SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEWER The Sociological Perspective

CHAPTER 1-3
CHAPTER 1
The Natural of Sociological Perspectives
Sociology- Discipline of social sciences that attempts
to explain human behavior in the context of the social
environment
(Behavior showing to other people)
The field of Sociology
Systematic study of social behavior and human
groups and focuses primarily on the influence of
social relationships upon people’s attitudes.
Interest to human beings such as love, poverty,
nationalism, identity, crisis, social inequality, to
infinity.
Basic components of a Society
Macrosociology- society larger social system
Microsociology- Individual social agency
Sub-fields
Social organization- social stratification
mobility
Social psychology- human nature as an outcome.
Reference to group life.
Social change and disorganization- Change in
culture and social relations
Human ecology- deals with the nature and behavior
of a given population.
Population or demography- number of people in the
society
Sociological theory and method- control of man’s
environment
Applied sociology- pure sociological research.
looking for the general characteristics of certain
group of people (pattern of behavior)
“Involves seeing through the outside appearance of
people’s actions and organization”
“Paano mo tinitignan ang mga bagay-bagay o
sitwasyon”
“Describe as a whole”
Two goals
1st- Identify the prevailing patterns of and influences
on social behaviors
= make everyone fully aware of who they really are
and what kind of society they have
2nd- Tasked to provide explanations for such patterns.
To have a basis on making policy society has
expectations.
Sociologist attempts to explain human behavior and
phenomenon in groups.
Close to sociology is Anthropology (study of human
nature) -Both view human behavior in the group or
societal level
and
Political Science- study of Political System
Economics- Deals with the study of the allocation of
scarce resources among competing users to satisfy
human needs
History- study of past events
Psychology- Study of mental process
Geography- applied field concerns on the study of
geographic characteristics.
Development of the Sociological Perspective
Growing concern to elevate the social states they are
in Rise of Imperialism- Superiority complex to
another culture, superiority, or difference Common
law- commonality of the society
Increasing social upheaval in Europe-
Liberalization or root of declination advocated for the
reforms in the society (monarchy)
Natural Sciences- Treating the society as their
laboratory. “If you can study the natural sciences, you
can study anything”
Pioneers
Saint Simon- Grows develop “Hindi na ipapaliwanag
ang mga bagay gamit ang religion”
Auguste Comte- Father of sociology, Science of
Society coined “positivism”
Social Statistics- the medium of human behavior
Social dynamic- Changes of time
Three stages of Poly society
Theological (Religion explanation)
Metaphysical (Natural understanding)
Technology
Herbert Spencer- concept of social Darwinism
Connected to Charles Darwin (Evolution)
Survival of the fittest (Natural selection Competition)
Harriet Martineau (Mother of Sociology)-
Prominent pioneer in making sociology as empirical
science of the society.
Sociology should not only be a mere discovery of
the society
Importance of studying sociology
Liberal- Latin word “free”
Liberal education should be educated in humans in a
way to give understand on how to behave in society
CHAPTER 2
THE SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
The Evolutionary Approach (Social Darwinism)
- Herbert Spencer
- Benjamin Kidd, Lewis Morgan, and Edward
Taylor
Historical Approach (Macro Level)
Living organism that evolves from one period to
another
Bigger diversity
Adaptation- The society in general appears to be
tolerant in accepting social changes as modern society
is described as complex
(Simplicity/Survival of the fittest)
The changing society (Theory of Natural Selection)
Recognition of inequality as the natural phenomenon
in the society
Badly criticized due for its strong advocacy on social
discrimination
Individuals must be left to struggle for existence with
each other.
Evolutionary perspective (Social Darwinism)
Structural-Functional Theory: A cultural
approach
Basically stable because of these functioning entities
(family, education, religion, government, business,
and mass media)
French sociologist Emilie Durkheim- Just like other
social institutions existing in the society and
continues to exist, because it serves fundamental
purpose
Social dysfunction- may disrupt a social system or
lead to decreased instability (ex. Homicide)
Cohesion and Solidarity
Talcott Parsons- Society is a network of connected CHAPTER 3
parts, each of which contributes to the maintenance of
CONDUCTING SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
the system.
The nature of social science research- human
Manifest function- Open, stated, conscious, and
behavior
highly preferred by the society.
1. Each of the researchers used different
Latent function- unconscious or convert functions
measures or indicators in determining
and may reflect hidden purposes of an institution.
happiness.
Conflict Perspective 2. The variation of time and place in the conduct
of the study.
Karl Marx- Two types of people have power and no
3. The complexity of human behavior man’s
power
behavior quickly changes with the changes of
Dialectical Materialism the environment.

“a way of understanding reality; whether thoughts, Researcher has a limit in the extent of studying human
emotions, or the material world”. behaviors. Shall always observe the ethics in the
conduct of researchers involving human beings.
- Economic and political interpretation
Social Science as soft science
Socialism- Social state where the all the economic
undertakings are under the control of the state to 1. Scientific
ensure that no one enriches himself at the expense of 2. Rigorous
others.The workers what is due them and that social 3. Accurate
legislation must be directed in their favors (worker as 4. Heavy reliance on accuracy and objectivity
pillar of nation’s economy) 5. Quantifiable empirical date and scientific
method.
Symbolic-Interaction Perspective (George
Herbert Mead) Characteristic of Science

Analysis on social interaction between and among Precision, consistency, predictability (not always
individuals and how these interactions create a present) in the social science research.
change in the society. Consistent interaction with
The scientific method
people. The world is nothing but a world of symbols
- Systematic and organized because the steps
New Emerging Theories
must be carefully followed one after another
Feminism- Men-centric society be changed to
Seven fundamental steps
become more inclusive of women, re-integration of
humanity where each human can develop all human 1. Defining the problem
traits regardless of their genders, passage of law, 2. Reviewing the literature
elimination of any forms of violence against women, 3. Formulating the hypothesis
following women to have a control. 4. Selecting the research design
5. Collecting the data
Postmodernism- teaches that all truth is relative, all
6. Analyzing the data
cultures; equally deserving of respect there is no
7. Developing a conclusion
superior culture, and that all values are subjective.
Defining the problem Collecting the Data
Stages of defining the problem Setting the limits of the study
1. Identifying the problem (Scope and Delimitation)
2. Narrowing down the problem
Parameters of the study
3. Operationalizing the problem
Two types of data
Identifying the problem
Primary – first time, original in character
Capture the interest (personal, social, economic, or
commercial relevance) the paramount consideration Secondary- Someone else, passed through statistical
is the clarify of the statement of the problem process
Operational Definition of terms Analyzing the Data
- Explanation of an abstract concepts that is To produce meaningful results.
specific enough to allow the researcher to
measure the concept. There searcher knows Sequence of presenting the results is based on the
how to measure the variables. objective of the study

Reviewing the literature
-deemed important because it serves significant
functions
-to find out the other scholarly studies relating to the
research problem which may further help the
researcher define the problem
-to clarify possible techniques he wants to employ,
avoid mistakes, committed in the previous studies.
Formulating the Hypothesis
-speculative statement about the relationship between
two or more variables.
-possible or temporary answer
-usually clone after the data are collected and
analyzed. Hypothesis testing is not necessary (null
and alternative)
Selecting the Research Design
The manner of analyzing the data would depend on
the type of research design for the study.
Technique on how to collect the data, consequently
on how analyze them
The researcher must ensure the validity (how
accurately a method measures what it is intended to
measure.) and reliability (the quality or state of being
reliable) of the study.
Drawing a conclusion
Synthesis of finding that the researcher adduces from
the analysis of the data
Final statement, wraps up the study. The starting point
of another study, making scientific researchers as a
never-ending process.
Survey
Most popular and widely used technique in sociology
1. Greater depth and detail owing to the
presence of the interview
2. Respondent’s refusal
3. Greater flexibility of asking the question
Unobtrusive measure
Refers heavily on the data that are available
Reliability- essential requisite of scientific research
Suitability- examine the extent

Quantitative- through survey (numbers “how many”) Adequacy- sufficient

Qualitative- substantial explanation (experience) Experimentation

 - Artificially create situation which allows the Ethical considerations in conducting research
researcher to manipulate variable and
Research is the fountain of knowledge
introduce control variables
- Establish causality Research must acknowledge all researcher’s
- Allowance for control collaboration and assistance
- Provides the opportunity
CHAPTER 4: EVOLUTION OF HUMAN
Divide the group SOCIETIES
1st- being exposed to be independent variable to see Man’s society is continuously experiencing
it, after a certain period, there occurs a change transformation, particularly at this age where change
(Experimental Group) is so fast and abrupt that far entrenched social
practices, beliefs and even dogmas are being replaced
2nd- Not being exposed to the independent variable
at almost at a pace of blink of an eye
(Control group)
ARISTOTLE: “Man is a social being” – man cannot
Disadvantages
survive absent his interaction with other human
1. Ethical considerations beings.
2. Lack of control
“Society”- comes into being as the ultimate and the
3. Limited
final grouping of people that responds to the basic and
4. Applicability of the “cause and effect”
social needs of its members.
