Papers

1
A Perspective Study of Hindi Loanwords Found in Myanmar Language

Daw Ei Khine Zune* 1
Abstract
One of the most easily observable results of intercultural contact and communication is
the set of loanwords that is imported into the vocabulary of each language involved. Therefore,
this paper investigates on Hindi Loanwords found in Burmese Language especially in colonized
time. In Linguistics, lexical borrowing or borrowing is the procedure by which a selected word
from the source language is adapted for use into the target language or vice versa. This adapted
word is called a borrowed word in the first case and a loanword in the second. Thus, this study
aims to investigate “Language Borrowing”, its types, terms, changes of interesting from lexical
borrowing to create other different forms…etc. As well as, the objectives of this paper are to
realize how much Hindi words influencing in mother tongue, to highlight the smooth path of
language conveying by using loanwords and to consider why the natives accept and use to speak
such loanwords even in daily conversations. All the facts and theories that can support the
whole paper are based on the scholar Einar Haugen (1950). At the end of this study, the
researcher comes to a result that the loanwords can help in communication especially for the
words that need to mention widely in mother tongue to speak smoothly and easily.
Keywords: Borrowed words, Loan words, Hindi, Influencing, Linguistics
1. Introduction
In language communication, the influence of one language on the other is a very
common phenomenon. One of the most easily observable results of intercultural contact and
communication is the set of loanwords that is imported into the vocabulary of each language
involved. This paper only focused on Hindi to Myanmar although there are so many languages
influencing such as English, French, Arabic, Turkish, and Persian, some major languages of
the world. They have influenced on other languages globally as well as they have been
influenced by other languages. These things come up to a need to observe all these influences
in form of borrowed and loan words. Many references focus on the comparative linguistics
between two or more languages. Others tackle borrowed and loan words aspects and forms
from one or two perspectives. However, this paper aims to shed light on language borrowing in
its two perspectives (Borrowed and loan words) as no other works do. When someone who
wants to observe loan words formation in one language, it must be observed the history of the
language he or she chose first.
2. Rationale of the Research
This paper is focused on the language borrowing process of Hindi language to Burmese
language. There are so many reasons why researcher chose these languages. Myanmar (Burma)
is the native country of the researcher herself and also the native speaker of Burmese language.
But there are so many Hindi words influencing in her native language. Therefore, it needs to
observe for such case and the next generation can study about Hindi loanwords in Burmese
language by reading this paper.
The Burmese language belongs to the Tibeto-Burmese branch of the Sino-Tibetan
Language Family. All researchers who have studied the origin of the Burmese people agree
that the ancestors of the Burmese used to live in northern Tibet from where they slowly
immigrated to what is now called Myanmar. This was at the beginning of the Christian era. It
was only then that real Indian influences in Burmese daily life such as cuisine, architecture and
language started. Therefore, this paper approached the real diffusion of the Hindi language
came only after the Anglo-Burmese wars, when Myanmar (Burma) was annexed to the British
Indian Empire in 1886. As some parts of Burma part of British India, since 1826 people from
the subcontinent were able to come to Burma freely and unconditionally, while others were
*Lecturer, Department of English, Hpa-an University

2
brought by the British for various reasons. It was only then that real Indian influences in
Burmese daily life such as cuisine, architecture and language started.
There is no doubt about the influence of English on the Burmese language in the post-
colonial period because it was the language of the rulers. Apart from the British high ranking
officers, most of the civil servants were Indians. So, their languages, Hindi and Urdu,
dominated the world of government employees simultaneous with English. Natives who could
speak Urdu or Hindi were given first preference if they wanted to join government departments
such as the Prison Department, Burma Police, Post Office and Burma Railways. New
administrative vocabulary and jargon had not yet been established in the Burmese language at
that time, so the Burmese workers freely adopted Indic words for communicative purposes. In
this manner, Indic loan words found its way into the Burmese language.
3. Aims and Objectives
The aims of this research are to analyze the loan words theories and to describe some
Hindi loan words in Burmese (Myanmar) language. The objectives of the present research are:
1. To specify the advantages and disadvantages of using loan words
2. To realize how much Hindi words influencing in mother tongue
3. To highlight the smooth path of language conveying by using loanwords
4. Scope of the Research
This study analyses some Hindi loan words found in Burmese (Myanmar) language. By
conducting this research, there are some benefits expected from this study such as:
1. Theoretically, the result of this study is expected to be useful and give new
information to the language study especially about the loan words in Burmese
(Myanmar) language.
2. Practically, the result of this study would give contribution for the lectures and the
students of present university, especially at English Department. It is expected to be
able to broaden the knowledge in loan words of mother tongue. Also it is hoped to
give contribution for readers who are interested in this paper and it will be the
alternative reference for the readers who are interested in researching this area.
5. Literature Review
Theoretical Background
Loan words are the words used directly from another language with little or no
translation. Several scholars dealt with the different situations of language contact which
impact the borrowing that occurs. Commerce or incidental contact results in relatively few
loans. Side-by-side contact over decades or centuries, as in the case of the Scandinavians in
England, results in many loans. Domination by one group, such as the French in England after
1066, usually has a one-way effect over time. Contact with a prestige language, whether there
are numbers of speakers in contact or not, often results in borrowing by the educated classes,
which in turn may or may not diffuse the loanwords through the general vocabulary. Latin
phrases are still used in scholarly publications in the West, centuries after Latin was no longer
anyone’s native language. The work on language histories and borrowing resulted in several
major dictionaries, such as the Oxford English Dictionary and the Grosse Worterbuch.
The field of historical linguistics had studied the issues related to borrowing by the time
of Ferdinand de Saussure’s work (1915) in linguistics. To de Saussure, the objects of linguistic
study are the internal workings of the linguistic system. The external elements, such as its
social use, are outside the scope of this area of linguistic study. The study of borrowing was an
example of an external linguistic phenomenon that is important in the historical study of
language but is not relevant within a language system: “a loan-word no longer counts as such
whenever it is studied within a system; it exists only through its relation with, and opposition
to words associated with it…”(1915,22)
3
Edward Sapir’s Language (1921) restated the importance of language contact and
influence in his chapter on “How Languages Influence One Another.” Bloomfield’s influential
Language (1933) included in its twenty-eight chapters three chapters on borrowing. In
“Cultural Borrowing” he paralleled the individual’s early learning of speech forms from those
in the household with the later addition of speech forms from the dialects and languages with
which the individual and group come into contact. Children do not “borrow”; rather, they
“acquire.” He also pointed out that for adults the degree of control of the other language affects
the borrowing. People who know another language will can use the items from the other
language at will. On the other hand, people who read the foreign forms, as opposed to learning
them in conversation, interpret the foreign orthography in native terms. Bloomfield’s “Dialect
Borrowing” starts with the language learning sequence: home, friends, school, occupation,
travel and/or video contact. The speaker learns the language forms appropriate to each,
resulting in the speaker’s repertoire of variations in forms. The process of acquiring language,
including the local, regional, and national or standard forms of speech, was to Bloomfield a
part of the overall process of borrowing.
6. Research Methodology
Language borrowing has been an interest to various fields of linguistics for some time.
(Whitney 1875, deSaussure 1915, Sapir 1921, Pedersen 1931, Haugen 1950, Lehmann 1962,
Hockett 1979, Anttila 1989) In the study language borrowing, loanwords are only one of the
types of borrowings that occur across language boundaries. The speakers of a language have
various options when confronted with new items and ideas in another language. This present
paper is mainly based on the loan words theory of the scholar Haugen (1950). On the basis of
the distinction of importation and substitution, Einar Haugen (1950) distinguished distinct
types of borrowing. The three main types of borrowing are loanwords, loanblends and
loanshifts.
Loanwords: According to Einar Haugen, the term “loanword” is limited to terms in which the
borrowing speakers have imported not only the meaning but also the phonemic shape of the
borrowed words, though with more or less complete substitution of native phonemes. In this
case, the substitution of phonemes can be partial or complete and sometimes there can be no
substitution.
Loanblends: As the word suggests, loanblends are terms in which all substitutions involve a
certain degree of analysis by the speaker of the model that he is imitating. They show
morphemic substitution as well as importation. This type shows both partial substitution and
partial importation.
Loanshifts: Loanshifts show morphemic substitution without importation. Loanshifts include
loan translation and semantic loans. Loan translation is a special type of borrowing in which
the loan is analyzed and morphemically substituted.
Some Hindi Words Found in Myanmar Language
By studying some Hindi loan words influencing in Burmese (Myanmar), it comes to
realize that there are four areas specified such as (1) words used in administrative language, (2)
words in daily use, (3) words in cuisine and (4) words in Burmese slang.
(1)Words used in administrative language

Loanblends
Loanwords
Loanshifts
No Hindi Words Myanmar Words
1 (Karani)
2 (Chapras) ( )
4
Loanblends
Loanwords
Loanshifts
3 (Gora ( )
Sergeant)
4 (Jamada) ( )
5 (Sukkani)
6 (Serang) ( )
7 (Subadar) ( )
8 (Thanar) ( )
9 (Taliars) ( )
10 (Darawant) ( )
11 (Pyada) ( )
12 (Baya) (
)
13 (Mehtar) ( )
Total- 11 - 2
Percentage- 84.6% 0% 15.4%
(2)Words in daily use

Loanwords
Loanblends
Loanshifts
1 (Khaleja) ( )
2 (Kalong) ( )
3 (Gudge) ( )
4 (Gatta) ( )
5 (Khali) ( )
6 (Grigri) ( ဏ ဏ)
7 (Gagara)
8 (Gharry,gari)
9 (Goli) ( )
10 (Gunny)
11 (Salami)
12 (Dhoby) ( )
13 (Pepa) ( )
14 (Paisa) ( )
15 (Milla) ( )
16 (Su ge) ( )
5
Loanblends
Loanwords
Loanshifts
Myanmar Words
No Hindi Words
17 (Leelam) / ( )
18 (Lungi) ( )
19 (Ingi) ( )
Total- 13 3 3
Percentage- 68.4% 15.8% 15.8%
(3)Words in cuisine
Loanblends
Loanwords
Loanshifts
1 (Kheema ( )
Prata)
2 (Char Pari)
3 (Ghee) ( )
4 (Gehom)
5 (Samosa) ( )
6 (Jeera)
7 (Dehi) ( )
8 (Parata) ( )
9 (Puri)
10 (Pudina) ( )
11 (Poun)
11 (Masala)
13 (Malai) ( )
14 (Sharbat) ( )
15 (Ahloo)
Total- 11 3 1
Percentage- 73.3% 20% 6.6%
(4)Words in Myanmar Slang

