect food prices.
Hydrogen fuel cells provide a fuel economy equivalent to above twice that of
gasoline vehicles. Hydrogen is abundant and can be made from renewable
energy. Acceptable range of hydrogen requires extremely high pressure on-
board hydrogen storage and there are a very few places to refuel. Hydrogen is
very expensive to transport and there is no infrastructure in place yet. Currently,
hydrogen fuel is made from non-renewable natural gas in a process that creates
enormous CO2
Emissions.
 Hybrid and electric vehicle usage too has not increased at the predicted rate.
One of the reasons is the cost of these vehicles being significantly more than that
of conventional vehicles. Some don’t live up to the mileage buyers may expect,
especially considering the extra purchase price. Inadequate infrastructure for
charging battery electric vehicles is also a deterrent for the growth of these
vehicles.
 However, conventional oil prices are surging and still close to $130 per barrel
and fossil fuel resources are depleting. Therefore, competitive growth of alter6
fuels is inevitable.

3) List out the various factors that drive the market for the alternative fuel
vehicles and explain.
 Each alternate fuel has its own distinct advantages and disadvantages associated
with cost, availability, environmental impact, vehicle/engine modification, safety
and customer acceptance and legislation.
 Alternative fuels are receiving attention because of the following reasons:
 I. Alternative fuels are mostly produced from domestic resources that reduce the
energy dependence.
- Use of locally available resources for fuel purposes can reduce crude oil
import bill. Most of the alternative fuels, for example, alcohols, biodiesel
can be produced from biomass resources and agricultural wastes and
electricity for battery operated vehicles can be produced from solar and
fuel cells. Hydrogen can be produced from biomass gasification or
electrolysis of water.
II. Alternative fuels generally reduce the vehicle exhaust emission and hence
improve the environmental air quality.
- Alternative fuels are capable of reducing the engine emissions as
compared to petroleum products.
- The molecular structure of alternative fuels (CH3OH, C2H5OH & CH4 etc) is
much simpler than gasoline/diesel.
- Moreover a low C:H ratio of alternative fuels generates less hydrocarbon
emissions on combustion.
- Hydrogen is a clean fuel and generates nil hydrocarbon emissions.
- Emissions released from centralized plant can be more easily controlled
than vehicular emissions.
III. Some alternative fuels have the potential to operate at a lower cost compared to
petroleum products.
- Currently the cost of most alternate fuels is a little bit higher than
conventional fuel.
- However, the cost of biodiesel and CNG are competitive with petroleum.
- For the development of alternative fuels government legislations and
incentives are required to a certain extent.
- The large scale production of alternative fuels could make them cost
competitive.

4) Assess the statement-Alternative fuels are the fuels of the present and future
with the case study?
Even though the alternate fuels have a number of advantages over the conventional
fuels, they still have a long way to go to be considered as economically viable alternative to the
conventional fuels presently used. A lot of research efforts are currently being directed towards
analyzing and improving the economic viability of these fuels.
Need of alternate fuels
1) Conventional fuels going to runout
2) Alternative fuels are derived from sources other than petroleum

3) Most are produced domestically, reducing our dependence on imported oil, and some are
derived from renewable sources

4) Alternative fuels produce less pollution than gasoline or diesel

5) The use of alternative fuels has the potential to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases released, which account for the largest share of greenhouse gas
emissions
6) To reduce the cost of fuel
7) Bio degradable and non-toxic

Global energy consumption patterns reveal that the world remains highly dependent on
fossil fuels. Over the last 50 years, while energy consumption grew substantially, the world
undertook a transition in its usage of fossil fuels, from solids (coal) to liquids (oil) to gases
(natural gas).t’s been clear all along that reducing dependency on fossil fuels is critical for the
sustainable future of the planet. We have to consider the alternative fuels as fuel for present
and future, some of the Alternative fuels which are alternative for fossil fuels are

Ethanol
Ethanol is a renewable, domestically produced alcohol fuel made from plant material, such as corn,
sugar cane, or grasses. Using ethanol can reduce oil dependence and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Although CO is released during ethanol production and combustion, it is recaptured as a nutrient to the
2
crops that are used in its production, thus ethanol results in lower increases to the carbon cycle
Studies have also shown that ethanol blending shows no toxic effects in particulate matter (PM)
emissions.E10 and E15 are blends of ethanol and gasoline. The number after the "E" indicates the
percentage of ethanol by volume.
E85, also called flex fuel, is an ethanol-gasoline blend containing 51% to 83% ethanol,
depending on geography and season. Summer blends tend to have more ethanol while winter
blends have less. E85 can be used in FFVs, which are specially designed to run on gasoline, E85,
or any mixture of the two. FFVs are offered by several automakers. We provide a brief guide to
help you determine if your vehicle can run on flex fuel.
Due to ethanol's lower energy content, FFVs operating on E85 get roughly 15% to 27%
fewer miles per gallon than when operating on regular gasoline, depending on the ethanol
content. Regular gasoline typically contains about 10% ethanol.

Bio diesel
Domestically produced from renewable resources.
Common blends include B2 (2% biodiesel), B5, and B20.
10-percent decrease in fuel economy when using pure biodiesel when compared to regular
diesel
Natural Gas
A fossil fuel composed of mostly methane
It can be used in the form of compressed natural gas (CNG) or Liquified natural gas (LNG) to the
fuels for car and trucks.
Up to 10% less greenhouse gas emissions.

Electricity
Electricity is an alternative fuel that can be used to power all-electric and plug-in hybrid cars.
EVs convert over 77% of the electrical energy from the grid to power at the wheels.
Today's light-duty all-electric vehicles (or PHEVs in electric mode) can exceed 130 MPGe and
can drive 100 miles consuming only 25–40 kWh.
Typically more cost-efficient and prices more stable than gasoline
Hydrogen
Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) turn hydrogen and oxygen from the air into electricity, powering an
electric motor.
FCVs produce no air pollutants or greenhouse gases, and burning hydrogen in ICEs produces
only nitrogen oxides (NOx).

5) Discuss the alternative power trains play an important role in emission

mitigation and stand for ecofriendly mobility?
Currently in many metropolises, internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) are responsible for
over 50% of hazardous air pollutants and smog forming compounds. Although the engine of
ICEVs is continuously improved to reduce emitted pollutants, the increase in the number of
ICEVs is much faster than the reduction of emissions per vehicle.
In order to control the growth of the air pollution due to road transportation, the use of various
electric vehicles (EVs) as alternative power trains fin the most viable choice.
Local harmful emissions:
The local harmful emissions of hybrid vehicles (HEVs) lie between those of IcEVs and battery
electric vehicles (BEVs) as expected, the BEVs offers zero local emissions.
Global harmful emissions take in to account the emissions generated by refineries to produce
gasoline and diesel for the ICEVs as well as the emissions by power plants to generate electricity
for the BPVs.
It can be found that global harmful emissions of the BEVs are still much lower than those of
ICEVs .For the HEVs the corresponding global harmful emissions are also between the BEVs and
ICEVs.
Currently many auto makers produce HEVs, which are not only commercially available but also
economically sustainable. A few flagships are the Chevrolet C15 silver hybrid, Ford Emission
hybrid, Honda civic Hybrid, Mercedes Benz S400 hybrid.
In general these HEVs exhibit significant reductions in exhaust emissions over their ICEVs
counterparts.
EVs have on other definite advantage over ICEVs namely the suppression of noise pollution
.contrary to ICEVs with their combustion engine and complicated mechanical transmission that
produce severe noise problems, the BEVS is powered by an electric motor operating at allow
acoustic noise
Moreover it can offer either gearless or single speed mechanical transmissions so that the
corresponding noise is minimal.

6) Discuss the various categories of alternative fuels and drive trains based on its
source of propulsion systems?
Alternative fuels are derived by other than crude oil sources.
The various categories are
Alcohols: They are considered as a substitute or additive component for gasoline as they
possess a higher octane number.
The move towards unleaded fuels produced excessive exhaust valve wear in gasoline engines.
This problem was solved by incorporating hardened valve seats and satellite coating on valves.
They led to the increased use of alternative fuels particularly methanol/ ethanol blends because
of their higher octane number.
Ethers improve the combustion efficiency Dimethyl ether (DME) is the most commonly used
blending component in gasoline fuel.it has a high ceatane number (55-60) it contains a oxygen
but no C-C bonds and has the advantages of reducing carbon particulate matter emissions
formation.
Di-ethyl ether (DEE) can be used for cold start in the diesel engines 5% Dee blends have shown
important performance in diesel engines.
Vegetable oil and biodiesel
Dr.Rudalf diesel inventor of the diesel engine has demonstrated that the engine run on Peanut
Oil.
Vegetable oils and its derivatives have the potential to substitute for a fraction of the
petroleum distillates and petroleum based petrochemicals in the near future.
Biodiesel is methyl or ethyl esters of fatty acids derived from edible and non-edible type
vegetable oils and animal fats.
The major sources of biodiesel production are jatropa, karanji, palm, soya bean and sunflower.
Gaseous fuels
Natural gas essentially consists of methane (80-98%) depending on geographic origin
compressed natural gas (CNG) has excellent ant knocking properties which allows use of a
higher compression ratio for increased power output and fuel economy compared to petrol.
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a mixture of propane and butane gas it has a higher octane
number for spark ignition engines, comparable to gasoline heating value which ensures a
similar output.
Hydrogen is one of the cleanest fuel in the world as it does not contain carbon .it is a clean and
efficient energy carrier with the potential to replace liquid and gaseous fuels.
Categories of gear trains
PHEVs: Plugin hybrid electric vehicles are electric vehicles whose battery can be recharged by
plugging it to an external source of electric power ,as by its on board engine and generator.
BEVs: Battery powered electric vehicles are electric vehicles that exclusively use chemical
energy stored in rechargeable battery packs, with no secondary source of propulsion.
FCEVs: Fuel cell electric vehicles are powered by hydrogen .they are more efficient than
conventional vehicles and produce no tailpipe emissions. They only emit water vapour and
warm air.
7. With the help of a neat sketch explain the production of the DME.

DME (Dimethyl Ether) is an organic compound mainly used as aerosol propellant

and as a reagent for the production of widely applied compounds as the dimethyl
sulfate (a methylating agent) and the acetic acid.

In industrial applications, the DME is produced from the syngas by means of two
different configurations

 one-step process
 two-steps process

In the one-step process (direct production process), DME is produced directly from
the syngas in one single reactor where a bifunctional catalyst supports both the
methanol formation and the methanol dehydration according to the following
reactions scheme.

Methanol formation: - CO + 2H2 ↔ CH3OH

DHo = – 90.4 kJ/mol

Water-gas shift:CO + H2 O ↔ CO2 + H2

DHo = – 41.0 kJ/mol

Methanol dehydration: 2CH3OH ↔ CH3OCH3 + H2O

DHo = -23.0 kJ/mol

Overall reaction: 3CO + 3H2 ↔ CH3OCH3 + CO2

DHo = -258.3 kJ/mol

The syngas is produced by means of a natural gas steam reforming or
coal/petroleum residues gasification and, after the DME synthesis reactor, a
purification unit, able to separate the DME from water and methanol in a double

distillation stage is needed. The following figure shows a diagram of the one-step
process.

In the two steps (indirect) process, the methanol formation from syngas and
the DME production from methanol are supported in two separated reactors,
where the specific catalysts (copper-based for the first, silica-alumina for the
second) are packed. The figure illustrates the block diagram of this architecture.
DME p r o d u c t i o n f romr e n e w a b l e energies

The reactants of the DME synthesis process can be produced from

renewable energy as biomass, solar and wind. By this way, the DME is a sort of
liquid energy vector, able to store the renewable energy in a easily dispensable,
easy applicable and high-energy density fuel.
Starting from biomasses as energy crops, agro-residue, forest residue, etc., a
gasification process can be applied to generate a syngas stream to be fed to one-
step or two-steps DME synthesis process. On the other hand, if the starting
biomass is an organic trash, manure or sewage, an anaerobic digestion + pyrolysis

system can be applied to generate the CO and H2 stream.

The hydrogen stream in the syngas mixture can be generated by an electrolyzer

supplied by electricity produced from renewable power plants as photovoltaics
and wind farms and then mixed with CO/CO2. By this way, the renewable energy
is
“stored” in the DME, which, being a liquid fuel, can be easily distributed, stored
and used, differently from the hydrogen itself which has a series of unsolved
issues related to the distribution and storage. The following scheme shows a
conceptual layout of the DME production from solar/biomass energy.

