Tropical cyclone scales

Tropical cyclones are ranked on one of five tropical cyclone intensity scales, according to their maximum
sustained winds and which tropical cyclone basins they are located in. Only a few scales of classifications are
used officially by the meteorological agencies monitoring the tropical cyclones, but other scales also exist, such as
accumulated cyclone energy, the Power Dissipation Index, the Integrated Kinetic Energy Index, and the
Hurricane Severity Index.

Tropical cyclones that develop in the Northern Hemisphere are unofficially classified by the warning centres on
one of three intensity scales. Tropical cyclones or subtropical cyclones that exist within the North Atlantic Ocean
or the North-eastern Pacific Ocean are classified as either tropical depressions or tropical storms. Should a
system intensify further and become a hurricane, then it will be classified on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind
scale, and is based on the estimated maximum sustained winds over a 1-minute period. In the Western Pacific,
the ESCAP/WMO Typhoon Committee uses four separate classifications for tropical cyclones that exist within
the basin, which are based on the estimated maximum sustained winds over a 10-minute period.

The India Meteorological Department's scale uses 7 different classifications for systems within the North Indian
Ocean, and are based on the systems estimated 3-minute maximum sustained winds. Tropical cyclones that
develop in the Southern Hemisphere are only officially classified by the warning centres on one of two scales,
which are both based on 10-minute sustained wind speeds: The Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale is used
to classify systems within the Australian or South Pacific tropical cyclone basin. The scale used to classify
systems in the South-West Indian Ocean is defined by Météo-France for use in various French territories,
including New Caledonia and French Polynesia.

The definition of sustained winds recommended by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and used by
most weather agencies is that of a 10-minute average at a height of 10 m (33 ft) above the sea surface. However,
the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale is based on wind speed measurements averaged over a 1-minute period, at
10  m (33  ft). The scale used by Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre (RSMC) New Delhi applies a 3-
minute averaging period, and the Australian scale is based on both 3-second wind gusts and maximum sustained
winds averaged over a 10-minute interval. These differences make direct comparisons between basins difficult.

Within all basins tropical cyclones are named when the sustained winds reach at least 35 kn (40 mph; 65 km/h).

Background
Tropical cyclones are defined as being warm cored, non-frontal synoptic cyclones, that develop over tropical or
subtropical waters, with organized atmospheric convection and have a definite cyclonic surface wind circulation.
They are classified by the wind speeds located around the circulation centre and are ranked, by the World
Meteorological Organization's Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers on one of five tropical cyclone scales.
The scale used for a particular tropical cyclone depends on what basin the system is located in; with for example
the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale and the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scales both used in the
Western Hemisphere. All of the scales rank tropical cyclones using their maximum sustained winds, which are
either observed, measured or estimated using various techniques, over a period between one and ten minutes.

Atlantic, Eastern and Central Pacific

Tropical cyclones that occur within the Northern Hemisphere to the east of the anti-meridian, are officially
monitored by either the National Hurricane Center or the Central Pacific Hurricane Center.[1] Within the region
a tropical cyclone is defined to be a warm cored, non-frontal synoptic disturbance, that develops over tropical or
subtropical waters, with organized atmospheric convection and a closed well defined circulation centre.[1] The
region also defines a subtropical cyclone as a Saffir–Simpson scale
non-frontal low pressure disturbance, that has
1-minute maximum sustained winds
the characteristics of both tropical and Category
extratropical cyclones.[1] Once either of these m/s knots (kn) mph km/h
classifications are met, then advisories are 5 ≥ 70 m/s ≥ 137 kn ≥ 157 mph ≥ 252 km/h
initiated and the warning centers will classify the
4 58–70 m/s 113–136 kn 130–156 mph 209–251 km/h
system as either a tropical or subtropical
depression, if the one-minute sustained winds 3 50–58 m/s 96–112 kn 111–129 mph 178–208 km/h
estimated or measured as less than 34  kn 2 43–49 m/s 83–95 kn 96–110 mph 154–177 km/h
(39 mph; 63 km/h).[1]
1 33–42 m/s 64–82 kn 74–95 mph 119–153 km/h
Also, it will be assigned a tropical cyclone TS 18–32 m/s 34–63 kn 39–73 mph 63–118 km/h
number (or TC number for short) comprising an
TD ≤ 17 m/s ≤ 33 kn ≤ 38 mph ≤ 62 km/h
officially spelled-out number (from ONE to
THIRTY or less; these numbers are not recycled
until next year) followed by (except for North Atlantic systems) a hyphen and a suffix letter ("-E" for East Pacific,
"-C" for Central Pacific);[2] a two-digit (plus any suffix) abbreviation (like TD 08 for North Atlantic depression
EIGHT, TD 21E for East Pacific depression TWENTYONE-E, or TD 03C for Central Pacific depression THREE-
C) is also generated for bulletin and other automated purposes.