Loanblends
Loanwords
Loanshifts
1 (Khala) / ( / )
2 (Chota Bhai) ( )
3 (Chokra) ( )
4 (Chokri) ( )
6
Loanblends
Loanwords
Loanshifts
5 (Gan) ( )
6 (Ganja) ( )
7 (Gandu) ( )
8 (Juggah) ( )
9 (Pariah) ( )
10 (Bara Sahib) ( )
11 (Bilayut/Billait) ( )
12 (Bara Bhai) ( )
13 (Mamu) / ( / )
14 (Mawlavi) ( )
15 (Mota) ( )
16 (Mem Sahib) ( )
17 (Hawa) ( )
Total- 7 7 3
Percentage- 41.2% 41.2% 17.6%
Findings and Discussion

The researcher observed Hindi loanwords influencing in Myanmar language exactly in
four aspects such as words used in administrative language, words in daily use, words in
cuisine and words in Myanmar slang. As a result, it can be found that 84.6% of loanwords, 0%
of loanblends and 15.4% of loanshifts are used in administrative language, 68.4% of
loanwords, 15.8% of loanblends and loanshifts in daily use, 73.3% of loanwords, 20% of
loanblends and 6.6% of loanshifts are used in cuisine and also 41.2% of loanwords and
loanblends and 17.6% of loanshifts in Myanmar Slang. In order to present obviously, these
results are shown in pie charts as follow.
Words used in Words in daily use

administrative language 16%
15% 16% Loanwords
0% Loanwords
68% Loanblends
85% Loanblends
Loanshifts
Loanshifts
Fig (i) Words used in administrative language Fig (ii) Words in daily use
When the researcher approached the Hindi loanwords found in Myanmar Language
with four aspects, all these figures show that how much Hindi words using in each aspects
respectively.
7
Words in cuisine Words in Myanmar slang

7% 18%
20%
Loanwords 41% Loanwords
73% Loanblends 41% Loanblends
Loanshifts Loanshifts
Fig (iii) Words in cuisine Fig (iv) Words in Myanmar slang
According to the outcomes of the respective areas under studying how much hindi
loanwords found in Myanmar language are presented as following. For total survey of the
loanwords in Myanmar language, it can be observed that 65.625% of loanwords, 20.31% of
loanblends and 14.062% of loanshifts respectively.
Loanwords, loanblends & Loanshifts influencing in

Myanmar Language
80.00%
60.00% Loanwords
40.00% Loanblends
20.00% Loanshifts
0.00%
Loanwords Loanblends Loanshifts
Fig (v) Total Survey of Hindi Loanwords Influencing in Myanmar Language
By studying the Hindi loanwords in administrative field, it can be observed that

Myanmar was colonized by other country and also, it was ruled for a long time because the
administration of one country can highlight the background history of such country. When hindi
loanwords are found in administrative area, it can be stated that the administrative departments
of Myanmar were ruled by other country once. The longer the colonized, the more loanwords
are influencing. The researcher brought off when the loanwords in daily use and cuisine, all
these words are very familiar with Myanmar ears and even if someone hears the name of such
cuisine, he or she can know the taste of it immediately. When the loanwords in daily use are
ascertained, it can be found that even Myanmar native speakers are not sure whether such
loanwords are hindi or their mother tongue.
By seeing it, it is obvious that there are some disadvantages of loanwords using. And
again, for the words in Myanmar slang, it can be brought about that all of these slangs are
widely used in colony era. Some words are not still used in nowadays. Therefore, by studying
the loanwords in one language, it can be observed the background history of such language.
Conclusion
As far as the researcher is concerned, loanwords are inevitable when languages come
into context and do enrich a language in some way. That is not to suggest languages which
exchange words are more enriched than those which do not, as it could be suggested that
languages and loanwords would find another way to replace the richness brought about by
laonwords. Although the loanwords are allowed to use in one language, there are some
advantages and disadvantages of using loanwords.
8
Some advantages of using loanwords are- more internationalisms, more natural for
bilingual code switchers, language contact means cultural exchange, which is generally a good
thing, useful for historical linguists for reconstructing proto-forms of words and enriches
vocabulary, such as near-but-not-quite synonyms with differences in meaning to express fine
nuances. Some disadvantages of using loanwords are- possible initial awkwardness in
phonology; needs nativization, possible initial awkwardness in morphology, possible initial
awkwardness in orthography, can support cultural hegemony of the donor language, initially
exclusionary toward monolingual members of the speech community, annoying discussions
with language purists and making semantic shifts more obvious due to divergences between
donor and recipient language; leads to annoying discussions with prescriptivists because of the
etymological fallacy.
Loanwords allow for languages to remain relevant. Loanwords provide more means to
express oneself more accurately. To the extent that linguistic relativism alters individual
perspectives, loanwords provide a more broad and holistic perspective on the world. It is often
considered that languages are tools that used to express everything. So, if languages refuse to
evolve, we will stop using them. It is for that reason the researcher finds loanwords do indeed
enrich languages.
Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to express a great sense of gratitude to Dr. Soe Soe Aye, Rector of the Hpa-an
University, the pro-rectors, Dr. San San Hmwe and Dr. Khin Moe Moe, for giving me opportunity to do this
research paper. I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to Associate Professor Daw Zar Chi Soe, Head of
English Department, Hpa-an University, for her sincere encouragement and invaluable comments in the writing of
this research paper. My gratitude and appreciations are also addressed to all of the teachers from English
Department in Hpa-an University, for their valuable suggestions. Without their sound advices, the completion of
this work would not be possible.
References
Alonso, R (2016). Crosslinguistic influencw I second language CQUISITION Multiling Matters.
Andersen , G. (2014). Pragmatic borrowing. Journal of Pragmatics,67,17-33.
Annemarine Esche. (1993). “Some Problems of Hybridity in the Myanmar Language”.
G, A. (2014). Pragmatic borrowing. Journal of Pragmatics,67,17-33.
P, A. (2016). How Language Borrow Morphology.
Saw, K. M. (1995). The Journal of Indic Loan Words, Berlin.
Thamein, H. (1962). Glimpse of Burmese, (in Burmese). The Knowledge Press, Rangoon.
U Tin Htay. (1975). “ Word-borrowing and word-making in Mordern South Asian Languages: Burmese”. in
Southasian Digest of Regional Regional Writing, Vol-4,P-46-47.
APPLICABLE TEACHING METHODS OF TEACHING POETRY
Daw Ei Khine Zune1, U Thein Win Maw2
Abstract
Poetry is a literary work in which the expression of feelings and ideas is given intensely by the use of
distinctive style and rhythm. Poetry has often been neglected as a favorable tool for language teaching. What is
more, its role to expand human experience and create language awareness has not been fully realized. As a reaction
to often-underestimated value of including literature in the language class, this paper presents a poetry-teaching
framework for language practitioners to bridge the gap between literature and language teaching methodology. The
aim of this paper is to introduce teaching methods for prospective teachers who incorporate poetry into language
teaching. The objectives of this paper are to state potential difficulties in teaching poetry and to provide the
applicable teaching methods to overcome these difficulties according to the scholar Margaret H Freeman. With the
help of strategies in this paper, teaching poetry in the language class can help to promote motivation, creativity and
self-expression along with multi-skill development and interaction among learners. This paper suggests that poetry
can become part of language teacher education and also presents the implications for the implementation of poetry
in language classroom.
Key Words: literature and language Teaching, Using Poetry in the Language Class, Poetry-teaching Framework,
Incorporating Poetry into Language Teaching Methodology
Introduction
In English language classrooms, the teachers who teach poetry have always experienced
a wide range of their students’ performance in which some achieve high levels of proficiency,
while others fail to attain perfectly or underachieve. With the rise of the communicative
approaches, the value of literature in the language class has been prominent and how to integrate
literature in L2 (second/foreign) class is very crucial. In language teacher education, almost no
place is reserved to guide poetry teachers to use literary forms for language teaching purposes.
Poetry teachers are generally required to take various literature related training to use literature
for teaching English. They tend to see literature as a way to improve general knowledge putting
aside its use while teaching language. So, this paper proposes a poetry-teaching framework for
language practitioners to bridge the gap between literature and language teaching methodology.
The aim of this paper is to create awareness and motivation for using poetry in the language class
by presenting the easiest ways to approach for poetry teachers.
1.Daw Ei Khine Zune

(Lecturer) English Department
Panglong University
2.U Thein Win Maw
(Lecturer) English Department
Panglong University
Rationale of the Research
Poetry is a form of expression writing and it can get out the readers’ feelings and
thoughts while reading it. Poetry can have a positive impact on the social and emotional learning
of the students. It may offer them a new way of thinking about something and it can help them in
some ways to succeed in their language class. In English specialization, poetry is one of the
subjects that the students had to learn. Most students are unfamiliar with the word usages in
poems and they cannot be emotionally parallel with the flow of the poems. It will be challenging
for poetry teachers to be able to achieve the goals of poetry teaching. The most modern teaching
strategies of poetry are presented in this paper. Therefore, this paper is intended to be effective
tool of solving the difficulties that the teachers and the students face in teaching, learning poetry.
Scope of the research
Poetry teachers have to be knowledgeable and keep abreast with the latest teaching
methods and easiest ways to teach poetry to meet the demands and higher expectations in
education sector. The present research is to find out the potential difficulties in teaching poetry
and to provide the applicable teaching methods to overcome these difficulties. This research
proposes poetry-teaching strategies for poetry teachers to bridge the gap between literature and
language teaching methodology.
Aims and Objectives of the Research
Today is the information technology age and the students, our generation, must be skillful
in all aspects of their educational field: not only in literature but also in language. In order to
handle 21century, the teachers have to provide their students with updated teaching methodology
in order to get the students’ interest. Therefore, the easiest ways and the most applicable teaching
methods of teaching poetry are presented in this paper.
The aims of this research are-
 To enable students to appreciate the beauty, rhyme and style of poem

 To develop a taste for poetry reading and writing
 To enable students to enjoy recitation in individual and chorus
 To develop aesthetic sense of students
 To create love for English literature in them
 To develop the imagination in them
The objectives of this research are-
 To provide the easiest ways to teach poetry