8.Differentiate between the methanol and DME in reference to its properties,

performance, combustion and emission characteristics.

Properties of methanol and DME

Properties of any fuel depend fully on its chemical compositions which determine
the performance and emission characteristics of the engine.Compared with other
alternatives, methanol and di-methyl ether (DME) are suitable alternative fuels for
spark ignition (SI) engines.

 Methanol is similar to traditional gasoline as a liquid fuel in respect to the

storage, transportation, distribution and applications. It can be produced
from widely available fossil raw materials including coal, natural gas and
bio-substances.
 methanol has a high-octane number, high latent heat of vaporization and
high oxygen content (around 50% by mass), it will result in a good
antiknock performance, dense fuelair charge and excellent lean combustion.
 The low vapor pressure and high latent heat of vaporization of methanol
cause cold start difficulties at low ambient and in cylinder temperatures.
  Higher laminar flame propagation speed of methanol makes combustion
process faster and thus improves engine thermal efficiency.
 DME can be produced from a variety of feed-stocks such as natural gas,
coal, crude oil, residual oil, waste products and biomass.
 The high cetane number and low boiling point of DME symbolize the short
ignition delay, low auto-ignition temperature and almost instantaneous
vaporization when DME is injected into the cylinder.
 DME is non-toxic and environmentally benign, whatever at low or high
mole fractions (percent by volume) in air, it hardly has any odor and causes
negative health effects.
 The DME has a low carbon-to-hydrogen ratio (C: H), a high oxygen content
(around 35% by mass) and no C–C bonds in its molecular structure.

Emission characteristics of methanol

 The performance and emission characteristics of a spark ignition engine

using methanol-gasoline fuel blends. They observed an improvement in the
engine cold start and also the reduction in CO and HC emissions
significantly due to more oxygen content of the blended fuels.

 The nonregulated emissions like unburned methanol and formaldehyde

increase with the fraction of methanol.

 increase in CO emission and decrease in HC emission occur using methanol-

gasoline blends and CO2 emission increases with methanol addition to the
gasoline fuel.
  HC emissions during the rich combustion increases with increase in
methanol into gasoline at relatively low temperature due to enhanced
evaporation of the blended fuel.

Performance and emission of DME

 The combustion and emission performance of Di-methyl ether (DME)

enriched gasoline fuels in a spark ignition engine and observed that indicated
thermal efficiency increased and flame development and propagation
durations were shortened with the increase of DME enrichment level at idle
condition. However, CO and NOx emission increases with the addition of
DME.
 the fuel energy flow rate drops with the increase of DME fraction in the fuel.
This is due to the low volume energy density of the gaseous DME and
indicated thermal efficiency increases.
 The enrichment of DME also enhances the peak in-cylinder temperature and
shortens both the flame development period and propagation duration.
Whereas, HC emissions are de-creased with the increasing fraction of DME
addition and NOx emissions were slightly increased.

9.With the help of a flowchart explain the dry milling process of ethanol
production.

Biochemical conversion is a fermentation process that is used to convert the starch

in crops like. maize, sugarcane, wheat etc into ethanol (alcohol).

There are two main techniques used to produce ethanol in this manner first a dry
milling process and a wet milling process, with the main difference being the
method in which maize is first broken down.
In the wet milling process, the maize is broken by soaking for 30-50 hours in a
diluted sulphuric acid solution, which dissociates the maize and dissolves the
starch. After soaking, the solids are separated from the solution, and only the
dissolved starch is passed on to the fermentation process.

Thereafter, the processing of the starch to ethanol is identical to the process used
with dry milling technology.

Figure :- Dry milling process of ethanol production

According to Albers (2006) the basic steps in the ethanol manufacturing process
with the dry milling process are as follows:
1. The maize is processed with various enzymes added to separate fermentable
sugars.

-Enzymes are added to the mash to convert the starch to dextrone, a simple sugar.

-Ammonia is added for ph control and as a nutrient to the yeast.

-The mash is processed in a high temperature cooker to reduce bacteria levels

ahead of fermentation.

2. Yeast is added to the mixture to ferment alcohol

The mash is cooled and transferred to fermenters where yeast is added and the
conversion of sugar to ethanol and CO₂ begins.

3. The alcohol is then distilled to fuel-grade ethanol that is 85-95% pure.

4. For fuel and industrial purposes, the ethanol is denatured with a small amount f
displeasing and noxious chemical to make it unfit for human consumption.

10.Discuss the the growth of ethanol as a fuel additive for gasoline engine over
years across the globe and in India.
Ethanol is an oxygenated fuel, Produced from fermentation of biological renewable
sources such as molasses, sugarcane or starch. Some countries are using ethanol as
substitute for gasoline or diesel.
It can be produced by fermentation of vegetable and plant material in india.

C6 H12 O6 — 2 C₂ H5 OH + 2CO₂ + heat

During combustion, ethanol reacts with oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and heat
C₂H5 OH + 3O2 — 2CO₂ + 3H₂O + heat

-Ethanol was deemed as the fuel of the future by Henry Ford and has continued to
be the most popular alcohol based fuel due to several reasons, including production
from renewable agricultural products and incomplete oxidation byproducts (acetic
acid & acetaldehyde) are less toxic compared to the incomplete oxidation
byproducts of other alcohols.

- The use of ethanol for IC engines was first investigated in 1897.

-The first ethanol blended with gasoline as an octane booster occurred in 1920s and
1930s and was in high demand during World War II because of fuel shortage.

- In the United States, a federal ethanol program was started during the 1970s. The
clean air act of 1970s allowed the energy crisis in the environmental protection
agency (EPA) to set standards for vehicular emissions. This led to a requirement of
oxygenated fuels to reduce vehicular emissions from gasoline engines. This
purpose was served thy using 7.5% ethanol or 15% MTBE blend in gasoline.

-The phase out of MTBE as a gasoline additive in California and other US states
has generated renewed interest in the use of ethanol as a gasoline oxygenate.

-Worldwide ethanol can be used at approximately 8% in oxygenated gasoline and

6% in reformulated gasoline (RPG)

-The most significant use of ethanol in vehicles started in Brazil in the 1970s. In
that country, the National Alcohol Program was created to cope with the high oil
price in the 1970s and 1980s. Federal incentives, in combination with the
participation of the automobile industry and the strong environmental appeal, made
the program a success.

- The Indian government introduced ethanol blending programs in 2003.

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) released a specification on anhydrous ethanol for
use in automotive fuel during the year 2004.
Further, another specification for 10% ethanol blended gasoline use was released
in 2014.

-The expected gasoline requirement for India is 68 billion liters for the year 2026
to meet the demand. This, along with the benefits offered by ethanol blends
provides a strong case for the use of ethanol.

-The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, India in January 2021 has preponed
the target of 20% ethanol blending with petrol by five years to 2025 as it look to
cut dependence on to costly oil imports.

-On March 8, 2021 India notified the use of E20, a blend of 20% ethanol and 80%
petrol by volume, as fuel for compatible vehicles.

11.Justify: Methanol offers important emission benefits when compared with

gasoline.
-Methanol is the clean burning, high octane blend Component made from
alternative non-petroleum energy source such as natural gas, coal, biomass &
renewable energy.
-Methanol may be used as direct engines like passenger vehicles such as LPG,
ethanol and some other frequently used. Initially addition of methanol was 3.5%
but now it is added up to 15%.

-Methanol has a high blending octane value for smoother burning, less knocking
and it has high calorific value, lower boiling temperature for better fuel
vaporization in cold engines. It has lack of high volatile compounds.
-The unique blending properties allows oil refiners to Produce clean burning and
that reduces vehicle emission, it reduces particulate matter in atmosphere.

-Blending Methanol also allows oil refiners to expand Gasoline Production,

upgrade regular gasoline Production to higher grade gasoline, and which can meet
new environmental specifications.

-Methanol is low cost availability as compared other gasoline and which can meet
supplies of growing gasoline demand and new environmental regulations, provides
greater thermal efficiency.

12.Support the statement: DEE is considered to be low emission and high

quality diesel engine fuel.
-The diethyl ether is a renewable oxygenated fuel, which has favorable
characteristics to be used as a fuel additive for the diesel engine.

-By using diethyl ether as a fuel additive improves the engine Performance
significantly for the most of engine loaded condition.
-Hence the engine maximum thermal efficiency of break is increased by 7.2% and
the lowest specific fuel consumption decreased by 6.7%. Under the 15% of DEE is
blended fuel as compared to diesel fuel.

-Diethyl ether can be reduced by biomass methanol, and diesel fuels, most diethyl
ether is produced by byproduct of the vapor phase hydration of ethylene to make
ethanol.
CH3CH2OH + H3O - CH3CH2OH*+H2O

-Diethyl ether has a octane number of 85-96 and it is used as starting fluid. in
combination with Petroleum distillates for gasoline and low flash point.

-DEE is most commonly used in cold climate region, as it help with cold starting
an engine at sub-2000 temperature. Also it is extremely flammable and form
explosive vapour/air mixture.
13.With an example of alcohol blend discuss the properties, performance and
emission characteristics in comparison of gasoline fuel.
Properties:
1. Methanol is a future bio-fuel, whereas gasoline is not environmentally friendly.
2. Gasoline and methanol are both used as car fuels, and methanol is more
powerful than gasoline.
3. Methanol is expensive, and used as a substitute fuel, compared to gasoline.
4. Gasoline and methanol are both poisonous, and skin contact should be avoided,
especially in the case of methanol.
5. Methanol is less combustible than gasoline, but can corrode the metallic parts in
the engine.
Performance: Methanol versus gasoline is around 20% more powerful, and creates
an alternative to gasoline. Methanol is hard to get, and can easily become
contaminated simply from the moisture in the air. Gasoline engines produce 53,176
BTU’s of energy at 6500 rpm, whereas methanol engines produce 67,545 BTU’s
of energy at 6500 rpm.

Methanol is produced from natural gas, oil and coal, whereas gasoline is derived
from petroleum. Mixtures of carbon monoxide and hydrogen are converted into
methanol during a chemical process.
Methanol is used as a fuel in internal combustion engines, whereas gasoline is used
for tuning engine performance or reducing harmful exhaust emissions. Gasoline is
also used as a solvent for diluting paints.

Methanol is used as a substitute for gasoline, but the substitution is costly.

Methanol is also considered as a reducing agent for the ozone precursor emissions,
but it is relatively small and not cost effective.
Methanol vehicles give a brisker performance, and are less prone to form Ozone,
but when compared to gasoline, methane is too expensive. Although methanol will
provide benefits in regards to vehicle performance, methanol’s availability is
limited.
Gasoline compared to methanol has certain advantages as a racing fuel, such as
fuel consumption, corrosion, availability, contamination, cooling systems and
water in the fuel. Gasoline is lightweight, and requires less space for fuel storage
when compared methanol. The separation can be a serious problem, and methanol
is a very poor lubricant, which in results in a corroded valve stem, guide or valve
seat. Methanol is poisonous and should never come in contact with the skin, as
well as gasoline that is also considered to be a threat to public health. Methanol is
also called a future bio-fuel, whereas gasoline is not environmentally friendly.
UNIT 03

TABE OF CONTENTS

1. NATURAL GAS & COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS [ CNG ]

2. LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS [ LPG ]

3. BIOGAS

4. HYDROGEN
 NATURAL GAS

 INTRODUCTION

 To meet the increasing severity of vehicle emission limits, significant

reduction in exhaust pollutants from internal combustion engines should
be imposed. Marked improvement in engine fuel economy is needed to
reduce vehicle CO 2 emissions.
 Natural gas, as an alternative vehicle fuel, is the one to meet the goals
above and is expected to find widespread use.
 It is used as an industrial and domestic fuel, and also to make
carbon-black and chemical synthesis. Natural gas is transported by large
pipelines or (as a liquid) in refrigerated tankers

 Natural gas consists largely of methane (CH4) and ethane (C2H6),

with also propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) (separated for bottled
gas), some higher alkanes (C5H12 and above) (used for gasoline),
nitrogen (N2) , oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide
(H2S), and sometimes valuable helium (He).