Participant observation (ethnography)
The Nature of Society
Direct participation of observation
Society- simple grouping of people
To inquire in various possibilities the way of life
“societas”- latin, friendly association
The degree of reliability
Society- often defined as the total pattern of
Limitations interaction that charactering the behavior of a given
population
Consuming and expensive
Society is in charge of social grouping of people,
Difficult to employ
sharing the same geographical or virtual territory,
Develops a dilemma of revealing subject to the same political authority and dominant
cultural expectations.
The ultimate purpose
The most important consideration is the capacity of
Document Analysis these members to sustain their existence as well their
Unobtrusive study cultural values.

Secondary data analysis Traditional societies- geographical location, with the

Interview method
- Focuses on group discussions technique “key
informants”
- Feedbacks
- Group discussions has the main advantage
of having low cost compared to surveys.
absence of complex technology
So-called virtual territory- online world “citizen on
the internet”
Ancient societies- political authority are bestowed
only among the head.
Currently, the acquisition of political authority is
more secularized, where power is acquired according
to the popular consent.
With culture, society becomes permanent as it able to
endure through time by means of adhering to the
accepted norms of the society.
Stages of Societies
PRE-INDUSTRIAL
- Small and often mortality rate was high
Hunting and Gathering
- Earliest type of society
- Less than fifty people
- Men did the hunting and women did the
gathering
- Communal living was all that is desired for
after all
- They are highly nomad people
Pastoral Societies
- Increasing scarcity of available livestock for
consumption
- Depends for its survival on domesticated
animals
- Majority are taming the animals for economic
activity
- More socially complex
Horticultural Societies
- Growing scarcity of available fruits and/or
vegetables for consumptions,
- Higher level of technology
- Tools are used
- Farming became the norms of society
- Produce moderate surplus
Agrarian Societies
- Depends on crops
- Effectivity
- Population density increased as well as the
scale of social organizations
- Started owning lands
- Political, religious, and other institutions
become more complex
Industrial/Modern Society
- Dramatic increase in the production surplus
- Depend less on the labor
- Harmed the world’s resources due to the push
for industrialization
- Heavy machineries became part of the
production
- Advances in transportation made exchange of
goods easier
- Associated with the idea of capitalism
Information Age
- Alvin Toffler: 1st- agricultural
- 2nd – industrial, 3rd – information
- Information or data becomes even more
accessible
- Intangible: cannot be touched, smelled, tasted
- Education is now the key to achieving
development
- Everything is rapidly moving
- Virtually connected/connected to our lives
- Like a tsunami that altering every aspect of
the society
CHAPTER 5: DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL
INSTITUTIONS
Social Institutions: pertain to group or organization
has a specific roles, norms, and expectations that the
society cannot live on. (Family, Education, Economy,
Education, and Religion)
Love and Courtship in global Perspective
Romantic love: people being sexually attracted to one
another and idealizing the other-showed up in 88% pf
these groups. The role of love however differs sharply
from society to another.
Courtship- established of an agreed relationship of a
more enduring kind
- Getting to know each other
- Males are the ones who actively “court” or
“woo” the female
- Going on dates
- Showing interest to each other.
Romantic love usually begins with sexual attraction
 These norms can be distinguished in terms of
endogamy and exogamy:
Endogamy (Greek work “endon” within)
Two components of romantic love
Emotional: Feeling of sexual attractive
Cognitive: attach to our feelings
Exogamy (Greek “Exo” outside):
Marriage- appears because of courtship and it
continue through creating and molding a family. A
permanent legal union between two persons or
individuals. Sexual relationship and procreation are
undoubtedly the primary aim of marriage.
Why Marriage of universal?
According to Melvin Ember implied that marriage
solves a problem found in all societies- how to share
the products of a division of labor by sex:
The division of labor by sex has often been cited as a
reason of marriage
How many does one marry?
Murdock stated that if a division of labor by sex
exists. Human exhibits the longest period of infant
dependency of any primate.
Why does one marry?
- R.H Lowie “the universal object of founding
the constant need for cooperation in the daily
routine of life and also for economic
purposes”
- It may be held the family existed in past
before the marriage system care in vogue.
Societies Marriage involves economic
considerations:
Dowry: the bride brings gifts from her family into
marriage
Bride price: Bride-wealth. It is more common than
dowry in many in the bride price. The payment of the
bride price establishes the rights of the man over the
woman and her children.
Whom does one marry (marriage patterns)
- Which a spouse must be found and prohibits
marriage with others.
- Suggesting to the young that they would
marry someone “of their own kind”
- Mate selection outside certain groups, usually
one’s own family or certain kinfolk.
- The incest taboo, a social norm common to
virtually all societies prohibit sexually
relationships between certain culturally
specified relatives.
- Arranged marriage is the conviction that
joining together of two kin groups to form
a new social and economic tie is too
important to be left to free choice and
romantic love.
1. One man, one wife= Monogamous: one
man marries one woman at a time. This is the
leading from of marriage. Highest type of
affection and sincere devotion.
2. One woman, many husband= Polyandry:
widespread in Tibet
a. Fraternal- one wife is regarded the wife
of all brothers who have sexual relation
with her. The children are treated as the
offspring of the eldest brother.
b. Non-fraternal=- If a child born then any
one husband is chosen its social parent by
spiritual ritual.
1. Lesser number of women
2. Poverty
3. Bride price
4. Backwardness
5. Population control
3. One husband many wives- Polygyny:
institution of slavery where the women
captured in war one made his wives and
concubines by the captor.
Causes:
1. Enforced celibacy
 2. Earlier aging of the female
3. Variety
4. More children
5. Social prestige
6. Economic necessity
Concept of Family
Family- Institutional complex on system institutions,
the nuclear or individual family is the most basic
social group. Family “famulus” meaning servant
The family is which one is born is called the family
which is the permanent union of man and woman for
the procreation and education of the children.
The family is the most intimate group to which man
belongs and the most effective agent in the
transmission of the social heritage.
It is one of the most changeable institutions of society.
Marriage as the institutionalization act or ceremony
from which the family arises or the institutional side
of the family.
This is an intimate need of human need.
- The wish for children
- Satisfaction of the sex impulse
- Craving for mutual love and protection
- The need of tenderness and devotion and the
desire of economic reciprocal help.
Meaning of Family
Most fundamental, universal social institution.
George Murdock stated that a meaning of family is a
social group characterized by common residence,
economic cooperation, and reproduction.
A mating relationship: a family comes to into
existence when a man and a women establish hating
relation between them
A form of marriage- mating relationship is
established through the institution of marriage. Can
be monogamous/polygamous.
A system of nomenclature: every family is known by
a name and has its own system of reckoning descent.
An economic provision: every family needs an
economic provision to satisfy the economic needs.
A common habitation: A family requires a home or
household for its living.
Types of Family
Nuclear family: simplest among all types of family
(father, mother, children)
Other names: elementary, conjugal, primary
Joint family or extended family: a nucleus family is
entered with closely related kin and the family.
Patrilineal Family: In heritance passes through the
males, authority rests over the eldest male of the
family.
Matrilineal family: descent affiliation is transmitted
through female line. Rules of residence further on
family types as evident in the form of patrilocal and
matrilocal residence.
Patrilocal- If the wife goes to reside with their
husband in husband’s house after marriage
Matrilocal- the husband come to reside in wife’s
house after marriage
Function of Family
Family as a source of identity- provides a sense of
identity
Family as leisure- family provides shared leisure
Source of emotional support- Functioning to provide
warmth and security, emotional support.
Changes in Marriage and Family Pattern
1. Cohabitation/live in- Living together only
for a long period of time.
2. One-parent family- single parent
providing for the child/children
3. Remaining single- do not need marriage to
enjoy life
4. Marriage without children- a life wherein
a responsible of being parent are not
present
 5. Lesbian and gay relationship- LGBTQIA+
marriage life
Mode of family dissolution- Lived together
domestic manner.
Divorce: legal process of dissolving a marriage.
“Irrevocable differences”
Causes of divorce:
Macro level: changes in social institutions such as
religion and law
Micro level:
1. Marriage at any early age
2. Disapproval of the marriage by relatives and
friends
3. Limited economic resources
4. Having a high education or less
5. Parents who are divorced or unhappy
marriage
6. Presence of children at the beginning of the
marriage
Social updates:
1. Old rule: spend all your leisure time together,
and be suspicious if your wants away-from-
your time
New rule: occasionally go out with friends-
without your spouse it’s normal and even
necessary and will enrich your marriage.
2. Old rule: seek professional counseling to help
a troubled marriage.
New rule: make a good marriage great from
the start by learning helpful relationship skills
taught through couples’ workshop
3. Old rule: husbands and wives should divide
household equally
New rule: do chores according to whichever
partner has the appropriate skills, time and
inclination to do them
4. Old rule: the true test of a marriage is how
well get through the big crises
New rules: the little, everyday things- both
positive and negative- are what really
determine a success relationship.
The Development of Economy as Social Institution
People’s lives have always been affected by the
dynamics of market or sociologists prefer to call it,
the economy. Today, the economy, which many
sociologists believe is the most important of our
social institution, differs radically from all but our
most recent past.
Origins and history of economic systems: it
originates in the trial-and-error attempts of human
groups to survive in a specific location.
Mode of subsistence: a group adapts to its
environment through the production of goods and
services, to secure sufficient food and production by
individual and collective survival.