However, if a tropical disturbance is capable of producing tropical storm or hurricane conditions on land within
48 hours, then advisories will be initiated and it will be classified as a potential tropical cyclone (PTC)[1] with a
two-digit PTC number (for example, PTC-09 or PTC-15E) that otherwise looks identical to a TC number. Should
the system intensify further or already have one-minute sustained winds of 34–63  kn (39–72  mph; 63–
117 km/h), then it will be called either a tropical or subtropical storm and assigned a name[1] (which replaces the
spelled-out TC number; the two-digit number is still kept for purposes like the Automated Tropical Cyclone
Forecasting System, as in 2018's TS 12 (KIRK)).

Should the tropical system further intensify and have winds estimated or measured, as greater than 64  kn
(74  mph; 119  km/h), then it will be called a hurricane and classified on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind
scale.[1] The lowest classification on the SSHWS is a Category 1 hurricane, which has winds of between 64 and
82 kn (74 and 94 mph; 119 and 152 km/h).[1][3] Should the hurricane intensify further then it will be rated as a
Category 2 hurricane, if it has winds of between 83 and 95 kn (96 and 109 mph; 154 and 176 km/h).[1][3] When a
system becomes a Category 3 hurricane with winds of between 96 and 112  kn (110 and 129  mph; 178 and
207 km/h), it is considered to be a major hurricane by the warning centers.[3] A Category 4 hurricane has winds
of 113 to 136 kn (130 to 157 mph; 209 to 252 km/h), while a Category 5 hurricane has winds of at least 137 kn
(158  mph; 254  km/h).[1][3] A post tropical cyclone is a system that has weakened, into a remnant low or has
dissipated and formal advisories are usually discontinued at this stage.[1] However, advisories may continue if
the post tropical cyclone poses a significant threat to life and property.[1] They may also continue if the remnants
of the system have a chance of regeneration and producing tropical storm or hurricane-force winds over land
within 48 hours.[1]

The SSHS was originally created using both wind speed and storm surge, but since the relationship between
wind speed and storm surge is not necessarily definite, the scale was changed to the "Saffir–Simpson Hurricane
Wind Scale" (SSHWS), based entirely on wind speed.

Although increasing echelons of the scale correspond to stronger winds, the rankings are not absolute in terms of
effects. Lower-category storms can inflict greater damage than higher-category storms, depending on factors
such as local terrain, population density and total rainfall. For instance, a Category  2 hurricane that strikes a
major urban area will likely do more damage than a large Category 5 hurricane that strikes a mostly rural region.
In fact, tropical systems of less than hurricane strength, as in the case of Tropical Storm Allison, can produce
significant damage and human casualties, especially from flooding and landslides.
Historically, the term great hurricane was used to describe storms that possessed winds of at least 110 knots
(130  mph; 200  km/h), large radii (over 160  km / 100  mi) and that caused large amounts of destruction. This
term fell into disuse after the introduction of the Saffir–Simpson scale in the early 1970s.[4]

A minor change to the scale was made ahead of the 2012 hurricane season, with the wind speeds for Categories
3–5 tweaked to eliminate the rounding errors that had occurred during previous seasons, when a hurricane had
wind speeds of 115 kn (130 mph; 215 km/h).[5]