Table 1 The compositions of natural gas

Chemical Name Chemical Formula Percentage (%)

Methane CH4 70-90%

Ethane C2H6

Propane C3H8 0-20%

Butane C4H10

Carbon Dioxide CO2 0-8%

Oxygen O2 0-0.2%

Nitrogen N2 0-5%

Hydrogen sulphide H2S 0-5%

Rare gases Ar, He, Ne, Xe traces

 Natural gas can be used as engine fuel in two ways:

1. To use it on a dual fuel engine. In this case, natural gas is the main
fuel and is ignited by pilot diesel fuel. Therefore, soot and NOx
emissions from conventional diesel engines can be minimized through the
replacement of diesel by natural gas.

2. To use natural gas on a spark ignition engine.

 USES OF NATURAL GAS

 The Chinese discovered a very long time ago that the energy in
natural gas could be harnessed, and used to heat water. In the early days
of the natural gas industry, the gas was mainly used to light streetlamps,
and the occasional house.

 However, with much improved distribution channels and

technological advancements, natural gas is being used in ways never
thought possible. natural gas has many applications, commercially, in
your home, in industry, and even in the transportation sector.

Fig 1: Natural Gas Use By Sector

Fig. 2. Natural gas industry

 PRODUCTION OF NATURAL GAS

 Millions of years ago, the remains of plants and animals decayed and
built up in thick layers. This decayed matter from plants and animals is
called organic material –a compound that capable of decay or sometime
refers as a compound consists mainly carbon. Over time, the mud and
soil changed to rock, covered the organic material and trapped it
beneath the rock.
Pressure and heat changed some of this organic material into coal,
some into oil (petroleum), and some into natural gas – tiny bubbles
of odorless gas.

 The search for natural gas begins with geologists who locate the
types of rock that are known to contain gas and oil deposits.

Today their tools include seismic surveys that are used to find the right
places to drill wells. Seismic surveys use echoes from a vibration source
at the Earth's surface (usually a vibrating pad under a truck built for this
purpose) to collect information about the rocks beneath. They send
sound waves into the ground and measure how fast the waves bounce
back. This tells them how hard and how thick the different rock layers
are underground. The data is fed into a computer, which draws a picture
of the rock layers. This picture is called a seismogram.

 The next task are taken by scientists and engineers who explore a
chosen area by studying rock samples from the earth and taking
measurements. If the site seems promising, drilling begins. Some of these
areas are on land but many are offshore, deep in the ocean. Once the gas
is found, it flows up through the well to the surface of the ground and
into large pipelines. Some of the gases that are produced along with
methane, such as butane and propane, are separated and the other sour
gases such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide are cleaned at a gas
processing plant (normally called as sweetening process).

 Because natural gas is colorless, odorless and tasteless, mercaptan is

added before distribution, to give it a distinct unpleasant odor This
serves as a safety device by allowing it to be detected in the atmosphere,
in cases where leaks occur.
 The transportation system for natural gas consists of a complex
network of pipeline, designed to quickly and efficiently transport
natural gas from the origin to areas of high natural gas demand. Three
major types of pipeline available along the transportation route, the
gathering system, the interstate pipeline and the distribution system.

 One of the most important parts of gas processing is the removal of

carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. The removal of acid gases (CO2,
H2S and other sulfur components) from natural gas is often referred to as
gas sweetening process. There are many acid gas treating processes
available for removal of CO2 and H2S from natural gas. These
processes include Chemical solvents, Physical solvents, Adsorption
Processes Hybrid solvents and Physical separation.

 Synthesis of Artificial Natural Gas: Methanation Reaction

 Methane (CH4) gas was formed from the reaction of hydrogen gas
and carbon dioxide gas through methanation process by reduction
reaction as in Equation 1 below:-

CO2 (g) + 4H2 (g) → CH4 (g) + 2H2O (l) ------ (1)

 This reaction is moderately exothermic, Ho = -165 kJ/mol. In order

for this method to be effective, a suitable catalyst must be applied to
promote selectively CO2 methanation because of the main side product
under this reaction also will be form (Eq 2), which obviously should be
avoided. Thus, high selectivity of the catalyst in promoting CO2
methanation is paramount

importance.

 In Equation 2, carbon monoxide produced by this reaction can also be

used to form methane by reaction with hydrogen.

CO2 (g) + H2 (g) → CO (g) + H2O (l) ------ (2) CO (g) + 3H2 (g) →
CH4 (g) + H2O (l) ------ (3)
 Temperature of the reaction = 300 K
  Catalysts used = manganeses, nickel oxide, noble meatls ( Ru, Pt, Rh )

 COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS ( CNG )

CNG is produced by compressing the conventional natural gas

(which is mainly composed of methane –CH4) to less than 1% of the
volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure. It is stored and
distributed in a rigid container at a pressure of 200–248 bar (2900–3600
psi), usually in cylindrical shapes metallic cylinder.

 Today there are over 18 million natural gas vehicles distributed

through more than 86 countries of the world with major
concentrations in Iran, China, Pakistan, Argentina, India, Brazil, Italy
and Colombia. The majority (93%) of CNG vehicles are light duty car
and commercial vehicles. Besides these there are more than 26,677
CNG refueling stations throughout the world.

 Physiochemical properties of CNG vs gasoline and diesel

Properties CNG Gasoline Diesel

Octane/cetane number 120–130 ( ON ) 85–95 45–55

( CN )
Molar mass (kg/mol) 17.3 109 204

Stoichemetric (A/F)s mass 17.2 14.7 14.6

Stoichemetric mixture density (kg/m3) 1.25 1.42 1.46

L.H.V. (MJ/kg) 47.5 43.5 42.7

L.H.V. of stoichemetric mixture 2.62 2.85 2.75

(MJ/kg)
Combustion Energy (MJ/m3) 24.6 42.7 36

Flammability limit in air (vol% in air) 4.3–15.2 1.4–7.6 1–6

Flame propagation speed (m/s) 0.41 0.5 –

Adiabatic Flame Temp. (1C) 1890 2150 2054

Auto-ignition Temp. (1C) 540 258 316

Wobbe Index (MJ/m3) 51–58 – –

Table 2 : Properties of CNG vs Gasoline vs Diesel

 Types of NGVs

 In terms of fuel supply, there are three types of NGVs:

1. Dedicated CNG engine: Dedicated CNG vehicles have SI engines

that are operated only on natural gas. The compression ratio of these
engine are optimized to utilize the advantage of high octane number
of natural gas and are designed keeping the combustion properties of
natural gas, so that the vehicle produce very less emission pollutant.

2. Bi-fuel retrofitted gasoline engine: Bi-fuel vehicle can run on

either natural gas or gasoline. The engine type they used is a regular
gasoline IC engine. The driver can select what fuel to burn by simply
flipping a switch on the dashboard. Any existing gasoline vehicle can be
converted to a bi-fuel vehicle.

3. Dual-fuel diesel engine: Dual-fuel vehicle are based on CI

engine technology. They run either on diesel only or utilize a mixture
of natural gas and diesel, with the natural gas/air mixture ignited by a
diesel “pilot”. During the idle condition these engines tend to operate
only on diesel. As the vehicle starts to pick the load, the natural gas
substitutes the diesel fuel up to 60–90%.

 There are certain modifications to be done to convert the diesel

engine into CNG engine. The required modifications are explained
below. They are:

1. Modification of inlet port: Swirl motion is necessary in case of CI

engines as it needs to mix with compressed air inside the combustion
chamber, where as in case of SI engines the tumble motion is to be
provided as it enters the combustion chamber mixed with air. Hence, we
are going to replace the helical inlet port with tangential inlet by
machining to convert the swirl motion into tumble.
 Fig 3: Inlet port modification

2. Replacement of Glow Plug : In a diesel engine glow plug is used

near the injection port in the combustion chamber to provide the
sufficient temperature required for the ignition. Whereas spark plugs are
used in petrol engines to ignite the fuel air mixture.

From Table 2 the Cetane number of CNG is far less that the cetane
number of diesel, the higher the cetane number the, easier and faster the
auto ignition will occur. Hence, we are replacing the glow plug with spark
plug by making necessary modifications in the cylinder head.

3. Replacement of CRDI: Basically, CRDi are used in diesel engines

to inject the diesel into the combustion chamber with the required
injection pressure, but this pressure is not suitable to inject CNG into the
combustion chamber. Hence by the replacement of CRDi with gas
injectors we can maintain the suitable injection pressure. The fuel
injector sprays the fuel into intake port at system pressure.

 BSFC of CNG fueled engines was 12% to 20% lower than that of
gasoline throughout the speed range due to Higher heating value of
the CNG (47.5 MJ/kg) as compared to that of gasoline (43.5 MJ/kg)
and lean and slow burning of CNG as compared to gasoline.
 Initially with increasing brake power, the brake specific fuel
consumption of dual fuel and diesel are decreased and then increases
with increase in brake power. The brake specific fuel consumption
with dual fuel is less than that of diesel throughout the range of
brake power at all injection pressures. This is mainly due to the
combined effects of relative fuel density, viscosity and calorific value
of the dual fuel.
 natural gas engines shows 5–12% higher brake thermal
efficiency (BTE) in contrast to gasoline engine
 BTE of dual fuel mode is more than neat diesel mode by11%.
 Initially with increase in brake power, the brake thermal
efficiency of the engine is increased with both dual fuel and
diesel. The brake thermal efficiency obtained with dual fuel is higher
than that of diesel at all injection pressures.

 CNG STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION

 CNG is stored at a pressure of 200 bar pressure iN stainless steel

or carbon steel cylinders as per the Indian Gas Cylinders Rules, 2004
or ASME pressure vessel regulation codes.

 CNG cylinders are usually placed over the concerete slabs.

 When the volume of CNG to be transported is in the range of
2000m3 -6000m3 it is transported in trailers and when it is in bulk
volumes usually ships are preferred.

 It is compatible with stainless steel, aluminium, copper and other

alloys as well as the elastomers.
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)

 Liquefied petroleum gas, known as LPG, is used as an alternative

fuel for vehicles with a combustion engine. LPG is a mixture of
propane, butane and other substances of a small amount and it is
obtained as a by-product of being manufactured during the refining of
petroleum.

 LPG is an attractive transportation fuel, compared not only to

conventional petroleum fuels such as gasoline and diesel, but also
alternative fuels such as ethanol and natural gas. Its advantageous due
its vaporization properties promote better air and fuel mixing
compared to liquid fuels while providing better energy density than
other alternative fuels, furthermore, LPG exhibits a higher octane rating
and a lower hydrogen-to-carbon ratio than conventional gasoline
which can provide performance and emissions benefits.

PROPERTIES VALUES

molecular weight 44.09

density 0.5 kg/ ltr

freezing point -187 C

boiling point -42 C

specific heat 2.48 kJ/ kg-K

viscosity 0.102 mPas

latent heat of vapourization 426 kJ/ kg

flash point -104 C

autoiginition temperature 57 C

stoichiometry air to fuel ratio 15.7

ocatane number 112

Table 3 : Properties of LPG

 ENGINE CONVERSION METHOD

 The conversion of SI engine into LPG system depends on the fuel

delivery system either using carburettor or injection systems.

Different types of fuel supply require different LPG system and the
conversion methodology subjected to space constraint availability.

 Traditionally LPG engines were developed by converting the CI

engines into SI operations and adapting LPG fuel kits on them.

After LPG kit installation, the vehicle would be able to switch between
two fuel system operation either petrol or LPG fuel.

 The LPG fuel kit consists of the various components such as

ECU, injectors, sensors, fuel metering, solenoid, pressure regulator,
fuel selection switch, control actuators, fel tank and shut off valves.

Installation diagram of LPG conversion kit

 Effects of LPG on engine performance and exhaust emissions

 LPG usage levels = 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%

 constant engine speed =3800 rpm

loads = 5%, 30%, 60% and 90%

 Engine Performance

i. volumetric efficiency (VE) vs brake mean effective pressure

(BMEP)

ii. brake thermal efficiency (BTE) vs brake mean effective pressure

(BMEP)

iii. BSFC vs BP

iv. BTE vs BP

 Exhaust emission characteristics

i. HC vs BP and BMEP

ii. CO2 vs BP and BMEP

Engine Performance at different LPG usage levels

 Engine Performance at different compression ratios

Exhaust emission characteristics at different LPG usage levels

Exhaust emission characteristics at different compression ratios

 It was observed that the volumetric efficiency (VE) decreased

considerably with the use of 25% LPG. As for the 50%, 75% and
100% LPG usage, VE decreased in proportion to LPG usage level
while the engine performance showed a positive result only at 25%
LPG mixture ratio and also it is seen that there is a decrease in the
power output between 20% and 41%, for 5% and 20% LPG-gasoline
blends as compared to100% gasoline Positive results were obtained at
all LPG usage levels in terms of exhaust emissions. Best results were
obtained at using 100% LPG for exhaust emissions.

 Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) for LPG-gasoline blends

values slightly lower than that of 100% gasoline and it was reported
that LPG addition does not lead to significant improvement in brake
thermal efficiency. The concentration levels of CO, CO2, unburnt HC
and Nox were found to lower than the gasoline fueled engine.
EMISSIONS COMPARED TO COMPARED TO
PETROL DIESEL
CO -60 % -75 %

CO2 -15 % -10 %

NOx -33 % -90 %

HC -85 %

PARTICULATE -50 % -90 %

MATTER
Table 4 : Emissions of LPG
BIOGAS
 Biogas is mixture of methane and other gases produced from the
decomposition of organic materials. It is produced naturally in landfills
and from the processing of animal waste, sewage, crop waste and
cellulosic and non-cellulosic crops.

 Biomass is an energy resource which is renewable in nature and

when this is fermented in an anerobic manner a gaseous fuel termed
biogas is obtained.

 COMPOSITION OF BIOGAS:

CONSTITUE PERCENTAGE
NT
50-60%
METHANE
CO2 30-45%

H2S 5-10%

N2 0.5-0.7%

H2O TRACE
Table 5: COMPOSITION OF BIOGAS

PROPERTIES VALUES

CV 4500-5000 Kcal/m3
OCATNE RATING 130

IGNITION 650 C
TEMPERATURE
AIR TO FUEL RATIO 10:1

EXPLOSIVE LIMIT 5-15

Table6 : PROPERTIES OF BIOGAS
 BIOGAS PRODUCTION

 Biogas is a colourless combustible gas that is produced by the

biological breakdown of organic matter; occurring in the absence of
oxygen. The biogas comes from “biogenic materials” and it is
generated from AD of biodegradable materials such as biomass, cow
dung green waste and agricultural residue such as cassava, sugar cane
etc.

 The AD is a microbial degradation of organic waste in the absence of

oxygen. Organic matter conversion to CO2 and CH4 gases occurs next
to a sequence of biochemical reactions during an anaerobic process.
As a result, a breakdown of organics takes place during the digestion,
and this is made possible by anaerobic microorganisms.
1. Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis in AD is the first step in the process. It is achieved

through the solubilization and degradation of biopolymer particulate
organic compounds and colloidal wastes into soluble monomeric or
oligomeric organic compounds.

This process involves the decomposition of complex organic

polymeric materials such as carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.

These complex organic compounds are hydrolyzed into smaller,

water-soluble compounds such as sugars, amino acids, and long chain
fatty acids by enzymes produced by the fermentative bacteria
(microorganisms). At the end of the hydrolysis stage, a simple
organic compound is produced.
These products thereafter undergo absorption and degradation by
different facultative and obligate anaerobic bacteria in the acidogenic
step, producing short-chain volatile fatty acids.

2. Acidogenesis

The process of acidogenesis transforms the organic acid that is

produced during the second stage into acetic acid, acid derivatives,
carbon dioxide, and hydrogen.

In this stage of the AD process, the products of the hydrolysis

stage are further broken down by a variety of obligate and facultative
fermentative microorganisms to produce weak acids (mostly organic
acids) such as acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid (VFAs), lactic
acid, alcohols, hydrogen and carbon dioxide (CO 2).

The acidogenesis stage involves the production of high concentration

of hydrogen by acid-producing bacteria called acidogenic
microorganisms and is usually the fastest step in a balanced anaerobic
process.

3. Acetogenesis

 During the acetogenesis stage, alcohols (ethanol), VFAs with more

than two carbon atoms, are converted by acetate-forming bacteria into
acetate, with hydrogen and carbon dioxide being the main a vital process
because hydrogen and carbon dioxide are constantly reduced to acetate
by homoacetogenic microorganisms , thereby reducing the hydrogen
accumulation that may affect the functioning of acetogenic bacteria.
Low hydrogen partial pressure (10.4 and 10.6 atm) is required for
the acetogenic reaction to proceed.

4. Methanogenesis
Methanogenesis is a critical step in AD. It has a large impact on the
AD process because approximately 70% of methane used in AD is
generated from this stage . During this stage, carbon dioxide-reducing
and hydrogen oxidizing methanogens convert hydrogen and carbon
dioxide to obtain methane, while acetoclastic methanogens utilize acetate
to produce methane.

 Methanogens (Archaea) utilize acetate, hydrogen and CO2 and to a

lesser extent methanol, methylamines and formate, to form methane
and CO2. These end products are the primary substrates for the
methanogenic bacteria to produce biogas, which generally consists of
50–75% methane (CH4), 50–25% CO2 and trace amounts of nitrogen,
hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide.
 Methanogenesis indicates the extent of biological activities in an
anaerobic system and the state of the digestion.
 In general brake power of the engine running with diesel is
higher than that of using biogas as a fuel due to the reason that diesel
fuel having higher calorific value.

 The brake power of the engine increases with the increase of load
at the rated speed. The brake power decreases when more biogas
mixture supplied to the engine. It tends to shows the lower energy
contents in the fuel mixture.
 Figure : Variation of Brake power Vs Applied load

Specific fuel consumption depends on mass of fuel consumed and

engine brake power.

 Specific fuel consumption of the engine is lower when operated

with diesel alone compared to biogas-diesel mixture. Due to the low
energy content in biogas-diesel mixture the SFC increases as the
percentage of biogas increases with diesel fuel at various load
conditions.
 Figure : Variation of SFC Vs Brake Power

 BTE is found to be higher in case of diesel fuel compare with diesel-

biogas mixture. This is due to the low specific fuel consumption for
conventional diesel fuel alone.

It is evident from the figure the brake thermal efficiency

decreases as the percentage of biogas increased with biogas- diesel
mixture. This is due to the lower calorific value of the biogas results
the thermal efficiency of the engine is inversely proportional to
SFC.

 For all the engine load conditions thermal efficiency of

biogasdiesel mixture is lower compare to thermal efficiency of diesel
alone. This is due to the limitations of biogas like

Figure : Variation of BTE Vs Brake Power.

impurities and other combustion mechanical durability of the engine.


 When the load increases exhaust gas temperatures also
increases in both diesel and biogas-diesel used as a fuel.
 Due to the combustion temperature is higher in diesel fuel the
exhaust gas temperature slightly more compares to the
temperature of biogas-diesel fuelled engine. This is also due to the
lower heating value of biogas there is a reduction of EGT in biogas-
diesel operating engine.

Figure : Variation of EGT Vs Brake Power

 HYDROGEN ( H2 )

 Hydrogen is an energy carrier, not an energy source hydrogen
stores and delivers energy in a usable form, but it must be produced
from hydrogen containing compounds.

 Hydrogen is the only alternative fuel that can be produced by many

sources (water, Hydrocarbons, other domestic resource).

Hydrogen is in its early stage of growth to become a transformational

fuel for vehicle. Many industries are working in the direction of safe
economical and clean production and distribution of hydrogen for fuel
cell electric vehicle (FCEVS).

 Combustion reaction for hydrogen ( H2) : H2 + 1/2 O2H2O +

Energy
PROPERTIES VALUE PROPERTIES VALUE

MOLECULAR WEIGHT 2.02 AIR - FUEL RATIO 34.3

DENSITY 0.0013 kg/ ltr STORAGE PRESSURE 350-700 bar

SPECIFIC GRAVITY 0.07 LAMINAR FLAME SPEED 2.91 m/s

FREEZING POINT -275 C ADIABATIC FLAME 2756 C

TEMEPERATURE

SPECIFIC HEAT 14.2 kJ/ kgK OCATNE NUMBER 130

CALORIFIC VALUE 120 MJ/kg MIN. IGNITION ENERGY 0.02 mJ

VISCOSITY 0.009 mPas @ 20 C AUTO IGNITION TEMP. 858 K

LATENT HEAT OF 448 kJ/ kgK QUENCHING GAP 0.064 cm

VAPOURIZATION

FLAMAMBILITY LIMITS (%) 4-75 DIFFUSIVITY IN AIR 0.63 cm3/ s

HYDROGEN
 Research Directions

 Hydrogen production technologies are in various stages of

development. Some technologies, such as steam methane reforming, are
already commercial and can be used in the near term. Others, such as
high-temperature thermochemical water-splitting, biological, and
photoelectrochemical, are in early stages of laboratory development and
considered potential pathways for the long-term.

 Related research includes developing new hydrogen delivery

methods and infrastructure, improving carbon sequestration
technology to ensure that coal-based hydrogen production releases almost
no greenhouse gas emissions, and improving biomass growth, harvesting,
and handling to reduce the cost of biomass resources used in hydrogen
production.

 Hydrogen can be produced using diverse, domestic resources

including fossil fuels, such as natural gas and coal (preferentially with
carbon capture, utilization, and storage); biomass grown from
renewable, non-food crops; or using nuclear energy and renewable
energy sources, such as wind, solar, geothermal, and hydroelectric power
to split water.

 This diversity of potential supply sources is an important reason

why hydrogen is such a promising energy carrier. Hydrogen can be
produced at large central plants, at medium scale semicentral plants, or
in small distributed units located at or very near the point of use, such as
at refueling stations or stationary power sites.

 METHODS OF PRODUCTION

electrolysis of water
catalytic steam reforming of natural gas
partial oxidation of heavy oil
coal gasification
steam iron process
 thermal cracking of natural gas
 nuclear fission
 thermochemical water decomposition
 photochemical conversion
 biological hydrogen generation by algae
 decomposition of biomass

 Electrolysis of water

 Electrolysis is a promising option for hydrogen production from

renewable resources. Electrolysis is the process of usingelectricity to
split water into hydrogen and oxygen. This reaction takes place in a
unit called an electrolyzer. Electrolyzers can range in size from small,
appliance-size equipment that is well-suited for small-scale distributed
hydrogen production to large-scale, central production facilities that
could be tied directly to renewable or other non-greenhouse-gas-
emitting forms of electricity production.

 Like fuel cells, electrolyzers consist of an anode and a cathode

separated by an electrolyte. Different electrolyzers function inslightly
different ways, mainly due to the different type of electrolyte material
involved.

 In a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer, the electrolyte

is a solid specialty plastic material.

 POLYMER ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANE

ELECTROLYZERS

 In a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer, the electrolyte

is a solid specialty plastic material.
 Water reacts at the anode to form oxygen and positively charged
hydrogen ions (protons).

 The electrons flow through an external circuit and the hydrogen ions
selectively move across the PEM to the cathode.

 At the cathode, hydrogen ions combine with electrons from the

external circuit to form hydrogen gas.

Anode Reaction: 2H2O → O2 + 4H+ + 4e-

Cathode Reaction: 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2

 Research Focuses On Overcoming Challenges

 Reducing the capital cost of the electrolyzer unit and the balance of
the system, and improving energy efficiency for converting electricity to
hydrogen.

 Integrating compression into the electrolyzer to avoid the cost of a

separate hydrogen compressor needed to increase pressure for hydrogen
storage.

 Catalytic steam reforming of natural gas

 Natural gas reforming is an advanced and mature production process

that builds upon the existing natural gas pipeline delivery infrastructure.
Today, 95% of the hydrogen produced in the United States is made
by natural gas reforming in large central plants. This is an important
technology pathway for near-term hydrogen production.

 Natural gas contains methane (CH4) that can be used to produce

hydrogen with thermal processes, such as steam-methane reformation
and partial oxidation.
 STEAM-METHANE REFORMING

 Most hydrogen produced today is made via steam-methane

reforming, a mature production process in which high-temperature steam
(700°C–1,000°C) is used to produce hydrogen from a methane source,
such as natural gas.

 In steam-methane reforming, methane reacts with steam under 3–25

bar pressure (1 bar = 14.5 psi) in the presence of a catalyst to produce
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and a relatively small amount of carbon
dioxide. Steam reforming is endothermic— that is, heat must be
supplied to the process for the reaction to proceed.