Overtime many societies undergo change in their
mode of subsistence others remain much as they were
centuries ago,
The process of institutionalization whereby a given
adaptation becomes a way of life and affects all other
areas of activity.
Pre-industrial societies: from equality to inequality:
hunting and gathering had a subsistence economy.
Gathering what they could find and moving from
place to place as their food supply ran outs because
there was little or no excess food or other items, they
did little trading with other groups.
The division of labor produced a variety of items that
were available for trade. The primary sociological
significance of surplus and trade was that they
fostered social inequality.
Industrial Societies: The Birth of the Machine:
During the period of 1760 to 1830 brought about
changes in the social organization of the workplace.
The industrial society, form a social structure
emerged that depends on mechanization its good and
services.
The emphasis changed from the production of goods
to their consumption
According to Sociologists Thorstein Veblen (1912)
used the term conspicuous consumption to describe
this fundamental change in people’s orientation. It is
mean that the Protestant ethic identified by Weber-an
emphasis on hard work, savings, and a concern for
salvation-had been replaced by an eagerness to show
off wealth by the “Elaborate consumption of goods”
Postindustrial Societies: The birth of the
Information Age
According to Sociologist Daniel Bell there are a new
entirely type of society and identified six
characteristics of the post-industrial society:
1. Service sector so large that employs most
workers.
2. A huge surplus goods
3. Even more extensive trade among nations
4. A wider variety and quantity of goods
available to the average persons
5. An information explosion
6. Global village that is the globe becomes
linked by instant communication,
transportations, and trade.
World Economic system
Capitalism- land functioned as the source of
virtually all wealth. The industrial revolution
changed all that, it required that certain
individuals and institution be willing to take
substantial risk to finance new inventions,
machinery, and business enterprises.
Capitalism is an economic system in which the
means of production are held largely in private
hands and the main incentive for economic
activity is accumulation of profits. Capitalist
system varies in the degree to which the
government regulates private ownership and
economic activity.
Welfare (or state) capitalism versus Laissez
Faire Capitalism.
Laissez faire capitalism “hands off” that market
forces operate without interference from the
government. The current form of these states’
capitalism is welfare or state of capitalism. This
is an essentially free market within limits
designed to ensure social stability.
Socialism: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
Disturbed by the exploitation of the working class
that emerged during the industrial revolution. In
their view, capitalism forged large numbers of
people to exchange their labor for low wages. The
owners of an industry profit from the labor of
workers primarily because they pay workers less
the value of the goods produced.
Under socialism the means of production and
distribution in a society are collectively rather
than privately owner. The basic objective of
economic system is to meet people’s need rather
than maximize profits.
Socialists reject the laissez faire philosophy that
frees competition benefits the public, instead they
believe that the central government, acting as
representative of the people, should make basic
economic decisions. Government ownership of
all major industries is a primary feature of
socialism as an ideal type.
Functions of Economy:
Work is functional for society. It lies the basic
sociological principle: work binds us together.
This is a good point to review Durkheim’s
principles of mechanical and organic solidarity.
Mechanical solidarity: refer to this sense of unity
that comes from doing similar activities.
Division of labor develops, and people work at
different occupations. Each is part of some
economic system and the welfare of each
depends, each is a part of the same economic
system, and the welfare of each depends on the
others, Durkheim called this an economic
interdependence organic solidarity.
 Organic solidarity: It engulfs the world; our daily
life now depends on workers around the globe.
We sometimes feel threatened and hostile-
interdependence links us all in the economic web.
The Development of Politics as Social
Institution
According to philosopher Thomas Hobbes, he
concluded centuries ago, would be groups would be
locked in open and constant conflicts as they tried to
exercise power- the ability to carry out their own will
despite resistance from others.
Sociologists of all theoretical persuasions agree about
the pervasive and critical impact of the state in most
contemporary societies; however, they are in sharp
disagreement about how state’s activities affect those
societies and their citizens.
Origins of Political system: serve some basis
survival need in this case the need for internal order
and defense external enemies. Thus, some members
of the group are granted power to define and enforce
the norms.
All adults could join this task, but the more
complex the society; the greater the need to
coordinate the activities of many specialists and to
settle disputes among kinship groups or other social
units.
A governing group becomes the focus of such
loyalty, with the power to make rules and enforce
them.
Its leader is created and reinforced through ritual and
other unifying symbols.
Early societies were small and needed no extensive
political system, operates like an extended family,
with decisions being made as they became necessary.
City-states: came into being, with power radiating
outward from a city like a spider’s web. It often
quarreled and wars common. That is- they began to
see distant inhabitants as “we” instead of “they”
State: the political entity that claims a monopoly on
the use of violence within a territory-came into being.
The political organization of a complex society is
called the nation-state. State are organized sets of
institutions that govern and defend a given territory.
The historical evidence suggests a more complicated
picture in which the state operates as a relatively
autonomous, institutional sphere, with its own history
and logic.
Types of Government
Each society established a political system
through which it is governed. These formal
systems of government make a significant
number of critical political decisions.
Monarchy- single member of royal family,
usually a king or a queen or some hereditary ruler.
In early times, many monarchs claimed that God
had granted them a divine right to rule. Typically,
they governed based on traditional forms of
authority, sometime accompanied using force.
Dictatorship- one person has nearly total power
to make and enforce laws. Dictators rule
primarily using coercion, which often torture and
executions. Dictators are bitterly hated by the
people over whom they rule.
Democracy- Government by the people.
Originated in two Greek roots “demos” meaning
“the populace” or the common people and
“kratia” meaning rule.
Functions of Government:
Talcott Parson (1971) referred to as goal-
attainment activities, in his argument his stated
that every society possessing surplus of economic
sources must decide how the surplus will be used.
Societal goals such as strong national defense
must be established and communicated to
population members. Individuals must be
mobilized to join the specific goal-oriented
groups and carry out assigned group
responsibilities. People’s behavior and beliefs
must be controlled and directed towards the
fulfillment other state’s goals.
In terms of Karl Marx, the ultimate instrument of
class oppression like other super structural
elements, political institutions reflect the
underlying substructure on which they are
founded. The state plays a direct and active role
in maintain the bourgeoisie dominance and
proletarian subordination. The state generates
legislation that keeps both owners and workers in
their respective places. It makes daily decisions
and establishes societal policies. The state
supplies the physical force to reassert the rule of
the ownership class and squash proletarian
attempts to gain justice.
The Development of Religion as Social
Institution
Religion has been an important part of social life.
In some form or another organized religious
beliefs and practices have been present in all
societies, from the earliest hunting and gathering
hands to the most modern industrial and post-
industrial systems.
Religious beliefs and practices are found in all
known contemporary societies, if a group
believes that is being directed by “a vision from
God” sociologists do not attempt to prove or
disprove the revelation. They assess the effects of
the religious experience on the group.
Emile Durkheim recognized the critical
importance of religion in human societies. He
saw its appeal for the individual, but more
important, he stressed the social impact of
religion.
In his view, religion is a collective act that
includes many forms of behavior in which people
interact with others. “Unified system of beliefs
and practices relative to sacred things” religion
involves a set of beliefs and practices that are
uniquely the property of religion, as opposed to
other social institutions and ways of thinking.
When religion’s influence on other social
institutions in society diminishes, the process of
secularization is said to be under way.
The Universality of Religion
It is reasonably explaining the existence of
prehistoric religion and we have evidence of the
universality of religion in historic times, we can
understand why the subject of religion has been
the focus of many speculations, research, and
theorizing
The Origin of Religion
Edward Tylor proposed a major theory of the
origin of the religion, in his theory religion
originated in people’s speculation about dreams,
trances, and death. It is that lifelike appearances
of these imagined persons and animals suggests a
dual existence for all things. He thought that the
beliefs in soul were the earliest form of religion;
animism is the term he used to refer to belief in
souls.
In Robert Ranulph Marette, he felt that tylor’s
animism was too sophisticated and an idea to be
the origin of religion, he suggested that
animatism a belief in impersonal supernatural
forces.
Sigmund Freud believed that early humans lived
in groups each of which was dominated by a
tyrannical man who kept all the women for
himself. Freud postulated that, on maturing, the
sons were driven out of the group. He believed
that this early practice gradually became
transformed into worship of deities or gods
modeled after the father.
Humans would turn to religion during times of
uncertainty, but he did view religion positively,
believing that humans would eventually outgrow
the need for religion.
Bronilaw Malinowski noted that people in all
societies are faced with anxiety and uncertainty.
They may have skills and knowledge to take care
of many of their needs, but knowledge is not
sufficient to prevent illness, accidents, and
natural disasters. Through religious belief, people
affirm their convictions that death is neither real
nor final, that people are endowed with a
personality that persists even after death, in
religious ceremony, humans can commemorate
and communicate with those who have died and,
in this way, achieve some measure of comfort.
The functions of Religion
1. Stability and cohesion: shared religion binds
people closely together
a. Religion forms a balanced and cohesive
moral community
b. Shared religious experiences provide the
social cement for group unity and
consensus
2. Social Identity: gives people an identity and
social membership
a. This is achieved through special naming
ceremonies like baptism and christening
b. They represent the necessary power of
the social group over the otherwise
isolated, anomic individual.
c. Religion serves to integrate the person
into the society.