 To implement the teaching methods of poetry in language classroom
 To overcome the difficulties facing in poetry
Literature Review
As the present research concerns with teaching poetry, definitions of poetry, why student
should learn poetry, how to approach poetry easily, the advantages of teaching poetry and why
literature is important in language learning, modern teaching techniques or teaching strategies of
poetry are discussed.
Poetry is a composition in metre and a composition of high beauty of thought or language

and artistic form, in verse or prose and it is a creation or achievement, etc, marked by beauty or
artistry. (Chambers Student Dictionary)
Poetry is emotion put into measure. (Thomas Hardy)
Poetry is the language of the imagination and the passions. (William Hazllitt)
Poetry is not to transmit thought but to set up in the readers’ sense of vibration
corresponding to what was felt by the writer. (A.E.Housman)
Poetry is the language in which man explores his own amazement. (Christopher Fry)
Poetry is a rhythmical form of words which express an imaginative-emotional-intellectual

experience of the writer’s in such a way that it creates a similar experience in the mind of his
reader or listener. (Clive Sansom)
Poetry is the spontaneous outflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origins from emotion
recollected in tranquility. (William Wordsworth, Lyrical Ballads, 1802)
Poetry is the revelation of a feeling that the poet believes to be interior and personal
which the reader recognizes as his own. (Salvatore Quasimodo)
Poetry is an art form in which human language is used for its aesthetic qualities in
addition to, or instead of, its notional and semantic content. It consists largely of oral or literary
works in which language is used in a manner that is felt by its user and audience to differ from
ordinary prose. (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry)
Poetry is a literary expression in which words are used in a concentrated blend of sound
and imagery to create an emotional response. (www.iclasses.org/assets/literature/literary-
glossary.cfm)
Why the students should learn poetry
Literature is like a physician because it can treat or make so many kinds of hearts to be
soft and gentle and even can change the one’s mindset. Poetry is a kind of literature that can give
so many advantages to students’ life. Students need to learn to read a variety of texts and poems.
The unique thing about poetry is that they often read aloud, repeat often and share in groups.
When they are listening to poems orally, they are building their listening skills. They learn to
attend to the words they hear and to think about what those words mean together. And when
sharing poems in a classroom, they look at and read them together and so the students are
strengthening their reading skills and build reading fluency through repeated reading. For these
reasons, the students should learn poetry.
The advantages of teaching poetry
Poetry writing is an excellent practice for strengthening one’s writing skills. Through
poetry writing, the students gain command of language, cultivate a robust vocabulary, master
literary devices, and learn to work in imagery. Besides, poetry has other advantages that are
meaningful on a more personal level. Writing has long been hailed as a deeply therapeutic
practice. In fact, all the arts have therapeutic benefits. But poetry imparts a broad range of
emotional and intellectual benefits that are useful to personal growth, whether the students are
working on self-improvement, emotional or psychological coping and healing, developing
relationships, and even furthering their careers-including careers outside of the writing field.
 Therapeutic: Poetry fosters emotional expression and healing through self-expression

and exploration of one’s feelings. It provides a safe way to vent, examine, and understand
the feelings.
 Self-awareness: Through raw expression of our thoughts and feelings, poetry can help to
become more attuned to what’s going on in the hearts and minds.
 Creative thinking: With its emphasis on symbolism, metaphor, and imagery, poetry
writing fosters and promotes creative thinking.
 Connections: Many people write poetry privately, but when poems are shared, they can
inspire, move, and honor other people, forging deeper interpersonal connections.
 Critical thinking: Through the expression of thoughts and ideas, poetry pushes the
readers to challenge themselves intellectually.
 Language and speaking: The practice of poetry strengthens language, writing, and
speaking skills.
 Developing perspective, empathy, and world views: Writing poetry often prompts us to
look at the world from a variety of perspectives, which fosters empathy and expands
one’s world view.
 Cognitive function: Whether the students are searching for the perfect word, working
out how to articulate a thought, or fine-tuning the rhythm and meter of a poem, the steps
involved in crafting poetry strengthen their cognitive processes.
The difficulties that the readers face in poetry
There are so many difficulties in poetry. Firstly, lexical difficulty: the poem contains
words with whose sense the readers are unfamiliar, or words used at various forms or even
contrary to their dictionary definitions. Secondly, allusive difficulty: the poem that alludes
frequently eludes. The poet refers to something the readers have not heard of, assumes a piece of
knowledge they don’t have. Thirdly, syntactical difficulty: the obstacle of complex, unfamiliar,
dislocated, broken, or incomplete syntax: one cannot discern or reconstruct the relations of the
grammatical units. Swerving away from the conventions of prose syntax has long been an
integral part of poetic practice. Fourthly, semantic difficulty: the readers have trouble
determining or deciding what a poem means, the readers cannot immediately interpret it.
Semantic difficulty encompasses figurative difficulty, in which the readers can’t unpack the
poem’s metaphors, or can’t determine what is tenor and what is vehicle, especially when, as is
frequently the case, one or the other is omitted, or when the presence and process of figuration is
only implied. Then, there is formal difficulty: the readers cannot ascertain the poem’s shape,
cannot hold it in one’s head as a construct. Or one cannot determine what kind of poem it is, and
thus doesn’t know how to read it, in much the same sense that one might try and fail to read a
person. The readers cannot determine or recognize the formal contract to which the poem asks
him or her to agree. This difficulty most commonly encountered with poems that play with or
violate conventions and expectations, that try to break and/or recreate form.
The challenges in teaching and learning poetry
Killander (2011) describes four challenges in teaching and learning poetry in English
language teaching (ELT) classrooms: Teachers and students should have extra thinking to get the
meaning of poems that they read, teachers and students get difficulty because of linguistic
aspects, some students feel bored in reading poetry because they cannot get the benefits from that
activity, teachers do not have the confidence to struggle, bare all or take such chances in
teaching. Teachers sometimes do not know the level of their students, they just give the material
without considering students’ level. Additionally, Cubukcu (2010) explains that “poems pose a
challenging cognitive task. Readers must first have a basic understanding of a concept or
emotion and then transform that understanding into meaningful creative expression by exploring
and distilling complex ideas”. It is difficult for students to know the meaning of poem because
they have to understand the basic concept of poem.
Some solutions for difficulties in teaching poetry
There are some solutions to overcome some challenges in teaching poetry in ELT
classrooms. Dymoke and Hughes (2009) state that it is important for teachers to be teacher-
writer and to model themselves as both writers and readers of poetry to support students in
writing, although it is not embedded with the curriculum. Additionally, Hennessy, Hinchion and
McNamara (2010) state that to gain pupils’ understanding in poetry, the use of illustration of
poetry, drama-in-education techniques and poetic composition are very helpful in the classroom.
Moreover, Stange and Wyant (2018) give the solutions to face the challenges during teaching
and learning poetry as follow:
1. Teachers should create a positive classroom to encourage their students and to improve
learning process of literacy.
2. Teacher should incorporate some strategies in curriculum that are useful in the classroom.
3. Students should write their own poetry to improve the ability and teacher must support
them.
Some applicable strategies for learning poetry
The following are the collections of strategies for the students who have to studied poetry
in their language classroom.
1.Pay attention to form. The form of a poem is the physical arrangement of the words on
a page. This includes the way lines are placed, their grouping, and their length.
 Look at the poem before reading it

 Examine whether the lines and stanzas form a regular pattern. If not, determine
why.
 Listen for rhythm as you read the poem aloud.
 Pause where punctuation marks appear, not where the line ends. Stopping at
appropriate spots helps clarify meaning.
2.Pay attention to sound devices. Skilled poets use sound devices for a reason, usually to
draw attention to major points.
 Read the poem aloud several times.

 Identify the sound devices and determine why the poet chose them.
 Determine why the poet chose them.
 Look for near rhyme. Poets often use near rhyme to make the reader focus on an
important word.
 Determine the purpose of the sound.
3.Look for figurative language. Because poets have fewer words with which to work,
they must use them sparingly. Figurative language allows them to cover much with title.
 Visualize figurative language.

 Analyze the meaning of each metaphor or simile.
4.Look at the title. Determine if the title contributes any special meaning to the poem.
5.Make connections. Personalizing poetry makes it meaningful.
6.Summarize the poem’s meaning.

Some strategies for teaching poetry
There are ten ways to teach poetry easily. These strategies are presented as follow.
1.Introduce poetry with poems that the students can relate to.
The teachers should provide the poem that is popular among the student in order to get
students’ attention in poetry.
2.Read each poem aloud to students more than once.
In the first reading, students are so engrossed in the story the poem is trying to tell that
they miss all the poetry elements. By reading a poem second time, students can start to listen for
the important components and they’ll discover things not seen before.
3.Set up a poetry corner in the classroom.
The teachers should love getting students excited and keeping them excited about reading
poetry. The best way is to transform reading corner into a poetry display corner. And the teachers
should pull out all of books relating to poetry and put them on display.
4.Learn about the poet prior to reading their poetry.
A lot of poets write poems about their mood, life events, family and relationships, and
nature. So, the teachers should learn as much as they can about the poet. Where and in what time
period did he/she live? Understanding the time period the poem was written and the background
of the poet is essential to drawing conclusion about the poem’s meaning.
5.Spend time analyzing poetry to really understand the poet’s purpose.
It’s really important that the teachers spend time reading the poems themselves and fully
understand it before they attempt to teach it to students. Teaching students to analyze poetry isn’t
one of those things the teachers can just pick up and teach; some poems are really hard for adults
to understand, let alone ask students to understand. So, the teachers really need to spend time
thinking, reflecting, asking questions about what they’ve read and really understand the poem
themselves.
6.Start each day with a read aloud poem.
The teachers should start off each day during the poetry unit with a read aloud. The
students really enjoy hearing poems and the writing voice of different authors. Exposing poetry
everyday can accelerate the students’ emotion on poetry.
7.Teach figurative language to help students better understand the poem’s meaning.
Some poems require very basic surface level understanding while other poems are
challenging to grasp what the poet is really trying to say. Poems often use metaphors, similes,
onomatopoeia, alliteration, idioms and other figurative language. Teach students the meaning of
these kinds of figurative language. Understanding these poetic devices will help unlock the
meaning hidden within some poems and allow for deeper critical thinking.
8.Get excited when poetry is taught, let loose.
When the teachers really enjoy reading and responding to poetry, their students will pick
up on the teacher’s excitement. Also, the teachers should use the funny voices when they read
aloud and laugh at the funny parts.
9.Give the students a chance to write their own poetry.
To solidify students love for poetry, let them write. The teachers can provide them with
many different styles, alliterations, etc. And the teachers should teach their students that poetry
doesn’t have to rhyme. Let them experience the fun of writing their own poems about what
interests them.
10.Encourage students to share their poetry.
Once students have written some poetry of their own, let them show it off. The teachers
can pair up the students allow them to share their written works in buddy pairs. This is great
because it’s a small group and helps to build classroom relationships and even confidence.
Research Methodology
The focus of the research was to explore issues regarding the methodology of teaching
poetry, the obstacles that both the students and the teachers face during teaching and learning
poetry, the educational tools that the teachers use in order to motivate students for poetry
learning, as well as the teachers’ views on the issue of teaching poetry. The research procedure
includes practical teaching in first year English specialization class at Panglong University by
using the teaching strategies presented in this research. To collect the necessary data, there are all
together nineteen students are included in practical teaching. As the teaching material, the poem
“The Secret Heart” by Robert Peter Tristram Coffin was used to analyze. During practical
teaching, ten strategies of teaching presented in this research were all used. The poem used as
teaching material is as follow.
The Secret Heart
Across the years he could recall
His father one way best of all.