 Subsequently, in what is called the "water-gas shift reaction," the

carbon monoxide and steam are reacted using a catalyst to produce
carbon dioxide and more hydrogen. CH4 + H2O (+ heat) → CO + 3H2

 In a final process step called "pressure-swing adsorption," carbon

dioxide and other impurities are removed from the gas stream,
leaving essentially pure hydrogen. Steam reforming can also be used
to produce hydrogen from other fuels, such as ethanol, propane, or
even gasoline. CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (+ small amount of heat)

 PARTIAL OXIDATION
  In partial oxidation, the methane and other hydrocarbons in natural
gas react with a limited amount of oxygen (typically from air) that is not
enough to completely oxidize the hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide and
water.

 With less than the stoichiometric amount of oxygen available, the

reaction products contain primarily hydrogen and carbon monoxide
(and nitrogen, if the reaction is carried out with air rather than pure
oxygen), and a relatively small amount of carbon dioxide and other
compounds. Subsequently, in a water-gas shift reaction, the carbon
monoxide reacts with water to form carbon dioxide and more
hydrogen.

 Partial oxidation is an exothermic process—it gives off heat. The

process is, typically, much faster than steam reforming and requires a
smaller reactor vessel. As can be seen in chemical reactions of partial
oxidation, this process initially produces less hydrogen per unit of the
input fuel than is obtained by steam reforming of the same fuel.

 Partial oxidation of methane reaction CH4 + ½O2 → CO + 2H2 (+

heat)

 Water-gas shift reaction CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (+ small

amount of heat)

 PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN AS IC ENGINE FUEL

PROPERTY HYDROGEN GASOLINE

DENSITY 0.0824 730

FLAMABILITY LIMITS (φ) 10 - 0.14 1.43- 0.25

AUTO IGNITION TEMP. IN K 858 550

MIN. IGNITION ENERGY IN MJ 0.02 0.24

FLAME VELOCITY IN m/s 1.85 0.37 - 0.43

ADIABATIC FLAME TEMP. IN K 2480 2580

AIR FUEL RATIO 0.029 0.068

LOWER HEATING VALUE IN MJ/kg 119.7 44.79

OCATNE NO. > 120 91-99

 Flammability and Flame Properties

 The high flammability range of hydrogen (0.1<ø<7.1),shows that

engines run on hydrogen will operate stably under highly dilute
conditions, allowing better emission reduction and fuel consumption.

 The burning velocity of hydrogen being six times higher than

gasoline enhances the brake thermal efficiency.

 The variation of laminar burning velocities with equivalence

ratios for hydrogen-air mixtures and gasoline-air mixtures have been
shown in figure.

Figure : Laminar flame velocities for H2 , O2 , N2 mixtures (-○-) for

gasoline and air mixture
 It is observed that with the increase in hydrogen percentage in the
mixture, the resultant laminar burning velocities as well as the
flammability limit increased. The adiabatic flame temperature of
hydrogen against equivalence ratios is plotted in figure.

It has been experimentally indicated that, if hydrogen content was

increased, the burn duration decreased and no knocking or
backfire phenomena were observed during engine operations for all
the fuel conditions.

Figure : Flame temperature changes for H2 -air blends

 Ignition Properties and Peak Power Output

 The high auto ignition temperature, finite ignition delay and the
high flame velocity of hydrogen show that knocking is less likely
for hydrogen relative to gasoline. The research octane number
(RON) for hydrogen is higher in comparison to gasoline.

 The low ignition energies of hydrogen causes predisposition of the

engines to limiting effects of pre-ignition.

The minimum ignition energy for hydrogen is a decreasing

function of the equivalence ratio with the minimum at, ø ≈ 1.

Figure : Minimum ignition energy variation with Φ

 In-cylinder Temperature and Pressure

 The fast burning characteristics of hydrogen contributes to

higher cylinder temperature. The in-cylinder temperature for post-
combustion period decreases with the increase of hydrogen fraction,
causing the reduced exhaust losses.
 The figure indicates that the peak temperature increases and its
relevant crank angle advances with the increase of hydrogen
addition fraction either at stoichiometric or lean conditions. Due
to the high flame temperature and high flame speed of hydrogen,
the peak cylinder pressure increases with hydrogen addition.

 The in-cylinder pressure for a hydrogen enriched engine after

reaching its peak value drops more quickly than the original engine, as
the post combustion duration is reduced with hydrogen enrichment.

Figure: In cylinder temp. variation with crank angle. Brake

Thermal Efficiency

 The high research octane number [RON] and low lean-

flammability limit of hydrogen helps in attaining high brake
thermal efficiency in an IC engine especially at lean conditions.

 Also, brake thermal efficiencies after hydrogen addition increase

slightly and vary smoothly with excess air ratio, with high values even
at quite lean conditions.
 Figure : Variation of BTE against excess air ratio

 HC emissions

 HC emissions gradually decrease with increase in hydrogen fraction

present in the mixture. With increase in hydrogen addition the
formation of OH- radicals are accelerated and this results in
decreasing HC emissions with increase in hydrogen fractions.

 The small quenching distance of hydrogen (three times smaller

than gasoline) between the position of flame extinguishment and
the cylinder wall helps to reduce HC emissions with increase in
hydrogen fractions.
 Figure: HC emission variation with hydrogen fraction for SI
hydrogen-ethanol engine.

 CO emission

 CO emission increases with the hydrogen addition fraction when the

excess air ratio is near stoichiometric conditions. As hydrogen has higher
air-to-fuel ratio than gasoline, combustion of hydrogen in the cylinder
can cause some lean oxygen area due to the inhomogeneity of
the fuel–air mixture, which reduces the oxidation rate for CO into
CO2.

If the engine is run under lean conditions, CO emission is

improved by enhancing hydrogen addition fraction as there is ample
oxygen available for CO to be converted into CO2
 Figure : CO emission variation vs. excess air ratio


 NOx Emissions

 NOx emissions are found to increase with increase in hydrogen

fractions in the mixture mainly in case of an SI engine. NOx
emissions depend upon conditions like temperature and oxygen
concentration present in the cylinder.

The peak incylinder temperature increases with increase in

percentage of hydrogen for a given excess air ratio and constant
oxygen concentration, thus increasing NOx concentration.

Figure : NOx emission variation vs. hydrogen volume fraction

HYDROGEN

 There are two major conventional physical options for onboard

hydrogen storage:

1) CGH2 compressed gaseous hydrogen (35–70 MPa and room

temperature).
2) Cryogenic (LH2 liquid hydrogen at 20 to 30 K, 0.5–1 MPa).
 In the past, both options (1) and (2) have been implemented by the
automotive industry in many prototype vehicles. For being competitive
in range to conventional gasoline or dieselbased systems, typically 4–7
kg of hydrogen have to be stored on board.This remains a serious issue
for the vehicle integration since the density of hydrogen is rather low.

 In this regard for the design of the hydrogen storage vessels, type IV
model is being used in practice where it is provided with a polymer liner
materials, instead of a metallic liner used in type III vessel model.

Figure : Type IV compressed gaseous hydrogen vessel

 Due to the low operating temperature of 20 to 30 K and the

large temperature difference to the environment (300 K) an
unavoidable heat loss of 2 to 3 W occurs following three modes of heat
transfer and these three different effects are:

1) Thermal conduction
2) Thermal convection
3) Thermal radiation
 Among these, the thermal conduction
(1) through pipes, cables and mountings to the inner storage ve
(2) from the environment to the cryogenic liquid are dominant.

 Also with the conventional methods there also exists few other
methods which currently are being studied, they are: gas bound in
certain metal hydrides, activated carbon storage and in glass
microsphers.

Figure : Schematic drawing of a liquid hydrogen vessel with multi-

layer vaccum super insulation

 Hydrogen Transportation

 Hydrogen transportation issues are directly related to hydrogen

storage issues. In general, compact forms of hydrogen storage are more
economical to transport and diffuse forms are more costly.

1) Pipelines - Pipelines can carry hydrogen as gas or as a liquid.

2) Mobile Transport - Mobile transport includes transport by truck, rail
or barge.
 Advantages of Hydrogen:

1) Renewable in nature.
2) cleanest fuel with low emissions of NOx.
3) Can be produced from various feed stocks.
4) Suitable for IC engines and fuel cells.
5) Requires less ignition energy.
6) excellent combustion characteristics.

 Disadvantages of Hydrogen

1) High flamability.
2) Leak detection is difficult.
3) Problems of pre ignition.
4) probability of backfiring is high.
5) expensive production techniques.
6) lack of distrubution facilities

 Hazards of Hydrogen

1) Leakage
2) Fire and explosion
3) Asphyxiation
4) Frostbite

 Safety Systems for Hydrogen

1) Leak Detection System

2) Electrical Protection system
3) Purging Sysytem
4) Pressure Relief devices
5) Detonation and Shrapnel Protection
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the production, transmission and storage of the compressed

natural gas in the industry.
2) Briefly explain the types of the CNG vehicles based on the fuel
supply and modifications required to convert the CI engine to CNG
engine.
3) List out the various optimizations required to obtain complete
combustion, minimize the emissions and maximize the power and fuel
efficiency in an CNG engine. Explain.
4) With the help of a neat charcteristic curve explain the nature
and trend of the performance parametres of the CNG in a gasoline
and CI engine.
5) Justify the statements - “ the combustion variability of LPG fueled
engine is higher than the gasoline engine” and “ LPG has a potential to
be mainstream fuel”.
6) Draw a brief comparison between the vehicular emmisions of the
autogas LPG, petrol amd diesel.
7) List out the various methods of production of hydrogen and briefly
explain catalytic steam reforming of natural gas process of production.
8) Substantiate “ Hydrogen has a bright future as an automotive fuel
for conventional IC engine driven vehicles and as well as hybrid and
fuel cell vehicles”.
9) With respective to the various hazards of hydrogen briefly explain
the various safety systems for hydrogen.
 ALTERNATIVE FUELS AND POLLUTION
UNIT 4 - BIOFUELS
1. List out & explain the biodiesel production processes
Biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils or animal fats and an alcohol, through a
transesterification reaction. This chemical reaction converts an ester (Vegetable oil or animal fat) into a
mixture of esters of the fatty acids that makes up the oil (or fat). Biodiesel is obtained from the
purification of the mixture of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). A catalyst is used to accelerate the
reaction. According to the catalyst used, transesterification can be basic, acidic or enzymatic,the former
being the most frequently used.
A generic transesterification reaction is RCOOR’ indicates an ester, R’’OH an alcohol, R’OH another
alcohol (glycerol), RCOOR’’ an ester mixture and cat a catalyst:
RCOOR’+ R’’OH R’OH+RCOOR’’
When methanol is the alcohol used in the transesterification process, the product of the reaction is a
mixture of methyl esters; similarly, if ethanol were used, the reaction product would be a mixture of
ethyl esters. In both cases, glycerin will be the co-product of the reaction.
Although transesterification is the most important step in biodiesel production additional steps
are necessary to obtain a product that complies with international standards.
The various process used in biodiesel production process are.
1. Treatment of raw materials
The content of free fatty acids, water and non-saponifiable substances are keyparameters to achieve
high conversion efficiency in the transesterification reaction.It is necessary to the reduce the content of
free Fathy acids humidity and also the non-saponifiable substances for the better efficiency.
The AOCS standards list the required properties of oils.
• Acidity level\0.1 mg KOH/g
• Humidity\500 ppm
• Peroxide index\10 meq/kg
• Non-saponifiable substances\1%.
2. Alcohol-Catalyst Mixing
The alcohol used for biodiesel production must be mixed with the catalyst before adding the oil.
The mixture is stirred until the catalyst is completely dissolved inthe alcohol. It must be noted that the
alcohol must be water-free (anhydrous).
Sodium and potassium hydroxides are among the most widely used basic catalysts.For
production on an industrial scale, sodium or potassium methoxides or methylates are commercially
available.
The necessary amount of catalyst is determined taking into account the acidity of the oil, by
titration. The stoichiometric ratio requires 1 mol of oil to react with 3 mol of alcohol, to obtain 3 mol of
fatty acids methyl esters (FAME) and 1 mol of glycerine.
3. Chemical Reaction
The chemical reaction takes place when the oil is mixed with the alkoxide(alcohol–catalyst mix).
This requires certain conditions of time, temperature and stirring. Since alcohols and oils do not mix at
room temperature, the chemical reaction is usually carried out at a higher temperature and under
continuous stirring, to increase the mass transfer between the phases.
 Usually, emulsions form during the course of the reaction; these are much easier and quicker to
destabilize when methanol is used, in comparison to ethanol. Due to the greater stability of emulsions
formed, difficulties arise in the phase separation and purification of biodiesel when ethanol is used in the
reaction.
The absence of mono- and diglycerides at the beginning of the chemical reactionand the increase
and reduction of their concentration during the reaction confirm that the production of esters from the
triglycerides takes place in three steps, as represented in the equations below