3. Collective conscience: religion united
people in moral ways
a. The group affirms its belief in the central
values through its commitment to the
religious system
b. Religion thereby generates and maintain
the collective conscience
c. Durkheim saw society as a moral
community, whose members were
socialized into accepting appropriate
patterns of behavior over time
d. An orderly social like is only possible
when people shared moral values, in this
way, society becomes embedded in the
individual
4. Socialization and Social Control: religion
gives meaning and purpose to people’s lives
a. in the face of death, disease and the hazards
of everyday living, people are vulnerable to
all kinds of disasters beyond their control.
Religion beliefs offer people comfort in times
of crisis.
b. It is the institution which gives people the
strength to continue and promotes the long-
term maintenance of society.
The Development of Education as Social
Institution
Education extends the socialization process that starts
in the family, because family members often cannot
teach all that child needs to know, other agents of the
society take over the task of presenting specialized
knowledge.
The Education in earlier societies: there was no
separate social institutions called education, there
were no schools and people who earned their living as
teachers, rather as an integral part of growing up
children learned what necessary to get along in life.
Education was a synonymous with acculturation, the
transmission of culture from one generation to the
next- as it still is in today’s preliterate groups.
Education then came to be something quite distinct
from informal acculturation; education is a group’s
formal system of teaching knowledge, values, and
skills.
Formal education however remained limited to those
who had the leisure to pursue its industrialization
transformed this approach to learning for the new
machinery and new types of jobs brought a general
need to be able to read, to write and to work
accurately with figures-the classic the R’s of the
nineteenth century. (Reading, Riting, and Rithmetic)
Function of Education
The intended consequences of people’s actions are
known as manifest functions, while those that are
not intended are called latent functions. The
functions of education are both manifest and latent
function will become evident
1. Teaching knowledge and skills- education’s
most obvious manifest function is to teach
knowledge and skills.
2. Cultural transmission and social
integration- Durkheim stressed the role of
formal education as a conserver of cultural,
education reflects rather than transform the
social structure. It sees a instrument of social
improvement where the educated person
gains happiness as valuable by product.
 3. Gate keeping- or determining which people
will enter what occupations, is another major
function of education. It is the tracking
sorting students into different educational
programs based on real or perceived abilities.
4. Promoting Personal change- Leaning
critical thinking skills help to promote
personal change. “Think for themselves” to
critically evaluate ideas and social life.
5. Promoting Social Change- it contributes to
social change by sponsoring research.
6. Mainstreaming- incorporating people with
disabilities into regular social activities. It is
the easiest for students whose disabilities are
minor, of course for they fit more easily into
regular schools.
7. Replacing family functions- School have
become a rival for some family functions.
Development of Education in the Philippines
In Philippines, education has always been one of the
pillars of national development. It provides the
Filipino youth with their knowledge and skills to
actively participate in productive and profitable
activities aimed at improving their quality of life.
The commitment and enthusiasm to reform education
in producing quality students is the creation of k to 12
educational systems in the Philippines.
What is K to 12?
- The k to 12 program covers kindergarten and
12 years basic education. It is to provide
sufficient time for mastery of concepts and
skills develop lifelong learners, and prepare
graduates for tertiary education middle-level
skills development, employment, and
entrepreneurship
Why are we implementing 12 years of basic
education and not 11 years?
- The congested curriculum partly explains the
present state of education. The current basic
education is designed to teach a 12-year
curriculum, yet it is delivered in just 10 years.
- The Philippines is the only country in asia
and among the three remaining countries in
the world with a 10-year basic education
cycle.
How will k-12 help in ensuring employment for
our graduates?
- Our graduates are not recognized as
professionals abroad
- Hence the need to adopt a k-12 program that
provides quality education and is
internationally recognized and comparable to
global standards.
Chapter 6: Social Structure, Stratification, and
Inequality
It has already been the norm that one has to know his
place in the society whether he belongs to the high-
end class or to the low-end class because the society
itself imposes certain standards on he acts or interact
with others.
Social Structure
Describes the ways in which values, beliefs, attitudes,
and norms are arranged in patterns which results into
different social relationships, and it describes the
place of individual in complex web of patterns that
makes the form of social life predictable.
Status:
Commonly referred to as one’s prestige. Status can
change over a period.
Ascribed status: social position given to a person
independent of what statuses of gender, race, and age
are few examples of ascribed status.
Achieved status: social position a person takes on
voluntarily based on his personal ability and effort.
Example: honor students, a beauty titilist, a human
right advocate lawyer, or robber.
There is a combination of ascription and achievement,
that means that people’s ascribed statues influence the
status that they achieve.
Master status: has special importance for social
identity. A job is a master status because it reveals
social economic and educational background.
Subordinate: when the woman is at work, her status
as radio commentator is the master status while her
status as wife becomes a subordinate status.
Positive of master status brings respect, opportunities,
and harmony in the interaction between or among
individuals.
Negative of master status could bring limit
opportunities; degrade self-confidence and sever
harmonious relationships.
Role
Obligation expected from someone who holds a
particular status.
Example: student is obligated to attend classes and
perform the role of being a student.
Robert Merton introduced the term role set to identity
the number of roles attached to a single status. A
person can hold various role at the same time which
depends on the status that he or she holds in each
circumstance.
When a person is confronted with two or more
conflicting roles at the same time, he is experiencing
role conflict.
One way to solve the conflict is to subdivide or
compartmentalize one’s life so that one can perform
roles for one status at one time and carry out roles for
another status in a completely different setting.
Role strain: a tension that occurs when a single role
contains conflicting behavioral expectations.
Role conflict and role strain are cases in point in
which social structures brings personal problems such
as stress, anxiety, and other psychological and
emotional aches and pains.
Social Stratification
Sociologists assume that groups of people are like the
strata of the earth’s surface, layered from the highest
to the lowest; this layering of people is called social
stratification, by which a society ranks categories of
people in a hierarchy.
1. Traits of the society, not merely a sign of
individuals differences
- Commonly linked to personal talent and
effort.
- Neither the rich nor the poor are responsible
for social stratification, but this system
shapes the lives of people.
2. Carried over from one generation to the
next
- It is common in the society that parents pass
their social position on to their children.
3. Universal but variable
- It is inevitable; it could be found anywhere.
- Some societies put value on the economic
standing of an individual or family, others
regard prestige, power, or fame as the
measurement of one’s status in the society.
4. Encompasses not only inequality, but
beliefs as well.
- Defines these arrangements as reasonable for
some reasons such as there is a need for social
control, social stability, and just reward for
hard work.
Bases of Stratification
Karl Marx and Max Weber investigated the nature
of social stratification.
Marx considered the capitalist as the oppressing class
and the workers as the oppressed class. These two
groups and their conflicting interests serve as the
foundation for stratification in capitalist nation.
In weber’s perspective, he added two more
components of social stratification aside from
economic standing, which are prestige and power.
Economic standing: wealth and income. the value of
everything a person owns excluding the value of what
he owned. It is the accumulation of a lifetime, and it
can be passed on one’s children.
Prestige: the social respect, admiration, regard, or
recognition of a particular person. Prestige is
intangible and subjective; depends how others
perceive a person.
Power: the ability to control the behavior of others
even if it involves their resistance. Power entails
conduct to compel others to do what they do not wish
to do. Sociologist agreed that the people are more
powerful if they have more money. People with
considerable wealth are also more likely to feel
powerful.
Stratification System
- The phenomenon of social stratification
around the globe.
The Egalitarian System
An egalitarian system exists when the society is least
stratified and social inequality is minimal.
Hunting-gathering societies during the evolution of
societies are egalitarian. Hunters-gatherers tend to be
egalitarian primarily because there is no opportunity
in their small-scale environment for everyone to
accumulate wealth.
The Master-Slave system
Some people are held in servitude as someone’s else
property. Most of slaves were poor people, inferior
ethnic tribes, war captives, or nonpayer of debt.
Feudal System
Less severe in practicing inequality. People are
stratified in two groups: those who tilled the land
called as the serfs, or peasant and those who
appropriated the produce of the land called the lords
or landlords.
This system keeps the tenant-workers in the state of
poverty, whereas the landlord is enriched with the
fruits of labor of the tenant-workers.
The Caste System
Rigid system of stratification in which people’s
positions are ascribed and fixed by reason by birth.
The birth of a person decided his future, with little
social mobility or the chance to go up into the next
higher level of the society.
The Class System
Based on birth and individual achievement. In this
system, people’s positions are achievable and
changeable. In effect, people can be socially mobility
is possible, therefore for some people to rise and fall
from one class into another.
As people are more aware and watchful of their civil
and political rights, classifying people according to
their color, sex, education, income, or wealth is
frowned upon by many societies.
Why Does Stratification Exist?
Functionalist theories contend that social
stratification strengthens the society, in which all
members ultimately will benefit from inequality.
Social conflict theory in contrast, argues that
stratification is a conflict between those who unjustly
enrich at the expense of another.
1. Different classes of people perform different
functions in the Society
- Likened social class to the different organs of
the human body. Different classes of people
perform different function in the society. The
greater the functional importance of a
position an individual has, the more rewards
are given to him. Without this system of
unequal rewards, many jobs that are
important to the society would never be
performed. Stratification is necessary
because it ensures that the most important
 positions in the society are filled by the most judgements and assumptions against another
qualified individuals. race.