In the stillest hour of night
The boy awakened to a light.
Half in dreams, he saw his sire
With his great hands full of fire.
The man had struck a match to see
If his son slept peacefully.
He held his palms each side the spark
His love had kindled in the dark.
His two hands were curved apart
In the semblance of a heart.
He wore, it seemed to his small son,
A bare heart on his hidden one,
A heart that gave out such a glow
No son awake could bear to know.
It showed a look upon his face
Too tender for the day to trace.
One instant, it lit all about,
And then the secret heart went out.
But it shone long enough for one
To know that hands held up the sun.
Robert Peter Tristram Coffin
All the students were asked to look at the poem before reading it and examine whether
the lines and stanzas form are a regular pattern or not. And then, they were asked to find the
rhyming words and made them decide these are regular or not. After that, they were encouraged
to look at the title, not the whole poem and imagine which expressions that they expect to read in
the poem and they were given a chance to determine if the title contributes any special meaning.
The present research focuses on the teaching techniques of poetry. Panglong University is
situated in Southern Shan State in Myanmar and is a small university which has about 800
students in all specializations. There are only 60 English specialization students from first year to
MA class. As the nature of teaching English literature is different from the nature of English
language skills, the necessity for modern teaching techniques and approach style to literature
becomes totally different. As a poetry teacher of Panglong University, in order to get the
students’ interest on poetry, various kinds of teaching techniques of poetry are used to motivate
the students. By implementing the teaching techniques presented in this paper practically in the
classroom and after analyzing 19 students’ responses, the findings and discussion are presented
in this chapter. According to the results, 12 students (63.15%) are familiar with poetry writing
style and only 7 students (36.84%) are not. At first, most students feel bored in poetry but
gradually and gradually they follow the flow of poet and do love for English literature indeed.
With the help of teaching strategies, the students can examine whether the lines and
stanzas form are regular or not and they can even determine on them. They begin to realize the
rhyming system and figurative language. The students become emotionally parallel with the poet
due to spending time of analyzing poetry in order to really understand the poet’s purpose. In this
respect, active participation in exploring both linguistic and cultural processes resulted in self-
discovery through access to others’ experiences (Carter, 2007). Some other positive perceptions
centered on realizing the potential of using poetry in the language class to foster multi-skill
development, and to create more communication opportunities with peers. Incorporating poetry
was perceived as beneficial for fostering language skills, interaction, and creating context for
teaching in the language class. Furthermore, poetry teachers worked in a collaborative fashion
through discussion and sharing of ideas despite the fact that poetry has often been considered as
an individual activity. Creating an interactive atmosphere is crucial to engage learners in literary
experiences in the language classroom. The findings of the study revealed that when poetry is
effectively incorporated into the classroom in an interactive fashion, it may promote expressive
abilities of the learners.
As a result, by using teaching techniques of poetry to incorporate poetry into the

language class, poetry teachers become realize the potential of sharing experiences for better
interaction, cooperation and understanding. It echoes the idea that when poems are used to create
interactive and collaborative atmosphere, they promote communication and individual
expression as well. It can be assumed from poetry teachers’ reflections that receiving teaching
techniques on using poetry broadened their horizons and paved the way for more motivation,
language development, and learner involvement.
Conclusion
In building a peaceful, modern, developed nation, teachers are responsible to produce and
nurture highly qualified human resources. And teachers have to keep in contact with the relevant
and up-to-date knowledge in academic field as well as the modern teaching techniques for
education to fulfill the needs of the 21st century. So, this paper provides the applicable teaching
techniques of poetry as the necessity of poetry teacher for developing students.
The research is concluded that literature should be taught taking into account the
students’ reaction towards it and teachers ought to adapt their methods to create an easier access
to text. Forcing students to recite poems by heart will not make them love poetry, and having
them learnt literary commentaries will not make them understand the beauty of a fictional text.
Therefore, by translating poetry into an accessible form of discourse, students will come closer to
it, will try to cope with it and eventually they will understand it. This way a literature teacher
may work on developing students’ creativity, their sense of criticism and eventually their
personality. Moreover, adopting a new and interactive strategy in teaching poetry to the students
(future generations) comes as a benefit not only for the classes of literature but also in students’
critical thinking.
There is no greater reward for a teacher than getting his students love the subject he
teaches and to find out that it is all due to a small change of perspective. Because it is very
important to start teaching by asking about the students’ experience and about their expectations
on the subject. And only by doing so, a teacher together with his students can reach the realms of
poetry, can reach the unexpected thing of beauty.
Acknowledgements
Our profound gratitude goes to Dr. Nwe Nwe Yin, acting rector, University of Panglong,
for her encouragement and administrative assistance in carrying out this research paper. And our
millions of thanks to Daw Po Po Zaw, our respectable head of English Department, Panglong
University, for her kindly guidance in doing this research paper.
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Panglong University Research Journal 2020, Vol-12, No 1
Function Words Found In Donald J. Trump’s Inauguration Speech