where MOH indicates methanol, ME are the methyl esters, TG, DG and MG are tri-, di- and
mono glycerides, respectively, and G is the glycerin.
4. Separation of the Reaction Products
The separation of reaction products takes place by decantation: the mixture of fatty acids methyl
esters (FAME) separates from glycerin forming two phases, since they have different densities; the two
phases begin to form immediately after the stirring of the mixture is stopped. Due to their different
chemical affinities, most of the catalyst and excess alcohol will concentrate in the lower phase
(glycerin), while most of the mono-, di-, and triglycerides will concentrate in the upper phase (FAME).
Once the interphase is clearly and completely defined, the two phases may be physically separated.
5. Purification of the Reaction Products
The mixture of fatty acids methyl esters (FAME) obtained from the transesterificationreaction
must be purified in order to comply with established quality standards for biodiesel. Therefore, FAME
must be washed, neutralized and dried. Successive washing steps with water remove the remains of
methanol, catalystand glycerin, since these contaminants are water-soluble. Care must be taken to avoid
the formation of emulsions during the washing steps, since they would reduce the efficiency of the
process. The first washing step is carried out with acidified water, to neutralize the mixture of esters.
Then, two additional washingsteps are made with water only. Finally, the traces of water must be
eliminated by a drying step. After drying, the purified product is ready for characterization as biodiesel
according to international standards.

2. List out the various engine modifications for biodiesel combustion in CI engine and explain
any one briefly.
This section reviews the various methods of modifications done in the engine manifold of the
biodiesel engine.
1. Intake Manifold Modifications
a. Hydrogen Addition
b. Alcohol Fumigation Modes
c. Gasoline Fumigation
 d. Incorporating Guide Vanes
e. Intake Manifold Water Injection (IMWI)
f. Thermal Barrier Coating
g. Preheating
2. Fuel Injection
a. Nozzle Geometry
b. Split Injection
c. Solenoid Injector
d. Piston Bowl
3. Exhaust Manifold Modifications
a. Exhaust Gas Recycle (EGR)
INTAKE MANIFOLD WATER INJECTION (IMWI):
The formation of NOx is the result of a high-temperature combustion process. It affects the
respiratory system. The high latent heat and specific heat of water that is being injected in the intake
manifold may reduce the in-cylinder temperature and hence may reduce the quantity of NOx being
formed in the diesel engine.
However, it was attributed that the dilution effect affected the engine performance and
emissions. Intake manifold water injection was claimed to be an effective way to contain the in-cylinder
combustion temperature and formation of NOx. The CFD simulation tests conducted on direct injection
diesel engine and turbocharged engine produced remarkably less amounts of both Nox as well as soot.
The same trend of reduction in NOx was observed when diesel engine was run with 100% biodiesel
prepared from rapeseed oil at two different engine loading conditions.
Water was injected at different mass flow rate of 0 kg/h, 1.8 kg/h, 3 kg/h. The formation of NOx
was found to decrease at various engine operating conditions with an increase in the speed of the engine.
Higher engine speed increases the volumetric effciency and gas flow motion, which leads to the rapid
mixing of air with fuel, resulting in shorter ignition delay. Therefore, the time available for the reaction
between the oxygen and free nitrogen is significantly reduced. Shorter ignition delay minimizes the
formation of Nox. Furthermore, by NOx was reduced with an increase in water flow rate
proportionately.
3. Compare & explain the properties, performance and combustion characteristics of the diesel,
B20 & B100.
Table: Properties of Diesel vs B20 vs B100
Property Unit B100 B20 Diesel
Flash point ℃ 183.5 87.80 68.50
Kinematic viscosity at 40℃ mm2/s 4.6 3.32 3.11
Relative density at 15℃ - 0.874 0.845 0.839
Higher heating values MJ/kg 38.10 44.62 46.18
Cloud point ℃ 18 - -
Pour point ℃ - -3 -
Cetane number - 66.9 54.5 52.4
Auto ignition temperature K 494 481 -
Molecular weight g/ml 295.31 206.74 191.8

The engine performances (power, torque, fuel consumption) and emissions (unburntHCs, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitric oxide) of a diesel engine using two different biodiesels, type A [80%
tallow (beef, pork andsheep) and 20% canola oil methyl ester] and type B (70% chicken tallow and 30%
waste cooking oil methyl ester), were used for the experimentation.
Torque and Power
Fig.1. shows the torque as a function of diesel and biodiesel blends for both Biodiesels A and B.
Here, the tests were conducted at two modes of speeds 2600 rpm and 1560 rpm at 100% throttle.. It can be
seen from that the output torque decreases with increasing blend ratio for both biodiesels. The percentage
decrease for both biodiesels at these modes is in the range of 4–5%. A decrease in this magnitude is to be
expected, due to the lower energy content of biodiesel. The decrease in output torque at these two modes
also affects the power output of the engine, since torque and power are directly proportional when the
engine speed is fixed. As a result, the power output will also decrease by 4–5%. A decrease in both power
and torque is due to their lower energy content of biodiesel.

Fig.1. Torque comparison for different biodiesel blends

Specific Fuel Consumption

Fig.2. compares the specific fuel consumption for the two biodiesels. It can be seen that fuel
consumption increases with blend ratio for both Biodiesels A and B. For Biodiesel A, the fuel consumption
is 7% higher than diesel and for Biodiesel B, it is 10% higher which indicates that Biodiesel B has lower
energy content than Biodiesel A and both biodiesels have lower energy content than diesel.

Fig.2. Fuel consumption comparisons

Exhaust Emission
Fig.3. compares the NOx emissions for Biodiesel A, Biodiesel B and diesel. Biodiesel A nitric
oxide emissions show a decreasing trend with increasing blend ratio, whereas Biodiesel B emissions
increase with the blend ratio, but both have higher NOx emissions compare to diesel. NOx emissions can
increase or decrease depending on a number of factors such as biodiesel type, engine type and test
procedure used.
Fig.4. shows the carbon monoxide emissions for diesel, Biodiesels A and B. Both biodiesels
displayed a significant decrease in CO emissions with increasing blend ratio and lesser compared to diesel
as biodiesels have higher oxygen content.
The HC emission results for the biodiesels are shown in Fig.5. It can be seen that both Biodiesels A
and B show anincrease in HC emissions with increasing blend ratio. But other research works also suggests
that HC will decrease with increasing blend ratio.
Fig.6. shows the carbon dioxide emissions for the biodiesels. It can be seen that both biodiesels
display an increase in CO2 emissions with increasing blend ratios, although a decrease in CO2 is expected
as CO emissions presented in Fig.6. For BiodieselA, the increase is 6% and for Biodiesel B, the increase is
18% compared with diesel. It is to be noted that CO2 is a non-regulated emission, but is frequently
measured when analyzing exhaust gas emissions as it gives valuable clues on fuel consumption in
dynamometer tests.
It can be that biodiesel can decrease CO emissions up to 51%, whereas it can increase or decrease
CO2 emissions, with the percentage change ranging from -7% to +7% depending on the type of biodiesels.
Also, it was noted that fuel consumption of biodiesel is expected to be higher with higher density
biodiesel, biodiesel containing higher cetane number and higher lubricity is more efficient. High viscosity
of the biodiesel causes fuel flow and ignition problems.

Fig.3 .Comparison of NOx emissions. Fig.4. Comparison of carbon monoxide emissions.

Fig.5.Comparison of HC emissions. Fig.6.Comparison of carbon dioxide emissions

 4. Explain the production of the biodiesel from vegetable oils and waste cooking oil.
 Vegetable Oils
Here, the production of biodiesel from vegetable oils is explained by a statistical example. 1
liter of new vegetable oil (e.g., canola oil, corn oil, soybean oil), 3.5 grams of sodium hydroxide,
200 milliliters of methanol (methyl alcohol) was taken. Blender with a low-speed option and the
pitcher for the blender is to be used only for making biodiesel. One beaker made from glass, not
plastic because the methanol can react with plastic.
For the production of biodiesel in a room that is at least 70 degrees F because the chemical
reaction will not proceed to completion if the temperature is too low. 200 milliliters methanol is
poured into the glass blender pitcher and the blender is turned on its lowest setting. 3.5 grams
sodium hydroxide was slowly added to it. This reaction produces sodium methoxide, which must be
used right away or else it loses its effectiveness. (Like sodium hydroxide, it can be stored away
from air/moisture, but that might not be practical for a home setup.) Methanol and sodium
hydroxide was mixed until the sodium hydroxide has completely dissolved (about 2 minutes), then
1 liter of vegetable oil is added to this mixture. This mixture is blended continuously (on low speed)
for 20 to 30 minutes. After that if the mixture is poured into a wide mouthed jar, liquid start to
separate out into layers. The bottom layer will be glycerin. The top layer is biodiesel.
 Waste Cooking Oil
The production of biodiesel from used cooking oil begins with mixing raw materials of used
cooking oil collected into one. The mixture is then precipitated for 24 hours. After pre treatment, a
preliminary analysis of used cooking oil was carried out, namely free fatty acid (FFA) level test
(max.5%). The transesterification process was carried out by mixing KOH (1% of oil weight) with
methanol (ratio of methanol: oil is 6: 1). Used cooking oil is then heated to 65 oC. After the
temperature is reached, the methanol and KOH solution is added slowly while pumping (stirring).
Heating and stirring are evenly carried out at 65 oC with a variation of 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90
minutes. After the heating process, the mixture is allowed to stand for + 1 hour. After the precipitate
the separation process is done by taking the bottom first (glycerol), then the upper liquid
(biodiesel). Biodiesel purification is done by washing using hot water (temperature 70 oC) twice as
much washing. Ratio between volume of biodiesel and water for washing are 1: 1. Biodiesel is then
heated at 110 oC for 10 minutes using a hot plate to remove moisture.