2. Social Stratification exists because it benefits 3. Caste inequality: another way of treating
certain group of people. people unequally based on one’s occupation,
- It benefits certain group of people to origin, or by birth.
dominate and exploit others. According to
Marx, this is linked with the means of
production.
Social Inequality
Refers to a situation in which individual groups in a
society do not have equal social and class and status.
It exists when there is the scarcity of wealth, resources
or opportunities that prevents the economically and
socially underprivileged people from satisfying their
needs as compared to those people in the upper class
who have the easy access to these social and
economical goods.
Aside from inequality in terms of material resources, 4. Age inequality: refers to the unequal
there are other forms of social inequalities which are: treatment in promotions, recruitment, or
gender inequality, racial inequality, and age privileges granted to the people because of
inequality. the disparity of age. It is seen a lot in the work
1. Gender Inequality: is borne out of the environment in terms of recruitment,
deepening division in the role assigned to promotion, and dismissal of employees.
men and women in all spheres of human - Two face of age inequality:
endeavor, particularity in the economic, - A. Unequal treatment against older people
political, and educational spheres. - B. Unlawful acts committed against young
- An important concept related to this is the people.
glass celling effect. It refers to the unseen, yet CHAPTER 7: CULTURE
unreachable barrier that hinders women from
climbing the upper level of the corporate Question:
ladder, regardless of their qualifications or “To what extent are these practices or traits apparent
achievements. to every Filipino?”
- VAWC- Act of 2004 and RA 9262
2. Racial Inequality: is the belief where “Are these practice or traits unique only among the
individuals are treated based on the race, they Filipino?”
beliefs, and their racial characteristics such as
A trait cannot be considered as a culture and cannot
their skin color, physical characteristics, their
be said to be a description of the entire race or nation
place of origin culture. Some races are
without it being practiced by a large or significant
considered superior that others, thus resulting
number of the people. A trait to be considered
in unequal treatment opportunities in a
distinctively unique, it must be culturally different
society.
from the rest of the other societies.
- Racism goes hand in hand with
stereotyping, if one is racist person then,
he norm to stereotyping as well. This
usually occurs when people from pre-
What is Culture?
Edward Taylor who proposed that culture is a system
of human behavior and thought. It obeys natural laws,
and therefore can be studied scientifically (Kottak,
2002)
He defined culture as referring to a complex whole,
which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, moral, laws,
custom any other capabilities acquired by a man as a
member of the society.
Example of culture: mode of dressing, the use of
eyeglasses, the respect for elders, and the paying of
taxes, are just some of the many examples of culture.
The Material component: culture pertains to all
tangible materials that are inherited from the previous
generation. Most obvious component because of its
physical nature.
Example: use of ballpen and paper, the wearing of
barong tagalog, the use of chalk and blackboard, or
even the use of scissors and needle are examples of
the material component of culture.
Material objects do not represent the entirely of
culture. The knowledge and skills needed in the
process of producing these objects clearly represent
the other component of culture known as cognitive
culture.
Cognitive Culture: pertains to all body of knowledge,
skills and other capabilities handed down from one
generation to another.
Example: prior to the coming of the Spaniards, boys
were required to acquire the skills of using bow and
arrow as part of their early training. In today’s time,
boys and girls alike are encouraged to be computer -
literate in their early ages to become more
competitive in one’s chosen career.
Another knowledge pertains to natural supernatural,
technical, or magical knowledge, skill on the hand
refers to the learned or discovered technique or
process of creating tangible objects that a person
should have to survive the day to day living/
Normative component: pertains to prescription or
standards of behavior that govern the relation of
individual in the society, Prescription or standard of
behavior popularly known as social norm.
Social norm encompasses almost all aspect of
behavior in everyday activities, like talking and
greeting, dressing and sanitation, sleeping and
relaxation, courtship, and dating, and even to rare
occasions like baptism, weddings, and burials.
The Normative Component of Culture
Formal and Informal social norm.
The former refers to what has generally been written
down and involves strict rules for punishments to
offenders. Law and the school admission
requirements are just two examples of formal social
norms.
It is referring to the generation understood customs or
standard of behavior but is not precisely recorded nor
has any specific punishment or sanction for the
violators.
Example: in rural communities, it is a disgrace for a
woman to be pregnant our side of marriage, but the
people could not impose punishment to such offense
exceed ridicule, gossiping, and to some extent,
ostracism.
Social norms are also classified as folkways and
mores insofar as their relative degree of importance is
considered. Folkways are the general rules,
customary, and habitual ways, and patterns of
expected behavior in the society.
They are more popularly known as customs,
traditions, or conventions. It governs everyday
behavior but there is only little concern for any form
of violation.
Example: it may be improper to take food with a bare
hand during meal but doing so can be tolerated.
Mores on the other hand, refers to the special
folkways that are generally emphasized because they
are deemed necessary for the welfare of the society.
They are the totality of the ideals and aspirations that
embody the most cherished principles of the people.
Explanations on the Existence of Culture
Culture existed while society existed.
People made borrowing or limitation, discovered, and
rediscovered existing things, and even invented or
created new things. These newly borrowed,
discovered, or created things became the catalyst for
human development. The improvement of science
and technology are considered essential means for
social existence which most people of today could not
live without.
Culture also serves as a binding force for all human
beings of all generations. Humans are unified,
because of strict adherence to the norms of the
society.
Conflicts are minimized and cooperation magnified.
People are enlightened on how the next generation
would act and behave according to the expectations
of the society, and according to the best interests of
the people of the society.
Culture distinguishes human beings from animals.
Human beings can refine these instincts by
discovering new things, learned the lessons of their
mistakes, and taught these things discovered to their
offspring.
With culture, human beings have apparently gone a
long way.
Mechanisms of Culture Change.
Culture change happens because no society is in a
constant state. Society continuously evolves from one
period to another. Such evolutionary characteristic
maybe too minute that is almost unnoticeable, or too
abrupt that is suddenly changes the lives of people.
The modification or change of culture is very gradual
among tribal societies or among isolated and simple
societies while the rapid culture change is obvious
among highly industrialized or highly urbanized
societies.
The following mechanisms:
1. A change in technology is a change in culture,
and consequently a change in society.
The information society gave birth the
technology of electronic information which
engaged individuals in direct and personal
contact with some other individuals across the
globe.
Cultural lag: tendency however that a change in
technology does not result to change in culture. It
happens when there is a continuous practice of a
cultural goal even there is no longer any social
need.
Example: people usually stick to the cultural goal,
even if so, goal is no longer practical or needed in
the society.
To be considered as a cultural lag, one must
consider both social need and the cultural goal.
Every cultural goal is anchored on social need.
The moment a cultural goal is no longer needed
but remains a cultural practice, such is the
situation of the cultural lag.
Cultural lag is undesired in the society. No
society would tolerate the existence of cultural
just because it has been there since time
immemorial. The more that it will not continue to
exist if it has no moral, social, or legal
significance.
Societies design a new cultural goal that would
tend to replace the existing one. In the case of
growing population, most societies adopted the
culture of contraception.
2. Cultural Borrowing: > Cultural Borrowing
is a situation where one society borrows the
culture of another society and uses it as a new
part of the culture.
Example: most of the societies that experienced
colonization have cultural borrowing. Filipino’s
mode of dressing and speaking is mostly culturally
borrowed from the Spaniards and Americans.
3. Cultural discovery and invention: a
situation where a particular item in
discovered or invented which eventually
become part of the culture
 Discovery: > it refers to the process of finding
new place or an object, artifact or anything that
previously existed.
Invention: > implies a creative mental process of
diverting; creating, and producing something
new, novel, or original
Example: Use of cellular phones and other modern
gadgets.
It must be emphasized that however that not all
cultural changes are beneficial to the people.
Example: rampant use of non-biodegradable
materials which cause rapid deterioration of the
environment, as well as the use of artificial
contraceptives, some of which are found to have side
effects on the reproductive health of the women.
The excessive practice of cultural borrowing may
lead to a sense of “xenon centrism”
: which from a nationalist’s point of view, lead to the
rapid lose of national identity.
4. Attributes of culture itself: culture has the
attribute of being learned and shared, being
cumulative yet dynamic, being universal yet
diverse, and being whole or integrated.
In the process of sharing, a particular cultural item or
practice may be either accepted in its original form or
may be altered to fit in to one’s personal or social
need.
Example: most of the fast-food chain in the Philippine
made their menu rice based.
Culture has the likelihood of transformation from
simple to complex and yet retaining its original
from as a part of the culture. (it accumulates and
so it is dynamic)
Old cultural practices do not necessarily obliterate. It
remains part of the culture. The from may have been
changed in the passage of time but the essence
remains intact.
Example: Comics
Culture is universal in nature yet diverse in form:
it is universal before it is present in societies. It is
impossible to conceive a society without a culture.
George Murdock:

Culture is learned and shared: culture is learned not

only because it is capable of being learned but also
because it is product of the learning process.
It is in this that only humans have culture because
they are the only ones endowed with capacity to learn.