U Thein Win Maw 1, Daw Ei Khine Zune 2
Abstract
Language is a system of communication by written or spoken words, which is used by the
people of a particular country or area and communication is the use of written or spoken
words to communicate. According to Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English(Fifth
Edition), function word is a word that does not mean anything on its own, but shows the
relationship between other words in a sentence. In linguistics, function words are words that
have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning and express grammatical
relationships among other words within a sentence or specify the attitude or mood of the
speaker. The aim of this paper is to study function words how they work in the sentences.
The objectives of this paper are to examine the importance of function words, their uses in
the sentences and to find out function words which are mostly used and function words
which are used the least. According to Charles Carpenter Fries (1952), function words are
divided into six types. They are conjunctions, prepositions, articles, auxiliaries, pronouns
and particles. In this paper, function words found in Donald Trump’s inaugural speech are
studied and he is the 45th President of the United States of America until now.
Keywords: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, auxiliaries, pronouns, particles
Introduction
Language is the method of human communication, either spoken or written text,
consisting of the use of the words in a structural and conventional way. Human language
allows speakers to express thoughts in sentences comprising subjects, verbs and objects.
Language can vary because they have to add new words to describe new things. Morphology
is the study of how the words are formed, and their relationship to other words. On the other
hand, morphology is the study of morphemes, that cannot be divided into smaller elements.
Morphemes can be classified into two word classes; open class and closed class. Open class
refers to the category of content words, that is part of speech. Closed class refers to the
category of function words. Function word has little or no meaningful content. However, they
show grammatical or structural relationship with other words in the sentence. They exist as
the important elements in the sentence. In this research, the researcher studied function words
found in Donald Trump’s inaugural address by using Charles Carpenter Fries' theory (1952).
He is an American structural linguist and language teacher.
Background of the research
In English, we cannot avoid using function words not only in informal English but
also in formal English. Function words include articles, conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns,
auxiliary verbs and particles. Function words play the most important role for learning
English and it is believed that they are one of the essential things for English language
learners. Even though function words don't have concrete meaning, a sentence would make a
lack of sense without them. Thus, it can be said that function words are a must for
understanding the sentences formed from the writer's or speaker's thoughts. The present study
was based and analysed by the use of Charles Carpenter Fries’ theory (1952).
Function words are closed lexical categories and sometimes they are known as closed classes.
Function words have little meaning outside of their grammatical purposes. They are used to
relate phrases of various types to other phrases. Function words are closed because adding a
new member to a closed category rarely occurs. They help us connect important information
1
U, (Lecturer) English Department, Panglong University
2
Daw, (Lecturer), English Department, Panglong University
2 Panglong University Research Journal 2020, Vol-12, No
and so they are very important both for writing sentences and for the utterances. Without
knowing the use of function words, any English learners can neither speak nor write
effectively as well as correctly. It is clearly observed in this research how function words act
in the sentences and why they are important for making sentences.
Objectives of the Research
The objectives of this study are to examine the importance of function words, their uses in
the sentence and to find out function words which are mostly used and function words which
are the least from Donald J. Trump’s Presidential Inaugural Address which was delivered
in Washington, D.C in January 20, 2017.
Scope of the Research
This study focuses on the importance and correct usage of function words such as
articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and particles through the theory of
Charles Carpenter Fries (1952) in Donald Trump’s inaugural speech transcript. It is thought
that even one word such as a, an or the (article) shows that the written or spoken text is not
only a singular noun or a plural noun but also the definite article or the indefinite article in the
sentences.By looking at the use of articles in the sentences or utterances, the speaker or the
listener can clearly realize what other people want to convey meaning whether the
information and fact they give is general or definite. Therefore, function words are crucial not
only for speaking but also for writing.
Literature Review
Language is not only a social communication between the speaker and listener but
also a tool of communication because it describes the expression of thoughts and feelings of
individuals. Moreover, language is utilized to express ourselves. Language focuses on words,
symbols of signs while communication is essential on the message. Syntax is related to the
language and syntactic structures are concerned to specify what is and what is not possible in
language. By using syntactic rules, it can be said that something, for instance, sentences or
words cannot be categorized as language. They have to follow the rules so as to be called a
corrective sentence or phrase of the language. This is one of the competence of syntax.
Words can be grouped into a relatively small number of word classes, namely lexical
categories. Function words are closed lexical categories.
According to Charles Carpenter Fries(1952), there are lexical categories, grammatical
categories, figures of speech and context and cohesion. Among these four headings, this
study investigates the function words that include lexical categories. Function words
(sometimes called structure words) proposed by Charles Carpenter Fries(1952) are closed
classes that have little meaning out of their grammatical purpose and are used to relate
phrases of various types of other phrases. These classes are called “closed” because the
addition of a new member to a closed category rarely occurs ,however, this contrasts with
open classes , such as Noun , Verb , Adjective and Adverb, to which new members can be
added easily. “Closed Classes” include article, pronoun, preposition, auxiliaries , conjunction
and particle. According to Charles Carpenter Fries’ theory(1952), function words are (1)
Article (2) Pronoun (3) Preposition (4) Conjunction (5) Auxiliaries (6) Particle.
Methodology and Six types of function words
The data of Donald J. Trump’s inaugural address are analysed through six types of function
words: article, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, auxiliaries and particle. In this study,
Charles Carpenter Fries’ theory (1952) is used for classifying and categorizing function
words.
Article
An Article (abbreviation ART) is a word that is used alongside a noun to specify
grammatical definiteness of a noun. The articles in English grammar are "the" (definite) and
"a/ an" (indefinite). "A" (as an indefinite article) is used before nouns that begin with a
consonant sound. Articles are usually categorized as either definite or indefinite. A few
languages with well-developed systems of article may be distinguished additional subtypes.
Within each type, languages may have various forms of each article, due to confirming to
grammatical attributes such as gender, number, or case, or else modified as influenced by
adjacent sounds as in elision. "An" (an indefinite article) is used before a vowel. Every noun
must be accompanied by the article corresponding to its definiteness, and the lack of an
article (considered a zero article) itself specifies a certain definiteness. This is in contrast to
other determiners and adjectives, which are typically optional. This obligatory nature of
articles makes them among the most common words in English. For example, the most
frequent word is "the". In many languages, articles are a special part of speech which cannot
easily be combined with other parts of speech. In English grammar, articles are frequently
considered part of a border category called determiners. Articles and other determiners are
also sometimes counted as a type of adjective since they describe the words that they come
before.
Pronoun
In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun (abbreviated PRO) is a word that substitutes for
a noun or noun phrase. It is a particular case of a pro-form. Pronouns have traditionally been
regarded as one of the parts of speech, but some modern theorists would not consider them to
form a single class, in view of the variety of function they perform. The use of pronouns
often involves anaphora, where the meaning of the pronoun is dependent on an antecedent.
There are seven types of pronouns in accordance with Charles Carpenter Fries’ theory (1952).
1. Personal pronouns
2. Reflexive and Reciprocal pronouns
3. Possessive pronouns
4. Demonstrative pronouns
5. Relative pronouns
6. Interrogative pronouns
7. Indefinite pronouns
Personal pronoun
Personal pronouns may be classified by person, number, gender, and case. English has three
persons (first, second and third) and two numbers (singular and plural); in the third person
singular there are also distinct pronoun forms for male, female and neuter gender. English
personal pronoun has two cases; subject and object. Subject pronouns are used in subject
position. For example, we would go to Bagan but she wouldn’t go. Object pronouns are used
for the object of a verb of position. For instance, mother scolds us, but not him.
Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronoun
Reflexive pronouns are used when a person or thing acts on itself. In English they all end in
self or selves and must refer to a noun phrase elsewhere in the same clause. For example, I
hate myself. Reciprocal pronouns refer to a reciprocal relationship (each other, one another).
They must refer to a noun phrase in the same clause. For example, the girls used to tease one
another.
Possessive pronoun
Possessive pronouns are used to indicate possessive (in a broad sense). Some occur as
independent noun phrase: mine, yours, ours, hers, and theirs. For instance, those sheep are
yours. Others must accompany a noun:my, your, her, our, and their. For example, she lost our
trust.The term "possessive pronoun" is sometimes restricted to the first type. Both types
replace possessive noun phrases. For example, "His buildings are new" can be substituted by"
Mg Kyaw's buildings are new".
Demonstrative pronoun
Demonstrative pronouns (in English, this, that and their plurals these, those) often
distinguish their targets by pointing or some other indication of position. For example, I'll
purchase these. They may also be anaphoric, depending on an earlier expression for context.
For example, my mother bought some oranges from City Mart and who want to eat those?
Relative pronoun
Relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, what, which and that) refer back to people or
things previously mentioned: for example, this is a cup of beer that I ordered for you. They
are used in relative clauses.
Interrogative pronoun
Interrogative pronouns ask which person or thing is meant. In reference to a person,
one may use who (subject), whom (object) or whose (possessive); For example, "Who is
waiting for you?" In colloquial speech, whom is generally replaced by who". English non-
personal interrogative pronouns (which and what) have only one form.
Indefinite pronoun
Indefinite pronouns, the largest group of pronouns, refer to one or more unspecified persons
or things. One group in English includes compounds of some-, any-, every- and no- with –
thing, -one and –body. For example, Everyone works for his or her life. Another group,
including many, more and both and most, can appear alone or followed by of. In addition,
distributive pronouns are used to refer to members of a group separately rather than
collectively. For example, The teacher gave candies to each in the class. Negative pronouns
indicate the non- existence of people or things. For example: No one knows me. Impersonal
pronouns normally refer to a person, but are not specific as to first, second or third person in
the way that the personal pronouns are. For example: One did not pay attention to the
teacher.
Preposition
Preposition is a class of words that illustrates spatial or temporal relations (in, under,
towards, before) or marks various semantic roles (of, for). A preposition typically combines
with a noun or pronoun, or more generally a noun phrase this being called its complement, or
sometimes objects. A preposition comes before its complement; a preposition comes after its
complement.
Preposition can be used to express a wide range of semantic relations between their
complement and the rest of the context. The relations expressed may be spatial (denoting
location or direction), temporal (denoting position in time), or relations expressing
comparison, content, agent, instrument, means, manner, cause, purpose, reference, etc. The
preposition may have little independent semantic context of its own, and there may be no
clear reason why the particular preposition is used rather than another. Let’s see in particular
direction "to", for example, U Naing went to Mandalay. Similarly, we can express the time ,
for instance , Daw Lay died in 2007 and The meeting is on Monday, however , we can use
“in” and “on” for location and such prepositions “at” , “behind” , “above” can also be
applied. Let’s take a look at the sample sentences: My parents are at home and the robber is
hiding behind the tree and we are flying above the clouds. Many other forms of prepositions
are usually utilized for making sentences.
Conjunction
In grammar, a conjunction (abbreviated Conj) is a part of speech that connects words, phrases
or clauses that are called the conjuncts of the conjoining construction. The term discourse
marker is mostly used as conjunctions for joining sentences. The definition may also be
extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit for the same function. In general, a
conjunction is an invariable grammatical particle and it may or may not stand between the
items in a conjunction. Conjunctions may be placed at the beginning of sentences. Types of
conjunctions are: 1. Coordinating conjunctions
2. Correlative conjunctions
3. Subordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that join, or coordinate two or more items
(such as main clauses, words, or sentences) of equal syntactic importance. In English, the
mnemonic acronym FANBOYS can be used to remember the coordinators for, and, nor, but,
or, yet and so. Moreover, coordinating conjunctions include "but nor", "and nor" and "or
nor".The examples of coordinating conjunctions in English are described in latter sentences.
For- presents rationale, E.g. Thida did not go to school for she was sick yesterday. And-
presents non-contrasting item(s) or idea(s), E.g. Thura drinks alcohol and he also smokes
cigarette. Nor- presents a non-contrasting negative idea, E.g. This isn’t the main reason, nor
is it the most important. But- presents a contrast or exception, E.g. They are well-to-do but
they are bad-tempered. Or- presents an alternative item or idea, E.g. Every evening they walk
or they play chinlone. Yet- presents a contrast or exception, E.g. Yin Mya is gorgeous yet she
is rather poor. So- presents a consequence, E.g. U Nyan worked very hard so he became
wealthy.
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal
weight in a sentence. There are many different pairs of correlative conjunctions. They are:
either---- or , not only---- but( also) , neither---- nor, both---- and , whether---- or , just
as---- so , the---- the , as---- as , as much---- as , no sooner---- than , rather---- than.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are conjunctions that join an
independent clause and a dependent clause and also introduce adverb clauses. The
subordinating conjunction performs two important functions within a sentence. They are
illustrating the importance of the independent clause and providing a transition between two
ideas in the same sentence by indicating a time, place or cause and therefore effecting the
relationship between the clauses. Subordinating clauses must precede the main clause on
which they depend. The most common subordinating conjunctions in English language
include after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because,
before, even if, even though, every time, if, in order that, since, so that, so, then, though,
unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, and while. Complement can be
considered to be special subordinating conjunctions that introduce complement clauses.
Auxiliary Verbs
An auxiliary verb (abbreviated AUX) is a verb that adds functional or grammatical meaning
to the clause in which it appears, such as to express tense, aspect, modality, voice, emphasis,
etc. Auxiliary verbs usually accompany a main verb. The main verb provides the main
semantic content of the clause. Some sentences contain a chain of two or more auxiliary
verbs. Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs, helper verbs or (verbal) auxiliaries. A list
of verbs that can function as auxiliaries in English. They are: Verb to be ( am, is, are, was,
were, be ,being, been), Verb to do (do, does, did), Verb to have (has, have, had) and
modal verbs (can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must, need, dare, ought).
Particle
In grammar, the term particle (abbreviated PTCL) has a traditional meaning, as a part
of speech that cannot be inflected, and a modern meaning, as a function word associated with
another word or phrase to impart meaning. In modern grammar, a particle is a function word
that must be associated with another word or phrase to impart meaning. According to this
definition, particles are a separate part of speech and are distinct from other classes of
function words, such as articles, prepositions, and conjunctions and adverbs.
Particle is a somewhat nebulous term for a variety of small words that do not
conveniently fit into other classes of words. The term includes:
• the "adverbial particles" like "up" or "out" verbal idioms ( phrasal or
prepositional verbs) such as " grow up" or " take out"
• the "infinitival particle" like "to"
• the "negative particle" like "not"
• the "imperative particle" like "do" and "let", and sometimes
• the "pragmatic particles" like "oh" and "well"
Data Collection: Function words in Donald Trump’s inaugural address, according to the
theory of Charles Carpenter Fries (1952), are collected and analyzed. Table (1,2,3,4,5&6) and
Figure (1) show total times and percentage of function words found in “Donald Trump’s
inauguration speech”.
Table.1
Pronoun Conj:
Prep:
Aux:
Sr
Ptcl:
Art:
Original Sentences
C1
C2
C3
No
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
1. Chief Justice Roberts, President Carter,