Western Pacific
Tropical cyclones that occur within the Northern Hemisphere between RSMC Tokyo's Tropical Scale
Cyclone Intensity

the anti-meridian and 100°E are officially monitored by the Japan

Meteorological Agency (JMA, RSMC Tokyo).[6] Within the region a Category Sustained winds
tropical cyclone is defined to be a non-frontal synoptic scale cyclone Violent typhoon
≥105 knots
originating over tropical or sub-tropical waters, with organized ≥194 km/h
convection and a definite cyclonic surface wind circulation.[6] The lowest 85–104 knots
classification used by the Typhoon Committee is a tropical depression, Very strong typhoon 157–193 km/h
which has 10-minute sustained winds of less than 34  kn (17  m/s; 64–84 knots
Typhoon
39 mph; 63 km/h).[6] Should the tropical depression intensify further it 118–156 km/h
is named and classified as a tropical storm, which has winds speeds
48–63 knots
between 34–47 kn (17–24 m/s; 39–54 mph; 63–87 km/h).[6] Should the Severe tropical storm 89–117 km/h
system continue to intensify further then it will be classified as a severe
34–47 knots
tropical storm, which has winds speeds between 48–63 kn (25–32 m/s; Tropical storm
62–88 km/h
55–72 mph; 89–117 km/h).[6] The highest classification on the Typhoon
Committee's scale is a typhoon, which has winds speeds greater than Tropical depression ≤33 knots
≤61 km/h
64 kn (33 m/s; 74 mph; 119 km/h).[6]

The China Meteorological Administration, the Hong Kong Observatory (HKO), PAGASA and the JMA, all divide
the typhoon category further for domestic purposes.[6] The JMA divides the typhoon category into three
categories, with a 10-minute maximum wind speed below 84 kn (43 m/s; 97 mph; 156 km/h) assigned for the
(strong) typhoon category. A very strong typhoon has wind speeds between 85–104  kn (44–54  m/s; 98–
120 mph; 157–193 km/h), while a violent typhoon has wind speeds of 105 kn (54 m/s; 121 mph; 194 km/h) or
greater.[6] The HKO and the CMA also divide the typhoon category into three categories, with both assigning a
maximum wind speed of 80 kn (41 m/s; 92 mph; 150 km/h) to the typhoon category. A severe typhoon has wind
speeds of 85–104  kn (44–54  m/s; 98–120  mph; 157–193  km/h), while a super typhoon has winds of 100  kn
(51 m/s; 120 mph; 190 km/h).[6][7] In May 2015, PAGASA introduced the term Super Typhoon and used it for
systems with winds greater than 120 kn (62 m/s; 140 mph; 220 km/h),[8] but later adjusted to at least 99.9 kn
(51.4 m/s; 115.0 mph; 185.0 km/h) on March 23, 2022.[9][10][11][12][13]

In addition to the national meteorological services of each nation, the United States' Joint Typhoon Warning
Center (JTWC) monitors the basin, and issues warnings on significant tropical cyclones for the United States
Government,[14] assigning them two-digit TC numbers (with suffix "W").[2] These warnings use a 1-minute
sustained wind speed and can be compared to the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale; however, the JTWC uses
their own scale for intensity classifications in this basin.[15] These classifications are Tropical Depression,
Tropical Storm, Typhoon, and Super Typhoon.[15] The United States' Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC)
unofficially classifies typhoons with wind speeds of at least 130 knots (150 mph; 240 km/h)—the equivalent of a
strong Category 4 storm on the Saffir–Simpson scale—as super typhoons.[16] Also, when a tropical depression is
upgraded to tropical storm and named by the JMA, the JTWC appends the international name (parenthesized) to
its TC number[2] (i.e., 2018 tropical depression TWENTY-W, abbr. TD 20W, became Tropical Storm Bebinca,
but was referred to as TS 20W (BEBINCA) in JTWC advisories); however, in cases when the JTWC upgrades a
depression to tropical storm without the JMA following suit (due to the differences between JTWC and JMA
wind-speed scales), the spelled-out number (without the suffix) is parenthesized and appended to the TC number
as placeholder name, as in TS 16W (SIXTEEN), until JMA upgrades and names it, on which case the name
replaces the placeholder.[15]

In addition, the Taiwan Central Weather Bureau has its own scale in Chinese but uses the Typhoon Committee
scale in English.[17]