Culture is shared: because the learned practice
remains only a personal habit until is shared and
accepted by the other members of the society. Based on Murdock, one can deduce that the basic and
most essential needs of human beings found in every
For it to be considered culture, it has to be widely culture are: food, shelter, and clothing.
learned, and most importantly, widely practiced. The
question of wide acceptance and practice is a matter In an anthropological point of view, it is found across
of practicality, necessity, or convenience of the societies because it serves three important social
member of the society. function, namely: division of labor by sex,
childrearing for prolonged infant dependency, and
regulation for sexual competition.
Despite its universality, culture is remains diverse.
Societies vary in the way they eat and the kind of
food, the type of shelter and clothing varies from one
culture to another.
Such differences in culture are indications that the
concept of truth or the doctrine of right and wrong is
in fact relative in every society.
Each society has its own standard of social norms, and
no one, even the sociologists and anthropologists
could dictate what is proper and good.
Culture is whole or integrated: it does not pertain to
any subparts only. It is complex whole which has
many mutually interdependent parts.
Example: concept of good social status is not only
culturally defined according to the income of the
family, education, membership in organization,
religiosity, political affiliation, and nature of work all
play a significant role in identifying social status in
the society.
Culture is integrated in the sense that a behavior or
custom is one aspect is consistent with another aspect.
Example: Muslim women wear clothes that cover the
entire body.
Different Ways of Accepting Culture:
Ethnocentrism, Xenocentrism, and Culture
Shock.
Other society may be intolerant to other breed of
culture and treat its own culture as the absolute
truth.
Xenocentrism: The belief that one’s own culture is
relatively inferior compared to the culture of another,
the people having this kind of belief are apparently
more accepting and accommodating to other culture
and would take outside culture as their own.
“Colonial mentality” example: preference in buying
imported goods rather than local goods is one typical
manifestation of having this colonial state of mind.
Typical mentally colonial person, anything that
comes from other society is better compared to
anything that comes from within the society.
Ethnocentrism
> Ethnocentrism is a term applied to the cultural or
ethnic bias—whether conscious or unconscious—in
which an individual views the world from the
perspective of his or her own group.
This belied is closely manifested by their strict
adherence to their mother tongue.
By embracing this belied system, most people from
this society usually develop the psychological trauma
known as “xenophobia” it is the fear of anything that
comes from societies other than their own.
2 Forms of Ethnocentrism:
Economic ethnocentrism - belief that other groups
are economic competitors.
Cultural ethnocentrism - the idea that a certain
culture is superior to every other tribe or civilization.
Types of Cultural Ethnocentrism:
• American Exceptionalism
• Eurocentrism
• Indian Nationalism
• Japanocentrism
• Sinocentrism
Culture Shock
is a situation where an individual encounters a culture
radically different from his own, which leads to his
own disorientation or disorganization. There is this
internal struggle on his part in accepting, tolerating,
or doing the thing or act which he is not familiar or
used to do or not a part of his socialization process,
simply because it is so strange to him.
The Social Process of Culture: Assimilation,
Acculturation, Amalgamation
Assimilation
blending or fusion of two distinct cultures through
long periods of interactions. If any existing culture is
related to or tends to overlap with the newly
introduced culture, the existing culture is being
displaced by the new culture.
If there is any similar culture that tends to overlap
with the newly introduced culture, such old culture is
being replaced with a new one.
Example: Americanization of Filipino immigrants to
the U.S.
Acculturation
is the social process of embracing the new culture, but
this new culture does not necessarily replace the
existing culture. The latter continues to exist, and, in
most instances, it co-exists with the new culture. One
does not replace the other.
Example: adoption of foreign food by the Filipinos
who continue loving Filipino food. the Filipinos are
said to be the best English-speaking people of Asia,
Adoption of foreign foods by the Filipinos who
continue loving Filipino foods.
Amalgamation
Biological or hereditary fusion of members of
different societies. It is the social process of adopting
a new culture without replacing the old one. It usually
coexists with the new culture. Both exist.
This may be in terms of the absence of power among
siblings but retain the bonded relationship among
them.
Example: Marriage between a Filipino and an
American.
Chapter 8: Socialization and Social Processes
Corporal punishment: is the traditional way of
imposing discipline on children which uses physical
pain by spanking or slapping, or occasionally with an
implement such as belt, slipper, cane, or paddle.
This manner of imposing discipline can sometimes or
most of the time leads into child abuse.
This led to physical aggression, substance abuse,
crime, and violent later in their lives.
This led to how cultural values transmit cultural
values to children which determines eventually how
they will function as the members of the society.
Linguist Noam Chomsky believed that human being
is born with the “mechanism” that enables him to
make rules from the sentences he often hears spoken.
And when he beings to talk, he uses these rules to
speak a grammatically correct sentence, man absorbs
knowledge like sponges but unlike sponges, he does
not passively wait for something new to come along.
Feral Children: are deprived of mental, physical,
and social growth because they are reared in total or
nearly total isolation from other humans.
Though human beings can sometimes recover from
abuse and isolation, there is a certain point at which
isolation in infancy causes developmental damage
because prevents an individual to discover himself,
what are his or her strengths and weaknesses, his or
her ability, talents, and among other things which are
essential for holistic growth and development.
Socialization or social experience therefore plays an
essential role in forming the personality of an
individual and how he or she carries this personality
to communicate or interact with other people.
Nature vs Nurture
Nature controls the behavior, feelings, and
personality of human beings. Personality is a result of
evolutionary processes.
The importance of environment, which could mold a Important Dimensions of Self Evaluation
child through “Nurture.” It argues that an individual
does not let his personality be inherited. The Self-Esteem Personal Efficacy
environment, education, and culture make up the - One is good and - Challenges to
individual’s behavior. valuable to achieve his end
other to succeed in
Sociological Theories in Socialization - Judgement to different
The idea about self that is used in defining a person one’s own situations
who he is, is the central part of the socialization worth - Nature of
- Observes others personal
process.
to evaluate experience
The self represents ideas regarding the characteristic himself great predictor
behavior and qualities of a person. - Reflected of one’s
appraisal behavior
Looking Glass Self - Social - Do things to
comparison cope up with
Charles Horton Cooley - Judgement of situation
Highlighted the connection between society and an self-worth - Judgement of
personal
individual.
competence
Development of his children is his basis in
constructing his theories
“One’s personality comes from one’s influences” Theory of Social Behaviorism

Looking-Glass Self 1. Self as central concept

Person develops his self-image based on others
Social interaction and judgement serve as one’s
mirror
One can’t see himself without a mirror, thus, self-
image can’t be seen unless others react to it.
There phases of looking-glass self
One imagines how he appears to others
One imagines how others will judge his appearance
One develops emotional reactions based on perceived
judgement
2. Social experience is the exchange of symbols
3. By taking the role of another, a person
becomes self-aware
Self as the central concept
- Self is part of one’s personality
- Self develops as one interact with others
- Rejected Freud’s theory
- No man is an island
- Society and family impact one’s
development
Social Experience is the exchange of symbols
- Humans find meanings in action through
people underlying intention
- Languages and symbols are forms of
communication
- Symbols can be interpreted differently
- Form a bond or creates conflict
- The gesture of thumb-up in America vs. Iran
By taking the role of others. One become self-
aware
- She has two parts: I and Me
- I= the subject, active, and initiate action
- Me= the object, imagines himself as how
others perceive him
- All social experience is composed of I and
Me
“I” is for social progress, “Me” is for social order
and security
Stages of Self-Concept
Preparatory Stage (0-2 years)- Infants respond only
through imitation. No self yet is developed.
Play Stage (3-6 years)- takes the role of significant
others. Play pretend in a make-believe world.
Game Stage (6 years and above) – Play the roles of
generalized others. Learn the values of society as a
whole
Dramaturgical Analysis
Dramaturgy is term coined by sociologist Erving
Goffman to describe the idea that humans are
performers in a continuous performance called life.
According to Goffman, we are thrown onto the stage
of everyday life when we are born, and part of our
socialization is learning how to play the roles that
have been assigned to us from other people.
In the presence of others, we play out our parts as they
play out their parts in conversation with us. He had
the view that everything we do is a performance on
the stage of life.
People present themselves the way others expect
them to be, while on backstage, where there is no
audience, they reveal their true selves.
Though people carefully craft their performances.
Flaws may still surface, the result embarrassment or
discomfort after “spoiled” performance.
Embarrassment creates discomfort not only for the
actor but for everyone. Just as the audience feels
uneasy when an actors forgets his line, people who
have seen an embarrassing act are reminded how
fragile their own performances are.
William Shakespeare reflected this in lines:
All the world’s stage,
And all the men and women merely players.
They have their exits and their entrances
And one man in his time plays many parts
(As you like it, act 2, scene 7)
Social Process
Gillin and Gillin
By social process, we imply those ways of interacting
that we can observe when individuals and groups
meet and form systems of relationships, or what
happens when changes disrupt already existing modes
of life.
Ginsberg
The term social processes refer to the various modes
of interaction between individuals or groups, such as
cooperation and conflict, social differentiation, and
integration, development, hating/or arrest, and decay.
Horton and Hunt
The phrase social process refers to a type of repetitive
behavior that is common in social life.
Disjunctive Social Process
- Disunite or disintegrate a group or a
society
Competition
Interaction in which two individuals mutually
accepted rules, trying to achieve the same goal before
other does
- CONTINUOUS
- NEVER ENDING SOCIAL PROCES
- IMPERSONAL PROCESS
- UNCOUSCIOUS PROCESS
- ENCROUAGES HARDWORK
Conflict
Interaction in which individuals disregard any rules,
trying to achieve goals by defeating one another.
