Chapter 3:

Modelling in the Time Domain

Course Instructor
Prof. Adel Abdennour
Electrical Engineering Department
Islamic University of Madinah

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 • Introduction
• The general State-Space Representation
• Applying the State-Space Representation
• State Space to Transfer Function
• State Transition Equations
• Transfer Function to State-Space Form

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 State Variable Representation
• The state vector of a dynamic system refers to a minimum set
of variables that fully describe the system and its response to
any given set of inputs.

• The description of the system is expressed as a set of n coupled first-

order ordinary differential equations, known as the state equations,
in which the time derivative of each state variable is expressed in
terms of the state variables [x1(t), . . . , xn(t)] and the system inputs
[u1(t), . . . , ur(t)]

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 • In general , the form of the n state equations is:

𝑥ሶ 1 𝑡 = 𝑓1 𝑥, 𝑢, 𝑡
𝑥ሶ 2 𝑡 = 𝑓. 2 𝑥, 𝑢, 𝑡
.
.
𝑥ሶ 𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑛 𝑥, 𝑢, 𝑡

• There is no unique set of state variables that describe any given

system; many different sets of variables may be selected to yield
the complete system description.

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 Example
Consider the following RLC circuit:
 di
 e( t )  L  Ri  v R
dt + L
 2 e(t)
+
i  C   C
dv di d v C v(t)
 2 - -
dt dt dt
d 2v dv
e(t )  LC 2  RC  v 2nd order differential Equation
dt dt
Taking the Laplace Transform, we get :

E  LCs 2V  RCsV  V  LCs 2  RCs  1V

V 1 The characteristic equation is :

E LCs 2  RCs  1 LCs  RCs  1  0
2

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 Example (contd.)  di
e(t )  L dt  Ri  v
If we use the state space approach:  2
x1  v ; x2  i ; u  e i  C   C v

dv di d
dt dt dt 2


1


𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑥2
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐿𝑥ሶ 2 + 𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑥1 𝐶
 −1 𝑅 1
𝑥2 = 𝐶 𝑥ሶ 1 𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑢
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

1
𝑥1ሶ 0 𝑥1 0
𝐶
= −1 −𝑅 𝑥2 + 1 u
𝑥2ሶ 𝐿
𝐿 𝐿

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 Example (contd.)
If the output is y=v, then: y=x1. The state space
representation is then:

Where:

 1 
0  0
 ; B   1  ; C  1 0; D  0
C
A
 1  
 
R
 L  L 
L

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 General State Space Representation
A system is represented in state-space form by the
following equations:
state equation

output equation

x = state vector A = System Matrix

x = derivative of the state vector B = Input Matrix
y = output vector C = Output Matrix
u = input or control vector D = Feedforward Matrix

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Note: For the case of Single Input Single Output
(SISO) Systems:

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 Block Diagram Representation of State Space

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 Characteristic Equation
Let’s calculate det(sI-A) where I is the identity Matrix and
A is given by :  1 
0 C 
A 
 1 
R
 L L 

Setting det (SI – A) = 0, we get :

 1 
s -
C  2 R 1 R 1
det(SI  A)  det    s   s   s2  s  0
 1  L  LC
s 
R L LC
 L L 
LCs  RCs  1  0
2

Which is the Characteristic Equation found in the previous

section using transfer function method.
 det(SI-A)=0 is the characteristic equation
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 Remarks about the spate space

 The state space method is another approach (like transfer

function) to represent linear systems.

 Unlike the Transfer Function, the state space model is not

unique. It depends on the choice of the state variables.

 The state space representation is meaningful because the

state of the variables are usually system variables.

 The state variable model gives more details about the

internal variables not just the input-output relation.