5. What are biofuels? Explain briefly the classification of biofuels.

Biofuel is a fuel that is produced over a short time span from biomass, rather than by the very slow
natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as oil. Since biomass can be used as a fuel
directly (e.g., wood logs), some people use the words biomass and biofuel interchangeably. However, the
word biofuel is usually reserved for liquid or gaseous fuels, used for transportation.
The two most common types of biofuels are bioethanol and biodiesel. Bioethanol is an alcohol
made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn,
sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form (E100), but it is
usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions.
Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification. It can be used as a fuel for vehicles
in its pure form (B100), but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon
monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. There are no strict technical definitions for this
classification. The main distinction between them is the feedstock used and associated conversion method
used.
Following section discuss this classification in details
 Fig.1.Detailed Classification of Bio Fuel
6. List out the various processes of extraction of biofuels and explain biochemical process in
brief.
1.Chemical conversion
a) Transesterification
b) Esterification
2.Thermochemical conversion
a) Gasification
b) Pyrolysis
c) Thermochemical liquefaction
d) Direct combustion
e) Hydro-processing
3.Biochemical conversion
a) Interesterification
b) Alcoholic fermentation
c) Anaerobic digestion
Biochemical Conversion
Biochemical conversion uses enzymes and micro-organisms to convert biomass into sugars and
those sugars into biofuels or bio products that can replace products currently made from crude oil.
After biomass is collected and transported to processing facility, it under goes the pretreatment
process so the component of the biomass is easier to break down with enzymes in the subsequent steps.
Steam or water, sometimes in the presence of chemicals, is used to break down the biomass into
cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. In one possible approach, acid is used for pretreatment. However,
enzymes can’t operate in highly acidic conditions, so a base is used to balance the pH and the mixture
is cooled before the enzymes are added.
Enzymes perform a chemical reaction called hydrolysis. During this process the enzymes break the
cellulose chains into glucose and the hemicellulose chains onto xylose. Glucose and xylose are the
sugars that can most readily be fermented into ethanol or other biofuels. During the fermentation
process, the mixture is inoculated with microbes such yeast or bacteria that digest the sugars and
 secrete compounds that can be used as bio fuels or biofuel components. The total conversion process
takes approximately three to five days. In the case of ethanol, the liquid is separated by distillation,
which is a method of separating mixtures based on difference in boiling points. The resulting ethanol is
collected and purified for use in blending with fuel.
The sugars can also be fermented or chemically converted into longer chain molecules with the
addition of hydrogen, these molecules are processed into renewable gasoline and diesel. The solids and
liquids remaining after distillation, known as stillage, then undergo a series of steps to remove water
from the mixture. Solid and liquid separation whether by centrifugation or other mean is used to
recover the insoluble lignin-rich residue. This residue can then be sent to an onsite combustion system
where it is burned to generate steam and electricity that can be used for power.
7. Define the following: (i) straight vegetable oils (ii) esterification (iii) transesterification.
(i) Straight vegetable oils:
Vegetable oil can be used as an alternative fuel in diesel engines. When vegetable oil is used
directly as a fuel, in either modified or unmodified equipment, it is referred as Straight Vegetable Oil or
Pure Plant Oil.
Compared to diesel fuel, all of the vegetable oils are much more viscous, are much more reactive to
oxygen, and have higher cloud point and pour point temperatures. It has been noted that there will be
carbon deposits inside the engine, as well as negative impacts of SVO on the engine lubricant. Both carbon
deposits and excessive buildup of SVO in the lubricant are caused by the very high boiling point and
viscosity of SVO relative to the required boiling range for diesel fuel. The carbon buildup doesn’t
necessarily happen quickly but instead over a longer period. These carbon deposits continue over time
resulting in higher maintenance cost and shorter engine life. Fig 1 shows the build up of carbon deposits
with different percent of SVO.
Diesel engines with vegetable oils offer acceptable engine performance and emissions for short-
term operation. Long-term operation results in operational and durability problems. Another issue that is
particularly critical for use of SVO is fuel viscosity. Fig 2 indicates the viscosity of pure SVO is much
higher than that of diesel fuel at normal operating temperatures. This can cause premature wear of fuel
pumps and injectors and can also dramatically alter the structure of the fuel spray coming out of the
injectors to increase droplet size, decrease spray angle, and increase spray penetration .All of these changes
to the fuel spray will tend to increase wetting of engine internal surfaces with the fuel, leading to an
increased tendency to form carbon deposits and dilute the lubricant.

Fig 1 Buildup of Carbon Deposits in Engine Fig.2. Impact of Temperature on the Viscosity

(ii) Esterification:
 Esterification is the process of producing an ester from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol. An ester is
formed when the –OH group of the carboxylic acid is replaced by the alkoxy group of the alcohol. The
esterification process requires a catalyst for the progression. The catalyst is used to reduce the activation
energy barrier of the esterification process. The catalyst is typically an acid. And also, heat should be
provided as a source of energy. Otherwise, there will be no reaction taking place between carboxylic acid
and the alcohol.Water is produced as a byproduct during the esterification process. The –OH group
removed from the carboxylic acid and the –H group removed from the alcohol, together forms a water
molecule (H-OH). By changing the alcohol or the carboxylic acid, can obtain the esters with desired
numbers of carbon atoms.The esterification reaction is an equilibrium reaction between reactants and
products. Therefore, the use of high amounts of reactants gives a high yield of ester along with water.
dehydrating agents can be used to remove the water formed.
And also, advanced methods such as distillation can also be used for the removal of water.In the
esterification mechanism, first, the removal of –OH from carboxylic acid and removal of –H (proton) from
alcohol occurs. This forms a carboxylic cation and an alcoholic nucleophile. These two components can
react with each other forming the ester. The removed groups react with each other to form water.

Fig.3. Ester Formation

(iii) Transesterification:
Transesterification is a process used to modify the structure of an ester. It includes an ester and
alcohol as reactants. The transesterification occurs when the alkyl group of an ester is exchanged with the
alkyl group of the alcohol. There, the alcohol acts as a nucleophile. The process requires a catalyst; either
an acidic catalyst or a basic catalyst. The catalyst can reduce the activation energy barrier of the
process.Transesterification Mechanism,the alcohol is converted into a nucleophile by removing the
terminal hydrogen atom as a proton. The transesterification initiates with the nucleophilic attack; alcohol
attacks the carbon atom of the ester that is bonded to two oxygen atoms.That is because this carbon atom
has a partial positive charge on it since the two oxygen atoms attract the bond electrons toward them (the
oxygen atoms are more electronegative than carbon atoms).The attack by alcoholic nucleophile results in
the formation of an intermediate compound which has both the ester and the alcohol bonded with each
other through the carbon atom attacked by the nucleophile. This intermediate compound is very unstable.
There, a rearrangement occurs to obtain a stable form. This gives a new ester form. Transesterification
gives the nucleophile as a byproduct.

Fig.4. Transesterification Process

1. Distinguish between Battery EVs, Hybrid EVs and Fuel cell EVs.

Answer:

Battery Electric Vehicle [BEVs]:

Battery powered electric vehicles are electric vehicles that inclusively use the chemical
energy stored in rechargeable battery packs with no secondary source of propulsion

Because, pure EVs typically run on battery power without an internal combustion engine’s
assistance they can run much farther on a single charge than hybrid vehicles

The battery electric vehicles have zero harmful emissions and their global harmful emissions
are still lesser than those of ICEVs and HEV’s

Hybrid Electric Vehicles [HEVs]:

HEVs use the combination of engine of a conventional vehicle with an electric motor
powered by traction batteries and/ or fuel cell.

They typically combine the IC engine of a conventional vehicle with the battery and electric
motor of an EV. The combination offers low emissions with the power, range and convenient
fueling of conventional vehicles. HEVs generate their own electricity on board, so they do
not have to carry the extra weight of storage batteries. A hybrid’s electric motor is energized
by a battery which provides power through a chemical reaction. A generator is driven by the
ICE which continuously recharges the battery. Hybrids can have a parallel design, series
design or a combination of both.

The local and global harmful emissions of HEVs are lesser than that of conventional IC
engine vehicles.

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles [FCEVs]:

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles use an electric-only motor like a BEV, but stores energy quite a
bit differently. Instead of recharging a battery, FCEVs store hydrogen gas in a tank. The fuel
cell in FCEVs combines hydrogen with oxygen from the air to produce electricity. The
electricity from the fuel cell then powers an electric motor, which powers the vehicle just like
a BEV.

They are more efficient than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and produce
no tailpipe emissions – they only emit water vapor and warm air.

They are not being extensively used due to drawbacks such as the requirement of high-
pressure, on-board hydrogen storage for acceptable limit. Also, the transport of hydrogen is
expensive and there is no infrastructure in place yet.
2. Explain the construction and working of an EV with a neat diagram.

Answer:

The EV consists of all the parts similar to conventional automobiles, however the IC engine
power trains is replaced by motor and battery. Typical configuration of modern EVs include
energy source, electric motor propulsion and control system.

Components of electric vehicle

There are three important components in electric vehicle namely,

1. Motor

2. Motor Controller

3. Battery

Motor – The main function of motor is to convert supplied electric energy current in to
mechanical energy. Brushless DC motor (BLDC) have been much focused for many motor
manufacturers. These are more effective in term of System cost, size, higher in efficiency,
excellent controllability and also power saving than other motor. It has only two basic main
parts Rotor and stator. The rotor is rotating part which carry permanent magnet and stator is
stationary part and containing stator winding. The structure of stator is similar to the
induction motor. It is made up of steel lamination with axially cut for winding.

Motor Controller – In most of the electric vehicle, Brushless DC motor is used which is better
than brushed DC motor, permanent magnet DC motor. Brushless DC motor does not have
brush and commutator, the electric vehicle which uses brushless DC motor has to use motor
controller which helps to control various properties of motor to take sufficient current and
voltage applied to motor. When accelerating pedal is press, this linked variable resistor type
controller gives signal to the motor controller to adjust speed as per our needs. The motor
controller has no power when vehicle is at rest position.

Battery – The main function of battery is to store electric energy. Most Hybrid and electric
vehicle used lithium-ion batteries. This storage system is usually essential for hybrid electric
vehicle, Plug in hybrid electric vehicle and all types of electric vehicles. Due to advancing
technologies, most of automobile manufacturer uses rechargeable batteries.
Construction and working principle of electric vehicle

Basically, electric vehicle is necessary for saving fossil fuel. The figure shows the simple
construction of electric vehicle. It consists of battery, motor controller, motor which is
connected to the transmission system. Here, battery is the energy source which is charged by
taking electric current from the grid (In Solar power electric vehicle, Battery is charged with
the use of solar pv panel which is attached on the roof of the vehicle). These batteries are
rechargeable. Most electric vehicle uses lead acid battery but in new type of electric cars, use
lithium-ion batteries because it can store more energy than lead acid battery in same physical
space. The efficiency and life span of battery is far better than other type of batteries, but it is
costlier than lead acid battery. After that controller control the flow of energy from energy
source to the motor. Motor transmits the power to the wheels of the vehicle by the use of
transmission system.

3. Compare and explain the force speed characteristics curve of the ICE and EV

Answer:

Torque in its most basic form is a turning force and is calculated by force (F) multiplied by
perpendicular distance.

In case of an IC engine, as the size of the explosion within the cylinder, the downward force
on the piston also increases, thus increasing the amount of torque produced by the engine.

The torque curve then descends after its peak value due to the difficulty in forcing air into the
engine

Maximum torque occurs at a point where the fuel, air and spark coincide the largest vertical
force. As the engine, speed increases, it becomes harder for the engine to draw required air
for the combustion using vacuum of the piston after the exhaust stroke.

In electric vehicles, motor torque is produced from the get-go.

As current flows through the electric motor, a related electric charge causes an armature to
rotate. These rotations inside a magnetic field causes a back EMF.

EMF can be understood as analogous to natural braking force in ICE.

The net overall force applied to the wheels is, therefore, the difference between the supply
voltage and the back EMF. The back EMF is proportional to speed. Higher the speed, smaller
the net overall force is. This explains why the torque curve begins to diminish in the
characteristic plot.

The torque line is constant at the beginning, because the speed is very least at the start and
corresponds too little to no back EMF, meaning that the supply voltage is immediately
equated to a torque output.
4. Discuss the methodology adopted for the development of the hybrid electric vehicle.

Answer:

The key components in an HEV consist of an electric motor (EM), battery, convertor, ICE,
fuel tank and control board. These components can be categorized into three groups:

1) Drivetrains – physically integrate the ICE power source and electric drive.

2) Battery/energy storage system (ESS) – emphasizes large or modest energy storage

and power capabilities.

3) Control system – instructs electric systems/ICE and manages the HESS

HEVs must be considered as non-stationary complex energy systems, involving the most
appropriate control strategy to manage the powertrain components, in order to achieve the
best performances.

Many different approaches have been proposed: static optimization methods, intelligent
control techniques (rules/fuzzy/neural network), game theory, route control strategies. The
principal approaches drawback is related to the focusing on a particular issue of the HEVs,
that is to consider the drive train devices and the control strategies independently each other.
To fix a power train profile and to optimize the control strategy parameters or vice versa
leaves open the question of whether selection of better control law or different drive train
components could result in better performances.
Two areas of significant importance in automotive engineering are improvement in fuel
economy and reduction of emissions. HEV seems the only promising technology able to
satisfy the market requests, since they match good performances in terms of both
consumption and reliability.

This methodology consists of two distinct phases:

1.Solving an optimization problem to detect the best powertrain components characteristics

and to choose the best rules-based control strategy

2.Application and calibration of the control strategy parameters and adjustment of the whole
drivetrain, and in particular of the powertrain components characteristics

Considering the first phase, it is composed by three steps:

a. First component sizing, in which components characteristics are determined based

on vehicle mission.

b. Pre-optimization, in which a generic scheme of a hybrid powertrain is considered

and all the possible control strategies are imposed to rule the energy flows
between energy devices to calculate all possible vehicle architectures.

c. Design optimization: using an optimization algorithm borrowed from the Graph

Theory, Dijkstra algorithm [14], the method allows the identification of the
optimal powertrain architecture.