North Indian Ocean

India Meteorological Department
Any tropical cyclone that develops within the North Indian Ocean Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale
between 100°E and 45°E is monitored by the India Meteorological
Sustained winds
Department (IMD, RSMC New Delhi).[18] Within the region a Category
(3-min average)
tropical cyclone is defined as being a non frontal synoptic scale
≥120 kt
cyclone, that originates over tropical or subtropical waters with Super Cyclonic Storm
≥221 km/h
organized convection and a definite cyclonic surface wind
Extremely Severe 90–119 kt
circulation.[18] The lowest official classification used in the North
Cyclonic Storm 166–220 km/h
Indian Ocean is a Depression, which has 3-minute sustained wind
Very Severe 64–89 kt
speeds of between 17 and 27  kn (20 and 31  mph; 31 and
Cyclonic Storm 118–165 km/h
50  km/h).[18] Should the depression intensify further then it will
become a Deep Depression, which has winds between 28 and 33 kn Severe Cyclonic 48–63 kt
Storm 89–117 km/h
(32 and 38 mph; 52 and 61 km/h).[18] The system will be classified
as a cyclonic storm and assigned a name by the IMD, if it should 34–47 kt
Cyclonic Storm
develop gale-force wind speeds of between 34 and 47  kn (39 and 63–88 km/h
54  mph; 63 and 87  km/h).[18] Severe Cyclonic Storms have storm 28–33 kt
Deep Depression
51–62 km/h
force wind speeds of between 48 and 63 kn (55 and 72 mph; 89 and
117 km/h), while Very Severe Cyclonic Storms have hurricane-force 17–27 kt
Depression
winds of 64–89 kn (74–102 mph; 119–165 km/h). Extremely Severe 31–50 km/h
Cyclonic Storms have hurricane-force winds of 90–119  kn (104–
137  mph; 167–220  km/h).[18] The highest classification used in the North Indian Ocean is a Super Cyclonic
Storm, which have hurricane-force winds of above 120 kn (140 mph; 220 km/h).[18]

Historically, a system has been classified as a depression if it is an area where the barometric pressure is low
compared with its surroundings.[19] Other classifications historically used include: cyclonic storm where the
winds did not exceed force 10 on the Beaufort scale and a Cyclone where the winds are either force 11 and 12 on
the Beaufort scale.[19] Between 1924 and 1988, tropical cyclones were classified into four categories: depression,
deep depression, cyclonic storms and severe cyclonic storms.[19] However, a change was made during 1988 to
introduce the category "severe cyclonic storm with core of hurricane winds" for tropical cyclones, with wind
speeds of more than 64 kn (74 mph; 119 km/h).[19] During 1999 the categories Very Severe Cyclonic Storm and
Super Cyclonic Storm were introduced, while the severe cyclonic storm with a core of hurricane winds category
was eliminated.[19] During 2015 another modification to the intensity scale took place, with the IMD calling a
system with 3-minute maximum sustained wind speeds between 90 and 119  kn (104 and 137  mph; 167 and
220 km/h): an extremely severe cyclonic storm.[20]

The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center also monitors the basin, and issues warnings on significant
tropical cyclones on behalf of the United States Government,[14] also assigning them TC numbers as in all other
basins above (albeit in an unofficial manner for this and subsequent basins; cyclones originating in the Arabian
Sea are assigned suffix "A" while those in the Bay of Bengal get suffix "B"). These warnings use a 1-minute
sustained wind speed and can be compared to the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, however, regardless of
intensity in this basin the JTWC labels all systems as tropical cyclones with TC numbers (optionally appended
with international names or placeholders in parentheses, as done for typhoons above).[15]
South-West Indian Ocean
Southwest Indian Ocean
Any tropical cyclone that develops within the Southern Hemisphere Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale
between Africa and 90°E is monitored by Météo-France's La Réunion
Category Sustained winds
tropical cyclone centre (MFR, RSMC La Réunion).[21] Within the region a
Very Intense >115 kt
tropical disturbance is defined to be a non-frontal synoptic scale low-
Tropical Cyclone >212 km/h
pressure area, originating over tropical or sub-tropical waters with
organized convection and definite cyclonic surface wind circulation with Intense 90–115 kt
Tropical Cyclone 166–212 km/h
the average wind speed estimated to be not exceeding 27 knots (50 km/h).
64–89 kt
Tropical Cyclone
A tropical disturbance is MFR's generic term for a non-frontal area of low 118–165 km/h
pressure that has organized convection and definite cyclonic surface wind Severe 48–63 kt
circulation. [21] The system should be estimated to have wind speeds of less Tropical Storm 89–117 km/h
than 28 knots (52 km/h; 32 mph).[21] Moderate 34–47 kt
Tropical Storm 63–88 km/h
A system is designated as a tropical depression or a subtropical depression Tropical 28–33 kt
when it reaches wind speeds above 28 knots (52 km/h; 32 mph). Should a Depression 51–62 km/h
tropical depression reach wind speeds of 35 knots (65  km/h; 40  mph) Tropical <28 kt
then it will be classified as a moderate tropical storm and assigned a name Disturbance <50 km/h
by either the Sub Regional Center in Mauritius or Madagascar. No matter
how strong a subtropical system is in this basin, it is always designated as a subtropical depression.[22]