President Clinton, President Bush,
√ √ √ √
President Obama, fellow Americans, and
people of the world: Thank you.
2. We, the citizens of America, are now
√
joined in a great national effort to rebuild √ √√ √
√ √ √ √
our country and to restore its promise for √ √√ √
√
all of our people.
3. Together, we will determine the course of √ √
√ √ √ √
America and the world for years to come. √ √
4. We will face challenges. √ √
5. We will confront hardships. √ √
6. But we will get the job done. √ √ √ √
7. Every four years, we gather on these steps
to carry out the orderly and peaceful
√√
transfer of power and we are grateful to √ √√ √
√ √√ √ √√ √
President Obama and First Lady Michella √ √ √
√
Obama for their gracious aid throughout
this transition.
8. They have been magnificent. √ √2
9. Today's ceremony, however, has very
√
special meaning.
10. Because today we are not transferring
power from one Administration to
√√
another, or from one party to another-but √√ √√ √
√ √√ √ √√
we are transferring power from √ √ √
√√
Washington, D.C and giving it back to
you, the American people.
Table.2
Pronoun Conj:
Prep:
Aux:
Sr
Ptcl:
Art:
Original Sentences
No
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
11. For too long, a small group in our nation's √
Capital has reaped the rewards of √ √√
√ √ √√
government while the people have borne √ √
the cost. √
12. Washington flourished-but the people did
√ √ √ √ √ √
not share in its wealth.
13. Politicians prospered-but the jobs left, √
√√
and the factories closed. √
14. The establishment protected itself, but not √
√ √ √ √ √
the citizens of our country. √
15. Their victories have not been your
√
victories; their triumphs have not been
√ √√ √
your triumphs; and while they celebrated √√
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
in our nation's Capital, there was little to √
√ √√ √
celebrate for struggling families all across
√
the land.
16. That all changes-starting right here, and
√
right now, because this moment is your √√ √ √ √ √ √
√
moment: it belongs to you.
17. It belongs to everyone gathered here
today and everyone watching all across √ √√ √√ √
America.
18. This is your day. √ √ √
19. This is your celebration. √ √ √
20. And this, the United States of America, is
√ √ √ √ √ √
your country.
21. What truly matters is not which party
√
controls our government, but whether our √ √ √ √ √√ √
√
government is controlled by the people.
22. January 20th 2017, will be remembered as √
the day the people became the rulers of √ √ √ √ √
this nation again. √
23. The forgotten men and women of our √
√ √ √ √
country will be forgotten no longer. √
24. Everyone is listening to you now. √ √ √ √
25. You came by the tens of millions to √
become part of a historic movement the √ √ √√
√ √ √
likes of which the world has never seen √ √ √√
before. √
26. At the center of this movement is a √
√
crucial conviction: that a nation exists to √ √ √√ √ √
√
serve its citizens. √
27. Americans want great schools for their
√ √√
children, safe neighborhoods for their √ √
√ √
families, and good jobs for themselves.
28. These are the just and reasonable
√
demands of a righteous public. √ √ √ √
√
Abbreviation
Art: = Article P5 = Relative pronoun Conj = Conjunction
P 1 = Personal pronoun P6 = Interrogative pronoun C1 = Coordinating conjunction
P 2 = Reflexive and Reciprocal P7 = Indefinite pronoun C2 = Correlative conjunction
P 3 = Possessive pronoun Prep = Preposition C3 = Subordinating conjunction
P 4 = Demonstrative pronoun Aux = Auxiliary Ptcl = Particle
Table.3
Pronoun Conj:
Prep:
Aux:
Sr
Ptcl:
Art:
Original Sentences
C1
C2
C3
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
No
29. But for too many of our citizens, a
different reality exists: Mothers and
√
children trapped in poverty in our inner
√
cities; rusted-out factories scattered like √
√ √√ √
tombstones across the landscape of our √
√ √√ √
nation; an education system, flush with √ √ √
√ √√ √
cash, but which leave our young and √
√ √√ √
beautiful students deprived knowledge, √
√
and the crime and drugs that have stolen
√
too many lives and robbed our country of
so much unrealized potential.
30. This American carnage stops right here
√ √
and stops right now.
31. We are one nation-and their pain is our √
√ √ √√
pain. √
32. Their dreams are our dreams; and their √ √√
√
success will be our success. 4 √
33. We share one heart, one home, and one
√ √
glorious destiny.
34. The oath of office I take today is an oath √
√ √3 √
of allegiance to all Americans. √
35. For many decades, we've enriched foreign
industry at the expense of American
industry; subsidized the armies of other
countries while allowing for the very sad √√
√
depletion of our military; we've defended √ √√ √ √√ √√
√ √√ √
other nation's borders while refusing to √ √√ √ √ √
√
defend our own; and spent trillions of √√
dollars overseas while America's
infrastructure has fallen into disrepair and
decay.
36. We've made other countries rich while the
√
wealth, strength, and confidence of our √ √ √√ √ √ √√
√
country has disappeared over the horizon.
37. One by one, the factories shuttered and
√ √√
left our shores, with not even a thought
√ √ √√ √ √
about the millions upon millions of
√ √
American workers left behind.
38. The wealth of our middle class has been
√ √ √√ √
ripped from their homes and then √
√ √ √ √
redistributed across the entire world.
39. But that is the past. And now we are √ √
√ √ √ √√
looking only to the future. √ √
40. We assembled here today are issuing a
new decree to be heard in every city, in √
√ √ √4 √ √
every foreign capital, and in every hall of √
power.
41. From this day forward, a new vision will
√ √ √ √√ √
govern our land.
42. From this moment on, it's going to be
√ √ √√ √√ √
America First.
43. Every decision on trade, on taxes, on
immigration, on foreign affairs, will be √√ √
√ √
made to benefit American workers and √√ √
American families.
Table.4
Pronoun Conj:
Aux:
Sr
Ptcl:
Prep:
Art:
Original Sentences
C1
C2
C3
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
No
44. We must protect our borders from the √
ravages of other countries making our √
√ √ √√ √ √
products, stealing our companies, and √
destroying our jobs. √
45. Protection will lead to great prosperity
√ √ √
and strength.
46. I will fight for you with every breath in
√√ √√
my body-and I will never, ever let you √ √ √√ √
√√ √
down.
47. America will start winning again,
√
winning like never before.
48. We will bring back our jobs. √ √ √ √
49. We will bring back our borders. √ √ √ √
50. We will bring back our wealth. √ √ √ √
51. And we will bring back our dreams. √ √ √ √ √
52. We will build new roads, and highways,
and bridges, and airports, and tunnels, and √ √ √ √5 √
railways all across our wonderful nation.
53. We will get people off of welfare and
√√ √
back to work-rebuilding our country with √ √ √√ √
√ √
American hands and American Labor.
54. We will follow two simple rules: Buy
√ √ √
American and Hire American.
55. We will seek friendship and goodwill
√
with the nations of the world- but we do
√ √√ √√
so with the understanding that it is the √ √ √√ √√ √
√ √ √√
right of all nations to put their own
√
interests first.
56. We do not seek to impose our way of life
√√ √
on anyone, but rather to let it shine as an √ √√ √ √√ √ √ √
√ 4
example for everyone to follow.
57. We will reinforce old alliances and form
new ones and unite the civilized world √
√√
against Radical Islamic Terrorism, which √ √√ √ √√ √√
√
we will eradicate completely from the √
face of the Earth.
58. At the bedrock of our politics will be total
√ √√
allegiance to the United States of
√ √ √√ √√
America, and through our loyalty to our √√ √
√ √ √√ √
country, we will rediscover our loyalty to
√ √
each other.
59. When you open your heart to patriotism,
√ √ √√ √ √
there is no room for prejudice.
60. The Bible tells us, "how good and
pleasant it is when God's people live √ √ √√ √ √ √ √
together in unity".
61. We must speak our minds openly, debate
√
our disagreements honestly, but always √ √ √
√
pursue solidarity.
62. When America is united, America is
√ √√
totally unstoppable.
63. There should be no fear-we are protected,
and we will always be protected.
√√ √ √5
10
Table.5 Panglong University Research Journal 2020, Vol-12, No
Pronoun Conj:
Aux:
Sr
Ptcl:
Prep:
Art:
Original Sentences
C1
C2
C3
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
No
64. We will be protected by the great men
√
and women of our military and law √√ √√
√ √√ √ √
enforcement and, most importantly, we √ √
√
are protected by God.
65. Finally, we must think big and dream
√ √ √
even bigger.
66. In America, we understand that a nation
is only living as long as it is striving. √ √√ √ √ √ √√
67. We will no longer accept politicians who

are all talk and no action-constantly √
√√ √ √ √ √√
complaining but never doing anything √
about it.
68. The time for empty talk is over. √ √√ √
69. Now arrives the hour of action. √ √
70. Do not let anyone tell you it cannot be √√ √3
√ √
done. √
71. No challenge can match the heart and √
√ √ √
fight and spirit of America. √
72. We will not fail. √ √ √
73. Our country will thrive and prosper again. √ √ √
74. We stand at the birth of a new √
millennium, ready to unlock the mysteries √
√√ √
of space, to free the Earth from the √ √
√ √√ √
miseries of disease, and to harness the √ √
√√ √
energies, industries and technologies of √
tomorrow. √
75. A new national pride will stir our soul, lift √√
√ √ √
our sights, and heal our divisions. √
76. It is time to remember that old wisdom
our soldiers will never forget: that
whether we are black or brown or white, √
√√ √ √ √√
we all bleed the same red blood of √ √ √ √ √ √
√√ √ √ √
patriots, we all enjoy the same glorious √
freedoms, and we all salute the same
great American Flag.
77. And whether a child is born in the urban √
sprawl of Detroit or the windswept plains √
√√
of Nebraska, they look up at the same √
√√ √√ √
night sky, they fill their heart with the √ √ √ √√
√ √√ √
same dreams, and they are infused with √
√√
the breath of life by the same almighty √
Creator. √
78. So to all Americans, in every city near
√√ √
and far, small and large, from mountain to
√ √√ √
mountain, and from ocean to ocean, hear
√√ √
these words:
79. You will never be ignored again. √ √√
80. Your voice, your hopes, and your dreams,
√ 4
√ √
will define our American destiny.
81. And your courage and goodness and love √
√ √ √ √ 3 √
will forever guide us along the way.
82. Together, we will make America strong
again. √ √
Table.6Panglong University Research Journal 2020, Vol-12, No 11
Pronoun Conj:
Aux:
Sr
Ptcl:
Art:
Prep:
Original Sentences
No
C1
C2
C3
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
83. We will make America wealthy again. √ √
84. We will make America proud again. √ √
85. We will make America safe again. √ √
86. And, Yes, Together, we will make
√ √ √
America Great again.
87. Thank you, God blessYou, and God Bless
√√ √
America.
Total Frequency
144
100
169 113
39
86
Percentage
13%
22%
16%
26% 17%
6%
Figure 1
30 26%
25 22%
20 17% 16% Article
13%
15
Pronoun
10 6%
5 Preposition
0 Conjunction
Auxiliary
Particle

In this study, according to Charles Carpenter Fries(1952),the use of pronoun is found
169 times and the percentage of pronoun is 26%.The second one is preposition. The
application of preposition is 144 times and the percentage of preposition is 22%.Conjunction
is the third most found in the presidential address. The use of conjunction is 113 times and
the percentage is 17%.The fourth is auxiliary and the use of auxiliary is 100 times and the
percentage of auxiliary is 16%.The second least is article and using article is 86 times. So, the
percentage of article is 13%.Particle is a kind of form that is utilized least in Donald Trump’s
inauguration speech. The use of particle is 39 times and the percentage of particle is 6%.
In accordance with data collection, the percentage of pronoun is the highest and the
particle is the lowest. Therefore, it can be said that the president Donald Trump uses many
pronouns such as “we”, “you”, “they” very often because this is the presidential inaugural
address to American people for taking the oath of office and from transferring one
government to another. Besides, he uses a lot of short sentences so that most of the people
can easily and clearly understand what information and fact he wants to focus and what he
wants to do for America. The repetition of pronoun “we” reflects that he respects and admires
not only rules and regulations of the United States of America but also its magnificent people
and soldiers and he belongs to America. Such types of sentences, “We will bring back our
jobs”, “We will bring back our border”, “We will bring back our wealth”, “And we will bring
back our dreams” emphasize that the president will serve as a loyal, distinguished and
national leader for the glorious destiny of America and its righteous people.
In addition to above mentioned facts, it is found that using “will”, a kind of modal
verb, is frequently described for the antecedent political procedure of responsibilities ,
accountabilities of his future governing mechanism. The writer’s use of function words
portrays the contents both effectively and vividly. Since this speech transcript is concise and
contextual, the readers or the audiences come to realize the facts and information clearly and
easily. Therefore, it is found that the correct use and the importance of function words is
critically crucial to English writings.
Conclusion
Language is an expression of ideas in terms of speech or sounds combined into words.
Words are grouped into sentences and this combination comes from inner ideas and thoughts
of the speakers or the listeners. They cannot understand sentences without learning
specifically and without knowing details about language. Hence, function words play an
important role for making sentences. If we misuse a function word, the meaning of the whole
sentence might change. So, function words are essential for the texts to deliver successfully
what writers or speakers want to reveal. It is observed that how the writer presents function
words in Donald Trump’s presidential inauguration address. From this study, students can
enhance some factual knowledge of using function words. By studying function words such
as article, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, auxiliary and particle, students come to know
the key sector of using function words and how they work together with other parts of
sentences. To sum up, function words are very useful terms not only in learning English but
also in writing effective, precise and meaningful sentences in a language.
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Nwe Nwe Yin, Acting Rector, Panglong University for her
permission to submit this research paper. My special thanks go to Daw Po Po Zaw, Associate Professor and
Head of English Department, Panglong University for encouraging me to carry out this paper.
References
Charles Carpenter Fries, "The structure of English", Harcuort Brace & World, (1952).
Andrew Carstairs - McCarthy, " An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their Structure",
Edinburgh University Press, in 2002.
Geert Booij, The Grammar of Words, An Introduction to Linguistics Morphology, Oxford Textbooks in
linguistics, First published in 2005.
Internet Sources
ww.cbsnews.com/news/did-donald-trump-channel
www.newyorker.com
www.oup.com/elt
https://www.twoson.edu>ptsspch
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionword
https://www.britannica.com/topic/language-defintion-of language
http://www.thoughtco.com/function-word-grammatical-a69087
http://www.daytranslation.com
http://en.m,wikipedia.org/wiki/language
http://www.collinsdictonary.com
1
Translation Strategies Found in Pe Myint’s Myanmar Version