- LACKS CONTINUITY
- EVER ENDING SOCIAL PROCESS
- PERSONAL PROCESS
- UNCOUNSCIOUS PROCESS
- NON-PRODUCTIVE
Conjunctive Social Process
- Strengthen the bond of the group or the
society as a whole
Cooperation
- Interaction in which two individuals work
together to achieve a common goal
Accommodation
- Refers to either permanent or temporary
termination of conflict which permits to
function together WITHOUT hostility
Assimilation
- Refers to cultural fusion in which two groups
blend their cultures to become one
Amalgamation
- Biological interbreeding of two people of
distinct physical appearance until they
become one stock
Acculturation
- Process of adopting cultural traits and social
patterns of another group
CHAPTER 9: SOCIAL GROUPS
Online Communications: people communicating
with one another via computers is a contemporary
example of an invention that alters relationships and
even the very nature of “talk”.
Social Groups
Groups are the essence of life in society.
Aggregate: consists of individuals who temporarily
share the same physical space but who do not see
themselves as belonging themselves.
Example: People waiting in a checkout line or drivers
parked at the same parking area are an aggregate.
Category: consists of people who share similar
characteristics
Example: college women who wear glasses or all men
over 6 feet tall.
Unity groups: the individuals who make up a
category neither interact with one another nor take
one another into account.
Social group: think of themselves as belonging
together, as they interact with one another.
It is clearly defined as a collection of two or more
people who interact frequently with one another,
share a sense of belonging and have a feeling of
interdependence.
Primary Groups: Springs of Life
1. Family- gives us our basic
orientation to life.
2. Friends- more intimacy and an
additional sense of belonging.
According to James Henlins this is called our primary
group that we got to interact face-to-face, give us
identity, a feeling who we are.
This is essential to our emotional well-being.
The values and attitudes of become fused into our
identity. We internalize their views, which we
become the lens through which we view life.
It is difficult, if not impossible, for us to separate the
self from our primary groups, for the self and our
groups merge into a “we.”
Secondary Groups
Larger, more anonymous, formal, and impersonal.
This is based on the same interest or activity, like
having an interaction based on specific roles, such as
president, manager, worker, or student.
Contemporary society could not function without
secondary groups. They are part of the way we get
our education, make our living, and spend our money
and leisure time.
Secondary groups often fail to satisfy our deep needs
for intimate association.
Example: we at school or at work from friendship
cliques. Our interaction with them is so important to
us that we sometimes feel it weren’t from them,
school, or work “would drive us crazy”
In-Groups and Out-groups
In-groups: groups toward which we feel loyalty
Out-groups: groups toward which we feel
antagonisms.
Identification with a group can generate not only a
sense of belonging, but also loyalty and feelings of
superiority.
Implications for a Socially Diverse Society
It is not surprising that in-group membership leads to
discrimination, for with our strong identifications and
loyalties, we all favor members of our in-groups.
One consequence is an interesting double standard.
The traits of our in-group come to be viewed as
virtues, while those same traits of out-groups are seen
as vices.
Example: men may perceive an aggressive man as
assertive, but an aggressive woman as pushy.
To divide the world into “we” and “them” poses a
severe danger for a pluralistic society.
In short, to divide the world into in-groups and out
groups is a natural part of social life, but in addition
to bringing about functional consequences, it can
bring about some highly dysfunctional ones.
Reference Groups
The groups we use as standards to evaluate ourselves.
Your reference groups may include family, the
members of the church, your neighbor, teacher,
classmates, and co-workers.
It can be a group to which you aspire, for an instance,
if you are thinking about going to graduate school,
member of the profession you want to join may
constitute a reference group whose standards you
consider as you evaluate your grades or writing skills.
Providing a Yardstick: it exerts tremendous
influence over our lives.
You can see that the yardsticks provided by the
reference groups operate as a form of social control.
When we see ourselves as measuring up to the
yardstick, there is no conflict, but if our behaviors, or
even our aspirations, do not match the standards held
by the reference group.
Given the social diversity of our society as well as our
social mobility. Many of us are exposed to
contradictory ideas and standards from the groups
that become significant to us. The “internal
recordings” that play contradictory messages from
these reference groups, then are one cost of social
mobility.
The Emergence of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschafts
Ferdinand Tonnies a German sociologist contributed
to coining two types of social groupings.
Gemeinschaft sees social structures such as the
family, tribe, or village as the purest ones in the sense
of human relationships.
Industrial societies, are characterized by Gesellschaft,
governed by rationality while lacking in human
relatedness.
Only two basis forms of will:
1. Essential will: natural will leads the
actor to see himself to serve the goals
of social groupings. Groupings
formed around an essential will are
called Gemeinschaft, and they can be
 understood as an organic type of
structure.
2. Arbitrary will: Rational will, an actor
here sees the social group to further
his individual goals, and so it is
purposive and future-oriented, based
on conscious decision-making.
Groupings around the latter are
called Gesellschafts and their
structure can be understood as based
on social contracts.
Gemeinschaft is self-fulfilling, a Gesellschaft is
instrumental for its members.
Social Networks:
Cliques: people who you got along well with and
began to sit together.
The links between people- their cliques as well as
their family, friends, acquaintances, and even
“Friends of friends”- are called social networks.
Think of a social network as ties that expand outward
from you, gradually connecting to more and more
people.
The Small World Phenomenon
We do not experience social life as an ocean of
nameless, strange faces. Instead, we interact within
social networks that connect us to the larger society.
If you list everyone you know, and each of those
individuals lists everyone he or she knows, and you
keep doing this, would almost everyone in the country
eventually be included in the lists.
Implication for Social Diversity
The term networking which has appeared in popular
speech refers to people trying to overcome this barrier
by using social networks.
A new group: Electronic Communities
In the 1990’s a new type of human group, the
electronic community, made its appearance. The
internet consists of tens of thousands of computers
hooked together worldwide.
Most new groups provide only an interesting new way
of communicating, but some meet our definition of
group; people who interact with one another and who
think of themselves as belonging together.
Some new groups pride themselves on the distinctive
nature of their interests and knowledge, a factor that
binds them together and distinguishes them from
others.
Even though they have “met” only electronically,
they share personal, sometimes intimate information
about themselves. Some “talk” with one another each
day at a set time in “Chat rooms” which are accessible
only passwords.
This new form of group is explored in various
networking site such as Yahoo chat, twitter,
Facebook, Instagram, and telegram.
Group Dynamics
As you know from your personal experience, the
lively interaction within groups- who does with
whom- has profound consequences for how you
adjust to life. Sociologists use the term group
dynamics to refer to how groups affect us and how we
affect groups.
Considering the differences that the size of the group
makes, and then examine the stability, intimacy, and
conformity.
Small group: small enough for everyone to interact
directly with all the other members. Small groups can
be either primary or secondary.
Example: bidders at a public auction and passengers
on a flight from Manila to Caitlan are examples of
secondary small groups.
Effects of Group Size on Stability and intimacy
According to George Simmel (1858-1918) noted the
significance of group size, he used the term dyad for
the smallest possible group.
Dyads: include marriages, love affairs, and close
friendships, show two distinct qualities.
It requires the active participation and commitment of
both members; they are the most unstable social
groups. Because if one member loses interest, the
dyad collapses. In the larger groups, in contrast, even
if one member withdraws, the group can continue, for
its existence does not depend on any single member.
Triad: is a group of three people.
Example: the birth of a child, hardly any aspect of a
couple’s relationship goes untouched.
Simmel’s principle that groups larger than dyads are
inherently stronger helps explain this effect. Like
dyads, triads are also intense, for interaction is shared
by only their people, but because interaction is shared
with an additional person, the intensity lessens.
The general principle is this: as a small group grows
larger, it becomes more stable, but its intensity, or
intimacy decreases.
As each person comes into a group, the connections
among people multiply.
It is not only the number of relationships that makes
larger groups more stable. As groups grow, they tend
to develop a more formal structure to accomplish their
goals.
Coalition: alliances formed within small groups.
Chapter 10: Deviance and Social Control
The Nature of Deviance
Sociologists use the term deviance to refer to any
violation of norms, whether the infraction is as minor
as jaywalking or as serious as murder.
Sociologist Howard S. Becker (1996) identified this
way: it is not the act itself, but the reactions to the act
that make something deviant.
1. Deviance is culturally defined, in the
same way that people’s behaviors are
viewed in the framework of the
culture in which they take place, so is
deviance. It is not therefore a
personal standard of values.
2. Deviance is relative, because
different groups have different
norms, what is deviant to some may
not be deviant to others. This
principle holds within a society as
across cultures.
• Thus, acts that are acceptable in one culture
or in one group within a society may be
considered deviant in another culture, or by
another group within the same society.
This principle also applies to a specific form of
deviance known as crime; the violation of rules that
have been written into law.
3. Deviance is circumstantial, because
deviant act is always evaluated
according to its impact to the society-
whether it violates an important
aspect of the society (social, cultural,
moral, economic, and even political)
or simple a violation of the social
norms.
The last nature of deviance is that it can be found in
every society, just as culture too. Indeed, there is no
perfect society, just as there is no perfect individual.