Should the named storm intensify further and reach winds speeds of 48 knots (89 km/h; 55 mph), then it will be
classified as a severe tropical storm.[22] A severe tropical storm is designated as a tropical cyclone when it
reaches wind speeds of 64 knots (119 km/h; 74 mph).[21] Should a tropical cyclone intensify further and reach
wind speeds of 90 knots (170  km/h; 100  mph), it will be classified as an intense tropical cyclone.[21] A very
intense tropical cyclone is the highest category on the South-West Indian Ocean Tropical Cyclone scale, and has
winds of over 115 knots (213 km/h; 132 mph).[22]

At the tenth RA I tropical cyclone committee held during 1991, it was recommended that the intensity
classifications be changed ahead of the 1993–94 tropical cyclone season.[23] Specifically it was decided that the
classifications: Weak Tropical Depression, Moderate Tropical Depression and Severe Tropical Depression would
be changed to Tropical Depression, Moderate Tropical Storm and Severe Tropical Storm.[23] This change was
implemented ahead of the 1993–94 tropical cyclone season.[23]

The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center also monitors the basin, and issues warnings on significant
tropical cyclones on behalf of the United States Government;[14] these systems are unofficially assigned TC
numbers with suffix "S" (which spans the whole South Indian Ocean, including both BMKG and BoM areas of
responsibility west of 135°E). These warnings use a 1-minute sustained wind speed and can be compared to the
Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, however, regardless of intensity in this basin the JTWC labels all systems
as tropical cyclones with TC numbers (plus any parenthesized names or placeholders, like typhoons and North
Indian Ocean cyclones above).[15]

Australia and Fiji

Tropical cyclones that occur within the Southern Hemisphere to the Australian tropical cyclone
east of 90°E are officially monitored by one or more tropical cyclone intensity scale
warning centres. [24] These are run by the Fiji Meteorological Service, Category Sustained Gusts
New Zealand's MetService, Indonesia's Badan Meteorologi, winds
Klimatologi, dan Geofisika, Papua New Guinea's National Weather >107 kt >151 kt
[24] Five
Service and the Australian Bureau of Meteorology. Within the >198 km/h >280 km/h
region a tropical cyclone is defined as being a non-frontal low-pressure
system of synoptic scale that develops over warm waters, with a 86–107 kt 122–151 kt
Four
definite organized wind circulation and 10-minute sustained wind 158–198 km/h 226–280 km/h
speeds of 34 kn (63 km/h; 39 mph) or greater near the centre. [24] Once 64–85 kt 90–121 kt
Three
this definition has been met then all of the centres name the system 118–157 km/h 167–225 km/h
and start to use the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale, which 48–63 kt 68–89 kt
measures tropical cyclones using a five category system based on 10- Two
89–117 km/h 126–166 km/h
minute maximum sustained winds.[24][25] A Category 1 tropical cyclone 34–47 kt 49–67 kt
One
is estimated to have 10-minute sustained wind speeds of 34–47  kn 63–88 km/h 91–125 km/h
(39–54  mph; 63–87  km/h), while a Category 2 tropical cyclone is
estimated to have 10-minute sustained wind speeds of 48–63  kn (55–72  mph; 89–117  km/h).[25][26] When a
system becomes a Category 3 tropical cyclone it is reclassified as a Severe tropical cyclone and has wind speeds of
64–85 kn (74–98 mph; 119–157 km/h).[25][26] A Category 4 severe tropical cyclone has winds of 86–110 kn (99–
127 mph; 159–204 km/h), while the maximum rating is a Category 5 severe tropical cyclone, which has winds of
at least 108 kn (124 mph; 200 km/h).[25][26]

For systems below tropical cyclone strength there are various terms used, including Tropical Disturbance,
Tropical Low and Tropical Depression.[24] A tropical disturbance is defined as being a non-frontal system of
synoptic scale originating over the tropics, with persistent enhanced convection or some indication of a
circulation.[24] A tropical depression or tropical low is a disturbance with a defined circulation, where the central
position can be estimated, and the maximum 10-minute average wind speed is less than 34  kn (39  mph;
63  km/h) near the centre.[24] The FMS numbers these systems when they have a potential to develop into a
tropical cyclone or persist to cause significant impact to life and property, within its area of responsibility and
have been analysed for the previous 24 hours.[24] The Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale was introduced
by the BoM, ahead of the 1989–90 cyclone season.