of “A Brother Like That” By Dan Clark
Ei Khine Zune1
Abstract
Nowadays, translation plays an important role in global communication to exchange various
information, languages and cultures all over the world. This paper attempted to analyse the
translation strategies which are used by the translator Pe Myint when he encountered
difficulties in translation. The aim of this research is to study the translation strategies found in
Pe Myint’s Myanmar version of “A Brother Like That” by Dan Clark through translation
strategies proposed by Bell (1991). The objectives of this research are to investigate the
translation strategies found in Pe Myint’s Myanmar version of “A Brother Like That”, to find
out the frequency of strategies and which strategies are mostly used, and to study how the
translator makes his target text more understandable, effective and worth reading for the
readers. In order to discover translation strategies of Pe Myint in his Myanmar version, the
original text “A Brother Like That” and the translated text are
compared with line by line in data collecting table. According to Bell (1991), there are 9
translation strategies. They are translation by addition, omission, explicitation, implicitation,
domestication, foreignization, formality change, speech act change and trans-editing. In this
research, it is observed that the translator omitted, added, domesticated and formalized certain
items from the original text in order to make his text more figurative, attractive, and easy to
understand.
Key word : translation strategy, short story
Introduction
Language is an important tool for communication. Through language, people
can express opinions, ideas, thoughts, feelings, and even cultures. Besides, a language
can also be used as a media for the transmission of informative messages. English is
an international language which is used by many people all over the world. There are
many English books which have been published abroad. Some people in certain
countries may not understand well when they read these books because English is not
their mother tongue. Therefore, translation is necessary for the spread of information,
knowledge, and ideas. Translating literary works has always become a controversial
thing in translation field. One of those literary works is short stories. In translating a
short story, the translator must be proficient not only in the source language but also
in the target language. It is necessary to preserve the original text’s taste and meaning
when the text is transferred from one language to another. A good and smooth
translation depends on the translator’s skill, experiences, creativity and understanding
the differences between various cultures.
Most theorists agree that translation strategies are used by the translator when
they encounter a problem or literal translation is not useful. Different researchers have
investigated and described various translation strategies from their different
perspectives. This paper concentrates on the translation strategies used by professional
translators when they encounter non-equivalent words in the short story. This paper
also attempts to show what translation strategies exist and, when and why they are
used by professional translators.
Nowadays, translation plays an important role in our country because tourists
visiting and foreign investments are increasing day by day. Translation becomes
essential not only in international relation but also in various fields such as science
and technology, culture and literature, communication and transportation. Moreover,
it can be said that translation becomes the key to open the banks of the world
1
Daw Ei Khine Zune,Lecturer, Department of English, Hpa-an University
2
literature. According to Dewi (2016), promoting literature through translation does

not only attempt to improve the literary culture but also to satisfy the curiosity of
knowing different cultures from different countries. Translating literatures from one
language to another is not an easy task. Therefore, we need to pay more attention to
Myanmar literary translators’ role.
Aim and Objectives
The aim of this research is to study the translation strategies found in Pe
Myint’s Myanmar version of “A Brother Like That” by Dan Clark through translation
theory proposed by Bell. The objectives of the present research are:
1. to analyze the translation strategies found in , Pe Myint’s
Myanmar version of “A Brother Like That” by Dan Clark.
2. to find out the frequency of translation strategies and which strategies are
the most effective in Myanmar translation style.
3. to investigate what kind of strategies were employed the most in the story,
and when and why they are used by the translator.
4. to study how the translator makes his text more understandable, effective
and worth reading for the readers.
Scope of the Research
This study analyses the translation strategies found in Pe Myint’s Myanmar
version of “A Brother Like That” by Dan Clark through translation strategies
proposed by Bell (1991).The scope of this research is to analyze the translation
strategies used in the story in term of translation strategies
proposed by Bell. Bell (1991) lists nine strategies which include translation by
addition, translation by omission, translation by explicitation, translation by
implicitation, translation by domestication, translation by foreignization, translation
by formality change, translation by speech act change and translation by trans-editing.
Literature review
Translation can be defined as encoding the meaning and form in the target
language by means of the decoded meaning and form of the source language.
Different theorists state various definitions for translation. Hatim and Mason (1990)
suggest that translation is a process involving the negotiation of meaning between
producers and receivers of the text. Picken (1989) defines that general translation is a
method of transferring oral and written messages from writing to speech or from one
language to another. Bell (1991) views translation as the replacement of a text in one
language by an equivalent text in another language. Newmark (1981:7) indicates that
translation is a craft that attempts to replace a written message and/or statement in one
language by the same message or statement in another language. Kelly (2005:26-27)
defines translation as the skill of understanding the source text and rendering it in the
target language by using the register, the background knowledge, and other language
resources according to the intended purpose. Likewise different theorists have
different definitions for “translation”, they also have different procedures in solving
translation problems. The means by which the translator deals with their translation
problems are called strategies. Although different theorists have different procedures
in solving translation problems, this paper is based on Bell’s theory to investigate the
translation strategies found in Pe Myint’s Myanmar version of “A Brother Like That”
by Dan Clark. Bell’s theory is easy to understand and perfectly suitable for Myanmar
translation style.
3
What is Translation?
Translation occurs very often in our daily life in order to transfer meanings
from one language to another language. Some of the experts and scholars have
proposed various definitions on translation. For example, Larson (1984) states that
translation means transferring the meaning of the source language (SL) into the target
language (TL). The definition of translation stated by Larson cannot be considered as
a complete definition because translation means more than transferring meaning. The
translator needs to consider the cultural and social background of the target language
as well as its grammatical structures. Newmark (1988) stated in his book 'A textbook
of translation' that translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language
in the way that the author intended the text. It means that translation is transferring the
meaning of a text into another language in accordance with what the author intended,
but this definition is incomplete because it does not consider the form and the
grammar of the target language.
Catford (1965) also stated that translation is the replacement of textual
material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language. It means
that the translation is the replacement of textual material in the source language with
the closest meaning in target language. He distinguished between total translation,
which is the replacement of SL grammar and lexis by equivalent TL grammar and
lexis, and restricted translation that is based on the replacement of SL textual material
at only one level. In the book 'The Technique of Making Idiomatic Translation',
Based on the definitions that have been stated by the experts, the researcher
concludes that the translation is the process of transferring message, knowledge, and
culture of source language into target language as natural as possible by considering
the closest equivalent and the rules of target language, so that readers can understand
the message easily.
Bell’s Pragmatic Strategies
According to Bell (1991) retrived from https:/etheses.bham.ac.uk/1163/1/
Tso10PhD 1-2.pdf, the domain of pragmatics is one step beyond syntax and
semantics. It involves “plans and goals and the textual characteristics of intentionality,
acceptability and situationality – the attitudes of the producer and receiver of the text
and its relevance to its context of use”. From the pragmatic perspective, the most
common translation strategies include:
(a) addition
(b) omission
(c) explicitation
(d) implicitation
(e) domestication
(f) foreignization
(g) formality change
(h) speech act change
(i) transediting
(a) Addition
According to Eco (2003) cited in Bell (1991), sometimes, in order to avoid a
possible loss, a translator may say more than the source text.
(b) Omission
Omission in translation is normally considered unfavourable because during
the process of omission, some information or effect in the source text will be omitted
and therefore lost. While omission is carried out when the content is intentionally or
4
unconsciously deleted by the translator, sometimes, omission also occurs when certain
qualities in the source language cannot be kept in the target language.
(c) Explicitation
According to Vinay and Darbelnet cited in Bell (1991), explicitation is
described as “the process of introducing information into target language which is
presented only implicity in the source language, but which can be derived from the
context or the situation”. It can be seen as a method of addition in translation.
(d) Implicitation
According to Vinay and Darbelnet cited in Bell (1991), inverting the process
of explicitation, implicitation is “the process of allowing the target language situation
or context to define certain details which were explicit in the source language”. Being
considered as a form of omission, it is also discussed in term of losses in translation.
(e) Domestication
According to Venuti (1995) cited in Bell (1991), the term “domestication” is
the issue of invisibility and a trend dominating Anglo-American translation culture. A
translator who uses the translation technique of domestication is target – oriented and
reader – oriented. Sometimes, domestication can also be unavoidable.
(f) Foreignization
Foreignization is like the opposite of domestication. Venuti (1997) cited in
Bell (1991) explains a highly desirable translation strategy that “entails choosing a
foreign text and developing a translation method along lines which are excluded by
dominant cultural values in the target language”.
(g) Formality change
According to Heylighen and Dewaele (1999) cited in Bell (1991), formality
can be understood at two levels – surface formality and deep formality. Surface
formality is characterized by attention to form for the sake of convention of form
itself. Occasions such as ceremonies, rituals and examinations are typical social
situations that exemplify surface formality. On the other hand, deep formality is
defined as avoidance of ambiguity by minimizing the context-dependence and
fuzziness of expressions.
(h) Speech act change
J.L Austin, the British Philosopher cited in Bell (1991), he introduces the
notions of “locutionary act”, “illocutionary act” and “perlocutionary act” which later
on become common terms in the study of speech acts. Locutionary act is the simplest
speech act. It refers to the surface meaning of an utterance.
(i)Trans-editing
Trans-editing is a two-in-one term consisting of the processes of translation
and editing. According to Hursti (2001) cited in Bell (1991), trans-editing is “the
composite term used to refer to work done in the realm of “practical texts”, such as
news items in which the processes, editing and translation, are not only very much
present but also equally important and closely intertwined.” Usually trans-editing
takes place when the translator realizes that the readers may need additional
explanations to understand the text.
Research Methodology
The focus of this research is to find out translation strategies in Pe Myint’s
Myanmar version of the story “A Brother Like That” written by Dan Clark through
the translation strategies proposed by Bell(1991). They are Translation by Addition,
Translation by Omission, Translation by Explicitation, Translation by Implicitation,
Translation by Domestication, Translation by Foreignization, Translation by
5
Formality Change, Translation by Speech Act Change and Translation by Trans-