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 State Space to Transfer Functions

Substituting X(s) in the output equation:

Y  CX  DU
Y (s)  C[SI  A]1 x(0)  C[SI  A]1 BU (s)  DU (s)

To get the Transfer function, we neglect x(0)

(zero initial conditions)
Y ( s )  C[ SI  A]1 BU ( s )  DU ( s )
 C[ SI  A]1 B  D U ( s )

Y ( s)
U ( s)

 C ( SI  A) 1 B  D 
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 Example
In the previous RLC circuit, we have:
 1 
0  0
 ; B   1  ; C  1 0; D  0
C
A
 1 R  
 L 
 L L 

Let’s find the Y(s)/U(s):

 1   R 1 
 s
s   1 L C
sI  A  
C [ sI  A]1   
 det[sI  A]  1
1 s
R  s 
 L  L 
L 

det(sI  A)  s 2 
R
L
s
1
LC

T .F  C ( SI  A) 1 B  D 
1Τ𝐿𝐶 1 Exactly what we
𝑇. 𝐹 = 2 = had before
𝑠 + 𝑅𝑠Τ𝐿 + 1Τ𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
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State Transition Equation
Consider the linear state and output equations:

In the Laplace domain. The system equations are then

sX ( s )  x(0)  AX ( s )  BU ( s )

Y ( s )  CX ( s )  DU ( s )
and the state equations may be rewritten:
sX ( s )  AX ( s )  x(0)  BU ( s )
[ sI  A] X ( s )  x(0)  BU ( s )
where the terms I creates an nxn matrix with s on the leading
diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
X (s)  [SI  A]1 x(0)  [SI  A]1 BU (s) State Transition Equation

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 Transfer Function to State Space
Case 1: Constant Term in the Numerator
Consider the system defined by the following transfer function:
Y (s) b0
G (s)  
U ( s ) s  an 1s  ...  a0
n n 1

Convert the transfer function to differential equation:

d n y(t ) d n -1 y(t ) dy (t )
n
 a n 1 n -1
 ...  a1  a0 y(t )  b0 u (t )
dt dt dt
choose the output, y(t), and its (n - 1 ) derivatives as the
state variables. This choice is called the phase-variable choice
dy(t) d 2 y(t) d n -1 y(t)
x1  y(t) x2  x3  .... xn 
dt dt 2 dt n -1
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 Differentiating both sides yields:

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 In vector-matrix form:

Finally, since the solution to the

differential equation is y(t),
or x1, as was chosen earlier,
the output equation is:

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Example:
Convert the transfer function to State Space
• Cross-multiplying yields:
• Inverse Laplace (zero IC):
• Choosing the state variables as successive derivatives, we get:

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Case 1: With Polynomial Term in the Numerator
Handle the numerator and the
denominator separately. R(s) 2
b 2s  b1s  b 0 Y(s)
x1  x1 a 3s 3  a 2s 2  a 1s  a 0
dx 1 (t)
x2  R(s) 1
dt X1(s) Y(s)
b 2s 2  b1s  b 0
d 2 x1 (t) a 3s  a 2s  a 1s  a 0
3 2

x3 
dt 2
• The state-space representation of the first block uses the variables
x2(t) and x3(t),in which x1 is the output. The second block gives:
d 2 x1 d 2 x1
y (t )  b2 2  b1 2  b0 x1  b0 x1  b1 x2  b2 x3
dt dt
• The second block simply forms the output as a specified linear
combination of the state variables developed in the first block.
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 Example: Y ( s) s 2  7s  2
x1  x1 G( s)   3
R( s) s  9s 2  26s  24
dx 1 (t)
x2  R(s) 1 X1(s)
s 2  7s  2
Y(s)
dt s 3  9s 2  26s  24
d 2 x1 (t)
x3 
dt 2
The state-space representation of the first block using the state x2(t)
and x3(t),with x1 the output:
𝑥xሶ 11  0 1 0   x 1  0 
𝑥ሶ     x   0  r
 x22   0 0 1  2   
𝑥xሶ 33   24  26  9   x 3  24 

For the second block we can express the output of the system as:
Y ( s)  ( s 2  7 s  2) X 1 ( s)  y (t )  x3  7 x2  2 x1
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 Y ( s) s 2  7s  2
G( s)   3
R( s) s  9s 2  26s  24

The State Space for the transfer function above is therefore:

𝑥xሶ 11  0 1 0   x 1  0 
𝑥ሶ     x   0  r
 x22   0 0 1  2   
𝑥xሶ 33   24  26  9   x 3  24 
 x1 
y  2 7 1 x 2  where C  2 7 1and D  0
 x 3 

Note that the row vector (C) has the same coefficients as the
numerator of the transfer function but in reverse order.

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