The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center also monitors the basin, and issues warnings on significant
tropical cyclones on behalf of the United States Government;[14] these systems are unofficially assigned TC
numbers with either suffix "S" (if originating west of 135°E; spans the whole South Indian Ocean, including
MFR's area of responsibility) or suffix "P" (if east of 135°E; spans the whole South Pacific Ocean, merging BoM,
PNG-NWS, FMS, and MSNZ AORs together). These warnings use a 1-minute sustained wind speed and can be
compared to the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, however, regardless of intensity in these basins the JTWC
labels all systems as tropical cyclones with TC numbers (plus any names or placeholders parenthesized, as for
typhoons and Indian Ocean cyclones above).[15]

Alternative scales
There are other scales that are not officially used by any of the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres or
the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres. However they are used by other organizations, such as the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. An example of such scale is the Integrated Kinetic Energy index,
which measures the destructive potential of the storm surge on the coast; it works on a scale that ranges from
one to six, with six having the highest destructive potential.[27]

Accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) is used by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and other
agencies to express the activity of individual tropical cyclones that are above tropical storm strength and entire
tropical cyclone seasons.[28] It is calculated by taking the squares of the estimated maximum sustained velocity
of every active tropical storm (wind speed 35 knots or higher) at six-hour intervals.[28] The numbers are usually
divided by 10,000 to make them more manageable. The unit of ACE is 104 kn2, and for use as an index the unit is
assumed.[28] As well as being squared for ACE, wind speed can also be cubed, which is referred to as the Power
Dissipation Index (PDI).[29]

The Hurricane Severity Index (HSI) is another scale used and rates the severity of all types of tropical and
subtropical cyclones based on both the intensity and the size of their wind fields.[30] The HSI is a 0 to 50 point
scale, allotting up to 25 points for a tropical cyclone's intensity and up to 25 points for wind field size.[30] Points
are awarded on a sliding scale, with the majority of points reserved for hurricane force and greater wind
fields.[30]