editing.
Data Collection and Analysis
When data was collected, 9 aspects of Bell’s pragmatic strategies (1991) are
used to investigate and analyse the translated text by Pe Myint,
and the following codes that represent nine pragmatic strategies are applied in
collecting and analyzing the data.
(1) Translation by Addition -S1 (Addition)
(2) Translation by Omission -S2 (Omission)
(3) Translation by Explicitation -S3 (Explicitation)
(4) Translation by Implicitation -S4 (Implicitation)
(5) Translation by Domestication -S5 (Domestication)
(6) Translation by Foreignization -S6 (Foreignization)
(7) Translation by Formality Change -S7 (Formality Change)
(8) Translation by Speech Act Change -S8 (Speech Act Change)
(9) Transltion by Trans-editing -S9 (Trans-editing)
In translating the short story “A Brother Like That”, the translator used the
translation strategy of addition 4 times and that is 11.11%, the translation strategy of
omission 6 times and that is 16.67%, the translation strategy of explicitation 6 times
and that is 16.67%, the translation strategy of domestication 9 times and that is 25%,
the translation strategy of foreignization 3 times and that is 8.33%, the translation
strategy of formality change 3 times and that is 8.33%, the translation strategy of
speech act change 1 time and that is 2.78% and the translation strategy of trans-
editing 4 times and that is 11.11% respectively.
The Frequency of Translation Strategies Found in Pe Myint’s Myanmar Version

of “A Brother Like That” by Dan Clark
Sr Strategies Frequency of Percentage

No Strategies used
1. Translation by ‘Addition’ 4 11.11%
2. Translation by ‘Omission’ 6 16.67%
3. Translation by ‘Explicitation’ 6 16.67%
4. Translation by ‘Implicitation’ - -
5. Translation by ‘Domestication’ 9 25%
6. Translation by ‘Foreignization’ 3 8.33%
7. Translation by ‘Formality 3 8.33%
Change’
8. Translation by ‘Speech Act 1 2.78%
Change’
9. Translation by ‘Trans-editing’ 4 11.11%
Total 36 100%
6
The Frequency of Translation Strategies found in Pe Myint’s Myanmar Version

of “A Brother Like That” by Dan Clark
Translation Strategies
10
9
8 Addition
7 Omission
6
Explicitaion
5
4 Implicitation
3 Domestication
2
Foreignization
1
0 Formality Change
Speech Act Change
Trans-editing
The above table and figure describe the use of translation strategies found in
Pe Myint’s Myanmar version of the short story “A Brother Like That”. The translator
applied all strategies in his translation except the translation strategy of
‘Implicitation’. Among them, the translation strategy of ‘Domestication’ is the most
used and the translation strategy of ‘Speech Act Change’ is the least used.
The present research paper analyses the translation strategies used by Pe Myint
in translating the story “A Brother Like That” by Dan Clark into Myanmar version
“ ”. The original author describes the young boy’s feeling and
affection on his younger brother. It shows that he values their relationship by showing
his mercy and sympathy on his younger brother. To convey the original message of
the story, the translator uses a lot of translation strategies.
After detailed analysis of the translation strategies found in Pe Myint’s

Myanmar version of the story “A Brother Like That” by Dan Clark, the findings are
described as follows. Among Bell’s nine strategies, only eight strategies are found in
the process of translation by Pe Myint. In Myanmar translation, the following
strategies proposed by Bell(1991) are found. They are translation by “Addition”,
translation by “Omission”, translation by “Explicitation”, translation by
“Implicitation”, translation by “Domestication”, translation by “Foreignization”,
translation by “Formality Change” and translation by “Trans-editing”. The translator
didn’t use the translation strategy of “Speech Act Change”.
According to the findings, it can be found that the most frequently strategies
used by the translator are translation by “domestication”. It is used 9 times. They are 9
7
out of 36 and that is (25%). In order to give the information without deviating the
original meaning, the translator uses the strategy of “domestication”. The strategy of
“Domestication” is the opposite of the translation by “Foreignization”. The translator
domesticated some words from the source text to be able to get the main theme with
better understanding. This strategy makes the translation more familiar and suitable
with the Myanmar readers.
The second frequently used strategies are translation by “Omission” and

translation by “explicitation”. Each of both is 6 out of 36 and that is (16.67%). The
translation strategy of “Omission” is used to make the target text to be more concrete
for the readers. Although the translator uses this strategy, the original meaning does
not deviate in the target text. The third used strategies are translation by “Addition”
and translation by “trans-editing”. They are 4 out of 36 and that is (11.11%). In order
to give the readers more information, the translator used these strategies. The
translator added some words and phrases, and even a full sentence to make the story
more effective and understandable.
The fourth frequently used strategies are translation by “Foreignization” and

translation by “formality change”. They are 3 out of 36 and that is (8.33%). In the
translated version, the translator translated the name of ceremony such as Christmas
and to make the readers in touch with others’ culture by using this strategy.The least
used strategy in the story is translation by “Speech act change”. It is 1 out of 36 and
that is (2.78%). It is found that the translation strategy of “Implicitation” is not used in
this translation.
By applying the strategies, the translator makes his text more understandable,
effective, and worth reading for the readers. The original story “A Brother Like That”
is an excellent one. Similarly, the translated version “ ” can also
maintain the essence of the story.
Conclusion
Translation is not an easy task. Every language has different structures and
cultures that can complicate the translator to convey the original message from the
source text. One of the most difficult parts in translation process is translating literary
works, such as short stories and novels. In translating the story, the more skillful the
translator, the more he can give the main theme of the original text to the readers.
The present research is an attempt to investigate the translation strategies

found in the translated text “ ”, a Myanmar version of the story “A
Brother Like That” by Dan Clark based on Bell’s translation strategies. When a source
text is translated into a target text, only literal translation or direct translation is not
enough. According to the findings, certain items are added, omitted, domesticated and
formalized to adjust the differences between two languages.
8
The analysis of the data shows that the translator uses a variety of strategies in
translating the story “A Brother Like That” to make his translation more effective and
excellent without deviating the intended meaning of the original text. It is found that
the translation strategy by “Implicitation” is not used. In this research, the most
frequently used strategy is “Translation by Domestication”. Such strategy helps the
translator in covering the general meaning of the intended message. The least
frequently used strategy is “Speech act change”. The translator used this strategy only
one time. The translator also applied “Translation by Additon”, “Translation by
Omission”, “Translation by Domestication”, “Translation by Foreignization” and
“Translation by Trans-editing” to make the story more figurative, attractive and easy
to understand.
It is observed that the intended messages of the story are vividly accepted by
the readers and the readers are easily able to appreciate the essence of the story. The
translator’s skillful choice of strategies make his text more understandable and worth
reading for the readers. Finally, the researcher expects that this study can partially
fulfill the need of the students who want to improve their translation qualities by
studying the translation strategies found in the famous translator’s work. In addition,
through this study, the researcher hopes that other researchers can develop the
researchs in the filed of translation by using better techniques and analysis in the
future.
Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to express a great sense of gratitude to Dr. Soe Soe Aye, Acting-
Rector of the Hpa-an University, the pro-rectors, Dr. San San Hmwe and Dr. Khin Moe Moe, for
giving me opportunity to do this research paper. I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to
Associate Professor Daw Zar Chi Soe, Head of English Department, Hpa-an University, for her sincere
encouragement and invaluable comments in the writing of this research paper. My gratitude and
appreciations are also addressed to all of the teachers from English Department in Hpa-an University,
for their valuable suggestions. Without their sound advices, the completion of this work would not be
possible.
References
Bell, Roger T (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London
and New York: Longman.
F. R. Arivanti, K. S. Piscayanti and P. A. K. Juniarta (2018). An Analysis of
Translation Strategies in the Short Story In Twilight Born.
Program Study, Pendidikan Ganesla Singaraja University, Indonesia.
Jaray Onsomboom (2007). An Analysis of Translation Strategies Employed in
Contemporary American Poetry from English to Thai. Master
Project, M. A. Srinakhainwirot University.
Wong Bo Tso (2010). An Explorative Chapter on Translation and Translating
Studies, A Research Training and Subject Preparation Paper.
University of Birmingham.
Zohre Owji (January 2013). Translation Strategies: A Review and Comparison of
Theories. Translation Journal Volume 17, No.1.

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1

A Perspective Study of Hindi Loanwords Found in Myanmar Language

*Lecturer, Department of English, Hpa-an University

(1)Words used in administrative language

No Hindi Words Myanmar Words

(2)Words in daily use

(4)Words in Myanmar Slang

No Hindi Words Myanmar Words

Findings and Discussion

Words used in Words in daily use

Words in cuisine Words in Myanmar slang

Fig (iii) Words in cuisine Fig (iv) Words in Myanmar slang

Loanwords, loanblends & Loanshifts influencing in

Fig (v) Total Survey of Hindi Loanwords Influencing in Myanmar Language

By studying the Hindi loanwords in administrative field, it can be observed that

Daw Ei Khine Zune1, U Thein Win Maw2

1.Daw Ei Khine Zune

Scope of the research

Aims and Objectives of the Research

The aims of this research are-

 To enable students to appreciate the beauty, rhyme and style of poem

The objectives of this research are-

 To provide the easiest ways to teach poetry

Poetry is a composition in metre and a composition of high beauty of thought or language

Poetry is emotion put into measure. (Thomas Hardy)

Poetry is a rhythmical form of words which express an imaginative-emotional-intellectual

Why the students should learn poetry

The advantages of teaching poetry

 Therapeutic: Poetry fosters emotional expression and healing through self-expression

The difficulties that the readers face in poetry

The challenges in teaching and learning poetry

Some solutions for difficulties in teaching poetry

Some applicable strategies for learning poetry

 Look at the poem before reading it

 Read the poem aloud several times.

 Visualize figurative language.

5.Make connections. Personalizing poetry makes it meaningful.

6.Summarize the poem’s meaning.

2.Read each poem aloud to students more than once.

3.Set up a poetry corner in the classroom.

4.Learn about the poet prior to reading their poetry.

5.Spend time analyzing poetry to really understand the poet’s purpose.

6.Start each day with a read aloud poem.

8.Get excited when poetry is taught, let loose.

9.Give the students a chance to write their own poetry.

10.Encourage students to share their poetry.

The Secret Heart

Across the years he could recall

His father one way best of all.

The boy awakened to a light.

Half in dreams, he saw his sire

With his great hands full of fire.

The man had struck a match to see

If his son slept peacefully.

He held his palms each side the spark

His love had kindled in the dark.

His two hands were curved apart

In the semblance of a heart.

He wore, it seemed to his small son,

A bare heart on his hidden one,

A heart that gave out such a glow

No son awake could bear to know.

It showed a look upon his face