According to the Conference paper “Methodology Procedure for Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Design” by Laura Tribioli, the conclusions are as follows:

The presented work only takes into account the first step of the methodology, being the
optimization of the powertrain of a preliminary vehicle with a first sizing for the whole
drivetrain, last step is instead useful to calibrate and to adjust the characteristic parameters of
the control strategy with the aim to pursue the performances benchmark, and is matter of
future works. The whole procedure intends to be iterative both in the first and second part in
order to achieve the best configuration and to choose the best control strategy. Future works
will therefore take into account a deeper focus on the state of charge management and on the
optimization of the gear ratio, or the involvement of different types of transmission system.

This first step has the aim of reducing the searching region to a reachable states’ subset, by
verifying the respect of the imposed physical constraints, with the advantage of limiting the
computational costs. This step, performed with the Dijkstra's algorithm, borrowed from
Graph Theory, is strictly dependent on the vehicle performances benchmarks, which should
be previously defined. The results obtained in the proposed practical application, being
evaluated using a non-causal strategy (without imposing, step by step, any logic for the power
distribution between the engine and the motor, being rather a result of this first step),
represent just the available optimal limit, within the constraints imposed. A further analysis
of load and sharing factors and of the energy flows in general allows identifying the best
compromise for the vehicle layout and gives a valid support in the choice of the control
strategy. In particular, deeply different layouts have been found for the performed simulations
(i.e. conventional and parallel architectures).
5. Write a short note on (i). Series Hybrid (ii). Hybrid electric vehicles.

Answer:

A series hybrid is like a battery electric

vehicle (BEV) in design. Here, the
combustion engine drives an electric
generator instead of directly driving the
wheels. The generator both charges a battery
and powers an electric motor that moves the
vehicle. When large amounts of power are
required, the motor draws electricity from
both the battery and the generator. Series
hybrids may also be referred to as extended-
range electric vehicles (EREVs) or range-
extended electric vehicles (REEVs) since
the gas engine only generates electricity to be
used by the electric motor and never directly
drives the wheels. Modern examples include
the Cadillac ELR, Chevrolet Volt, and Fisker
Karma.

A parallel hybrid is propelled by both an

internal combustion engine (ICE) and an
electric motor connected to a mechanical
transmission. Power distribution between the
engine and the motor is varied so both run in
their optimum operating region as much as
possible. There is no separate generator in a
parallel hybrid. Whenever the generator's
operation is needed, the motor functions as
generator. In a parallel mild hybrid, the
vehicle can never drive in pure electric mode.
The electric motor turns on only when a boost
is needed

6. Explain the working principle, construction and working of a fuel cell with a neat
diagram.

Answer:

A fuel cell is composed of an anode, cathode, and an electrolyte membrane. A typical fuel cell
works by passing hydrogen through the anode of a fuel cell and oxygen through the cathode.
At the anode site, a catalyst splits the hydrogen molecules into electrons and protons. The
protons pass through the porous electrolyte membrane, while the electrons are forced through
a circuit, generating an electric current and excess heat. At the cathode, the protons, electrons,
and oxygen combine to produce water molecules. As there are no moving parts, fuel cells
operate silently and with extremely high reliability.

A fuel cell is a lot like a battery. It has two electrodes where the reactions take place and an electrolyte
which carries the charged particles from one electrode to the other. In order for a fuel cell to work, it
needs hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). The hydrogen enters the fuel cell at the anode. A chemical
reaction strips the hydrogen molecules of their electrons and the atoms become ionized to form H+.
The electrons travel through wires to provide a current to do work. The oxygen enters at the cathode,
usually from the air. The oxygen picks up the electrons that have completed their circuit. The oxygen
then combines with the ionized hydrogen atoms (H+), and water (H2O) is formed as the waste product
which exits the fuel cell. The electrolyte plays an essential role as well. It only allows the appropriate
ions to pass between the anode and cathode. If other ions were allowed to flow between the anode
and cathode, the chemical reactions within the cell would be disrupted.

The reaction in a single fuel cell typically produces only about 0.7 volts. Therefore, fuel cells are
usually stacked or connected in some way to form a fuel cell system that can be used in cars,
generators, or other products that require power.
The reactions involved in a fuel cell are as follows:
Anode side (an oxidation reaction): 2H2 => 4H+ + 4e --
Cathode side (a reduction reaction): O2 + 4H+ +4e -- => 2H2O
Net reaction (the "redox" reaction): 2H2+O2=>2H2O

7. The development of fuel cells for EVs has taken on an accelerated pace in recent years.
Justify the statement.

Answer:

The advantages of using fuel cells for automotive applications are:

1) High-energy density subject to the limitation of the size of fuel-storage tank

2) Constant power, unlike batteries where power density varies with the state-of-charge

3) Fast refuelling
A recent advancement in fuel-cell technologies has been the development of direct methanol
fuel cells (DMFCs). Although DMFCs have made substantial advances in recent years, they
still require significantly higher amounts of precious metal catalyst than the direct-hydrogen
PEFCs. Another issue is to mitigate the problem of methanol crossover through the
membrane.

A fuel-cell running on hydrogen looks attractive as a long-term option for passenger cars as it
eliminates emissions on the tank-to-wheel path. Hydrogen can be produced from many
sources, and has attractive efficiencies. It is noteworthy that a fuel-cell reaches its highest
efficiency at part loads and there is little advantage against the ICE at full loads. Interestingly,
passenger vehicles are mostly operated at part loads, significantly below their rated power,
such that the efficiency gain offered by fuel cells could be maximum. It is noteworthy that at
low-power output even the fuel-cell system (FCS) efficiency drops as many of the balance of
plant units needed to be operated even at idle power. Accordingly, the system has to be
optimized for low-power consumption to capitalize on the part load efficiency advantage of
the fuel-cell. Performance at high-power density and efficiency in terms of high cell voltage
has been the mainstay of fuel-cell development. In recent years, these are complemented by
other factors, namely lower cost at high volume production with increased reliability and
durability. The targets are derived from competing conventional automotive propulsion
systems, which are designed for 5500 h of operational lifetime at a cost of U.S. $50/kW,
including fuel storage.

No fuel-cell is yet ready for commercialization. In 2007, the total number of light-duty FCVs
deployed worldwide was approximately 800, with an additional 3000 niche vehicles for
powering forklifts, motorcycles, and marine craft (Adamson, Butler, and Hugh 2008).
Schafer et al. predict that a market competitive, light-duty FCV would be available in
approximately 15 years but a major fleet penetration could take more than 50 years (Schafer,
Heywood, and Weiss 2006). During 2008, Daimler, Ford, GM, Honda, Hyundai, and Toyota
had announced plans to commercialize FCVs anywhere between 2012 and 2025 (Martin
2002). To get to this stage, however, breakthroughs in materials and fabrication methods will
be necessary.

The FCVs will get to the mass market only if they can be produced at an affordable cost of
about U.S. $50/kW. Projections suggest this to be a reasonable target, if FCVs are produced
in high volumes. The best cost projection can be made for components where the
construction materials are well established with proven manufacturing technologies.
Components like air compressors and hydrogen recycling pumps, based on traditional
manufacturing processes, need to be produced with existing equipment for the cost to become
comparable with the automotive target. For new technology elements where there is no
established production process, both production volume and manufacturing processes remain
uncertain. For materials, for example, polymer electrolyte membranes that are used in small
quantities, large production would be required.

As electric components have replaced many mechanical parts of the vehicle, hybridization
combined with regenerative braking will bring increased electrification of power trains. As
many elements of the drivetrain and the refuelling infrastructure are new, there are still major
improvements needed for the FCVs to become competitive with ICEVs. Today, cost, range,
and refuelling parameters for FCVs are inferior to gasoline power trains. However, these
figures are better than advanced BEVs, and projections show that FCVs can become cost
competitive to ICEVs. Until FCVs become competitive in cost and convenience to ICEVs
and until significant advancement is made in hydrogen production and storage, FCVs will
remain a niche technology (Edwards et al. 2008). To meet the challenges of lowering system
costs, R&D programs on fuel cells for automotive applications are desired to develop
components with low-cost materials, advanced manufacturing processes, and higher
operating efficiency. Ultimately, the major driver for FCVs would be their inherently high
efficiency on a well-to-wheel basis, especially when renewable energy sources will become
feasible for hydrogen production.

Both technologies (fuel cells and EVs) offer a cleaner alternative to internal combustion
engines, and both use electric motors powered by electrochemical devices. For one, electric
vehicles use energy stored in a battery, whereas fuel cell vehicles have stored fuel that reacts
to produce energy.
In recent decades, the application of fuel cells in vehicles has been the focus of increased
attention. In contrast to a chemical battery, the fuel cell generates electric energy rather than
storing it and continues to do so as long as a fuel supply is maintained.
Compared with the battery-powered electric vehicles (EVs), the fuel cell-powered vehicle has
the advantages of a longer driving range without a long battery charging time.
FCEVs share many of the same components as EVs, such as electric motors and power
controllers or inverters; however, the major difference is the main energy source. While EVs
use energy stored in the battery, FCEVs use fuel cells as they are superior to batteries in many
ways.
The major advantages are that fuel cells are lighter and smaller and can produce electricity as
long as the fuel is supplied.
while the EV is suitable for short range and small vehicles, the FCEV is suitable for medium–
large and long-range vehicles.
The by-product of a hydrogen fuel cell is water. Fuel cells have no moving parts or irregular
shapes, so they have the potential for high reliability and low manufacturing cost.
The fuel cell is clean, and is a device with a high efficiency rate of converting energy. To
endeavour to use it as a source of power, and utilize it in a Fuel Cell Vehicle (FCV), is an
advancement in technology.

8. With a neat sketch discuss the various fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle configurations.

Answer:

Fuel cell vehicles are electric vehicles powered by batteries and fuel cell. There are different
configurations for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs). In particular the configuration
depends on the desired hybridization level and on the fuel cell and batteries rules.

In conventional electric vehicles batteries provide power to the electric motor, in the
FCHEVs batteries and fuel cell are connected in a parallel system and together provide
power.

Figure shows a fuel cell stack connected with a DC/DC converter needed to provide a
regulated voltage at the output. Battery pack is connected with auxiliary devices and with fuel
cell. The DC/AC inverter converts the direct current (DC) in alternate current (AC) in order
 Batter y

Regeneration,
Recharge Bat when needed
Assist fuel cell when needed Power
Auxiliary vehicle at
Devices high battery SOC

Fuel DC/DC
Inverter Motor
Cell Stack Converter

Cycle requirement

to fed electric motor. The motor is able to recover part of energy that would normally be lost
due to braking (regenerative braking). This recovered energy is used to recharge batteries.

The sizes of batteries and fuel cell define the hybridization level and the configuration.

A conventional electric vehicle (full battery) presents intrinsic limits like the range (that is
function of batteries capacity) and recharge time (about 6-8 hours), that can reduce their use.
FCHEVs allow to increase the range, in terms of working hours or distance, because it is a
function of the on board stored hydrogen and the hydrogen refuelling time isn’t comparable
to the batteries recharging time.

In the first configuration, called "total fuel cell" or "full power fuel cell", the electric drive
motor is totally fed by fuel cell and a small battery can be installed just for the vehicle start
up or for peak power. In this case the fuel cell power is close the electric motor power. A
similar architecture, having a big size of fuel cell, means a great quantity of stored hydrogen
(also depending on the required range) and high costs.

Another configuration consists of an architecture in which the fuel cell is used as APU
(auxiliary power unit) and provides the electrical power required by the auxiliary devices. In
this case the fuel cell size is very small and its function is essentially addressed to cover small
loads like air conditioning, electric windows, lights, etc.

Finally, the "range extender" configuration is characterized by a small size fuel cell used like
on board batteries recharge. This solution, depending on the on-board stored hydrogen,
allows to increase the range of traditional electric vehicles. Using this configuration, it is
possible to define a specific batteries recharge strategy; in particular the batteries can be
recharged when the electric motor doesn't require load, i.e., during the stops and at the
terminus. In some case the fuel cell can contribute to the electric traction providing energy
when the vehicle runs also. In this way the fuel cell works in optimal operation conditions at
a fixed power, avoiding the load following operation that could cause thermal and mechanical
stress of materials. Moreover, the lower fuel cell power means a reduction in terms of stack
size then a less cost of it as well as hydrogen storage amount.