See also
Tropical cyclones
portal

Rapid intensification
Tropical cyclone naming

References
1. RA IV Hurricane Committee. Regional Association IV Hurricane Operational Plan 2017 (http://www.wmo.int/p
ages/prog/www/tcp/documents/1163-TCP-30-RA-IV-HC-39-OPERATIONAL-PLAN-2017-17650_en.pdf)
(PDF) (Report). World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved June 29, 2017.
2. National Hurricane Operations Plan (http://www.ofcm.gov/publications/nhop/FCM-P12-2017.pdf) (PDF)
(Report). Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. May 2017.
Retrieved October 14, 2018.
3. "Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale Information" (http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutsshws.php). National Hurricane
Center. May 24, 2013. Retrieved November 8, 2015.
4. Fred Doehring; Iver W. Duedall; John M. Williams (1994). "Florida Hurricanes and Tropical Storms: 1871–
1993: An Historical Survey" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111001124648/http://nsgd.gso.uri.edu/flsgp/flsgps
94001/flsgps94001full.pdf) (PDF). Florida Institute of Technology. pp. 53–54. Archived from the original (htt
p://nsgd.gso.uri.edu/flsgp/flsgps94001/flsgps94001full.pdf) (PDF) on October 1, 2011. Retrieved
December 26, 2008.
5. Tew, Mark (March 1, 2012). "Public Information Statement: Minor Modification of Saffir–Simpson Hurricane
Wind Scale Thresholds Effective May 15, 2012" (http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/news/20120301_pis_sshws.php).
United States National Weather Service. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20151122174409/http://www.
nhc.noaa.gov/news/20120301_pis_sshws.php) from the original on November 22, 2015. Retrieved
November 7, 2015.
6. Typhoon Committee (2015). Typhoon Committee Operational Manual 2015 (https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/
www/tcp/documents/TCP-23EDITION2015.pdf) (PDF) (Report). World Meteorological Organization.
Retrieved November 13, 2015.
7. "Classifications of Tropical cyclones" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120330002011/http://www.weather.gov.h
k/wxinfo/news/2009/20090318_appendix1e.pdf) (PDF). Hong Kong Observatory. March 18, 2009. Archived
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30, 2012. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
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n/regions/05/15/15/pagasa-bares-5-new-storm-categories). ABS-CBN. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
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gasa-redefines-super-typhoon-tweaks-wind-signals). ABS-CBN News. March 23, 2022. Retrieved March 28,
2022.
10. Arceo, Acor (March 23, 2022). "PAGASA changes super typhoon definition, wind signals" (https://archive.fo/3
xGzX). Rappler. Archived from the original (https://www.rappler.com/nation/weather/pagasa-changes-super-t
yphoon-definition-tropical-cyclone-wind-signals-march-2022/) on August 23, 2022. Retrieved August 23,
2022.
11. Sarao, Zacarian (March 24, 2022). "Pagasa revises definition of 'super typhoon,' signal system" (https://archi
ve.fo/irFN1). Inquirer.net. Philippine Daily Inquirer. Archived from the original (https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/15
72737/pagasa-revises-definition-of-super-typhoon-signal-system) on August 23, 2022. Retrieved August 23,
2022.
12. "Press Release: DOST-PAGASA modifies Tropical Cyclone Wind Signal (TCWS) system" (https://archive.fo/2
5KSr). Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA). March 23,
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ch?v=ke2drZ-2YfU). YouTube (in Filipino). Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services
Administration (PAGASA). March 23, 2022. Retrieved August 23, 2022.
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Harbour, Hawaii: Joint Typhoon Warning Center.
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d-questions). Pearl Harbour, Hawaii: Joint Typhoon Warning Center.
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by JTWC?" (http://www.usno.navy.mil/JTWC/frequently-asked-questions-1#labels). Joint Typhoon Warning
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gov.tw/V7/knowledge/planning/typhoon.htm#eq05). www.cwb.gov.tw. Archived from the original (http://www.c
wb.gov.tw/V7/knowledge/planning/typhoon.htm#eq05) on September 23, 2015. Retrieved July 31, 2012.
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_final.pdf) (PDF) (Report No. TCP-21). World Meteorological Organization. pp. 11–12. Retrieved March 29,
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External links
Australian Bureau of Meteorology - Understanding tropical cyclone categories (https://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=5lKhb5Ggd-4)

Regional specialized meteorological centres

US National Hurricane Center (http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/) – North Atlantic, Eastern Pacific

Central Pacific Hurricane Center (http://www.prh.noaa.gov/hnl/cphc/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0110923144245/http://www.prh.noaa.gov/hnl/cphc/) September 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine – Central
Pacific
Japan Meteorological Agency (http://www.jma.go.jp/en/typh/) – NW Pacific
India Meteorological Department (http://www.imd.gov.in/) – Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea
Météo-France – La Reunion (https://web.archive.org/web/20070330212754/http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domto
m/La_Reunion/) – South Indian Ocean from 30°E to 90°E
Fiji Meteorological Service (http://www.met.gov.fj/) – South Pacific west of 160°E, north of 25° S

Tropical cyclone warning centres

Indonesian Meteorological Department (https://web.archive.org/web/20080626191441/http://maritim.bmg.go.i

d/cyclones/IDJ23200.html) – South Indian Ocean from 90°E to 125°E, north of 10°S
Papua New Guinea's National Weather Service (http://www.pngmet.gov.pg) – South Pacific Ocean from
125°E to 160°E, north of 10°S
Australian Bureau of Meteorology (http://www.bom.gov.au/weather/cyclone/index.shtml) Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20080723222148/http://www.bom.gov.au/weather/cyclone/index.shtml) July 23, 2008, at
the Wayback Machine. – South Indian Ocean & South Pacific Ocean from 90°E to 160°E, south of 10°S
Meteorological Service of New Zealand Limited (http://www.metservice.co.nz/public/weatherWarnings/marine
-warnings.html) – South Pacific west of 160°E, south of 25°S

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