It simply shows that not all people are capable of, or
not willing to follow the norms of society. The
subsequent discussions may provide other
explanations on the existence of deviance.
Of course, deviance is always used interchangeably
with stigma, although they differ significantly.
Sociologist Erving Goffman (1963) used the term
stigma to refer to characteristics that discredit people.
These include violation of norms of ability (blindness,
deafness, mental handicaps) and violations of norms
of appearance (facial birthmarks, obesity).
Social Order and Social Control
No human groups can exist without norms, for norms
make social life possible by making behavior
predictable.
Without norms we would have social chaos, norms
lay out the basis guidelines on how everyone should
play his roles and how he should interact with others.
Norms allow social order, a group’s customary social
arrangements.
Sanctions
Disapproval of deviance, called negative sanctions,
ranges from frowns and gossip for breaking folkways
to imprisonment and capital punishment for breaking
mores.
Positive sanctions, in contrast, from smiles to formal
awards- are used to reward people for conforming to
norms. Like getting a raise is positive sanction, being
fired is negative sanction.
Most negative sanctions are informal.
Theories on Deviance
Individualistic Explanation
Biological explanations focus on genetic
predispositions to such deviances as Juventus
delinquency and crime (Hernstein and Wilson, 1986)
This include (but are not restrict to) the following
their theories
1. Intelligence- low intelligence leads
to crime
2. The XYY theory- extra Y
chromosome in males leads to crime
3. Body type- people with squarish,
muscular body are more likely to
commit street crime, acts such as
mugging, rape, and burglary.
Psychologists focus on abnormalities within the
individual in what are called personal disorders.
No specific negative childhood experience, however,
is invariably linked with deviance. Nor does any
personality led to deviance.
Example: children who had bad toilet training
suffocating mothers or emotionally aloof fathers may
become embezzling bookkeepers or good
accountants.
Sociological Explanation
Search for factors outside the individual. They look
for social influence that “recruit” some people rather
than other to break norms. To account for why people
commit crime.
Example: sociologists examine such external
influences as socialization, subcultural membership,
and social class.
One may contrast the three sociological
perspectives, symbolic interactionism,
functionalism, and conflict theory.
Symbolic interactionism includes the differential
association theory, control theory, and labeling
theory, while the functionalist theory includes the
strain theory.
Differential Association Theory
According to sociologist Edwin Sutherland stressed
that people learn deviance. He coined the term
differential association to indicate that we learn to
deviate or to conform to society’s norms mostly by
the people whom we associate.
It is basically deviance is learned. This goes directly
against the view that deviance is biological or can be
attributed to personality. This imbalance means that
the prevailing attitudes tilt us more in one direction
than the other. We conform or deviate.
Friends, neighbors, and subcultures. The
neighborhood also is likely to be influential, for
sociologists have long observed that delinquents tend
to come from neighborhoods in which their peers are
involved in crime.
Control theory
Inside most of a person, it seems, are strong desires to
do things that would get him into trouble- inner
drives, temptations, urges, hostilities, and so on.
Walter Reckless (1973)- it stresses that two control
systems work against the person’s motivations to
deviate. His inner controls include our internalized
moral--- conscience, ideas of right and wrong, and
religious principles.
Inner controls also include fear of punishment,
feelings of integrity, and the desire to be a “good”
person (Rogers 1977).
Outer controls consist of people – such as family,
friends, and the police – who influence him not to
deviate.
Control theory is sometimes classified as functional
theory.
Because when a person’s outer controls operate well,
he conforms to social norms and thereby does not
threaten the status quo.
Symbols and meanings are central to this theory;
however, it can also be classified as a symbolic
integrationist theory.
This theory can be summarized as self-control. The
key to learning self-control is socialization, especially
in childhood. Parents help their children develop self-
control by supervising them and punishing their
deviant acts (Gottfredson, 1990)
Labelling Theory (Symbolic interactionists)
It focuses on the significance of the labels (names,
reputations) that are given to people.
Label tends to become a part of the self-concept, a
significant factor that helps to set people on paths
that propel them into or divert them from
deviance.
People react to society’s labels—from “Whore” and
“pervert” to “corrupt” and “slob”
Rejecting labels: Most people resist the labels that
others try to pin on them. Some are so successful that
even though they persist in deviance, they still
consider themselves conformists.
Sociologists Gresham Sykes and David Matza (1988)
Different Techniques of Neutralizing Labels
- Denial of Responsibility: sort of like billiard
balls shows around the pool table of life
- Denial of Injury: they might acknowledge
that what they did was illegal but claim that
they were just having a little fun.
- Denial of a Victim: if the boys did accept
responsibility and even admit that someone
did get hurt, they protected their self-concept
by claiming that the people “deserved what
they got”
- Condemnation of Condemners: Deny that
others had the right to judge them. “who are
they are to accuse me of something”
- Appeal to Higher Loyalties: Used to justify
their antisocial activities was to consider
loyalty to the groups more important than
following the norms of society.
Embracing Labels: Although most of us resist being
labeled as deviant, there are those who revel in a
deviant identity.
One of the best examples of a group that embraces
deviance is the motorcycle gang
Mark Watson (1998) did participant observation with
outlaw bikers and later concluded that their pride of
looking dirty mean and generally undesirable and see
the world as hostile, weak, and effeminate
The power of labels, although the matter is extremely
complex, because it involves the self-concept as well
as individual reactions, we can note that labels open
and close the doors of opportunity.
Being labeled a deviant can lock people out of
conforming groups and force them into almost
exclusive contract with people who have similar
labels.
The Functionalist Perspective
It is likely to think of the dysfunctions it involves, in
contrast are likely to stress the functions of deviance
as they are to stress its dysfunction. Deviance, he said,
including crime, is functional for society, for it
contributes to the following social order:
1. Deviance clarifies moral boundaries
and affirms norms: A group’s ideas
about how people should act and
think mark its moral boundaries.
“You broke an important rule, and we cannot
tolerate that” to punish deviants is to assert
what it means to be a member of the group
2. Deviance promotes social unity:
affirm the group’s moral boundaries
by punishing deviants foster a “We”
feel among the group’s members.
“You can’t get by with that” the
group collectively affirms the
rightness of its own ways.
 3. Deviance promotes social change:
Groups do not always agree on what
to do with people who push beyond
their acceptable ways of doing
things. Deviance may force a group
to rethink and redefine it’s moral
boundary, helping groups and whole
societies to change its customary
ways.
Strain Theory
Robert Merton developed this theory that people who
experience strain are likely to feel anomle or sense of
normlessness. Because mainstream norms like work
and education don’t seem to be getting anywhere,
they have a difficult time identifying with these
norms.
Conformist: internalizes the common success goals
but also has access to the approved means to realize
the goals.
Innovator: role manifests the adoption of disvalued
means to realize success.
Ritualist: follows the rules obsessively but loses
sight of the overall goals.
Retreatist: abandons both success and goals and the
means to realize them
Rebel: rejects both the traditional goals and means
but envisions new ones as the basis for a new social
order.
As evident in the following schemata, it is the type of
consistency or inconsistency between goals and
means that leads to either conformity or to one of the
four types of anomic deviance.
Strain theory underscores the main sociological point
about deviance, that deviants are product of society.
Functionalists conclude that deviance is the
consequence of socializing the less privileged social
classes into equating with material possessions, while
denying them the means to attain that success.
People from higher social classes encounter different
opportunity structures to commit crimes.
The Conflict Perspectives
Conflict theorists look at power and social inequality
as the primary characteristics of society. They stress
that a group at the top, a powerful elite, controls the
criminal justice system.
The most fundamental division in industrial society is
that between the few who own the means of
production and the many who do not, those who sell
their labor, and the privileged few who buy it.
This form is marked by unemployment and poverty,
and from its ranks come most of the prisoners in our
country. Desperate, these people commit crimes, and
because their crimes threaten the social order, they are
severely punished.
CHAPTER 11: COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR
Collective behavior pertains to the ways of thinking,
feeling, and acting that develop among large number
of people that are relatively spontaneous and
unstructured.
There are various forms of collective behavior, it can
include crowd, fashion, fads, crazes, panic, rumors,
and public opinion.
Crowd: the most common and familiar among
collective behavior. It is a temporary, relatively,
unstructured gathering of people.
Sociologist Herbert Blumer identified four basic
types of crowds.
1. Casual crowd: which is the aggregation of
people with little commonality except
viewing a common event such as looking
through a department store window, visiting
a museum or watching a burning building or
a traffic accident.
2. Conventional crowds: in which people have
assembled for some specific purpose and they
must act according to the established norms
such as people attending basketball games or
concerts.
3. Impressive crowd: which is a group of
people who have grouped together for self-
stimulation and personal gratification. The
group’s actions are characterized by common
 rhythm action such as dancing, clapping of
hands, singing and other forms of uniform
movement.
4. Acting crowd: which is the most emotional,
exciting, and volatile among the type of
crowd. People are engaged in riots, looting or
outlaw forms of hostile behavior where they
do not observe established norms or rules.
Fashion, Fad, and Crazes
This conformity entails only for a short period of
time.
Fashion: is a short-lived folkway and is relatively
widely accepted by the people.
There are three reasons fashion occurs.
1. Some culture values changed. Means what is
new is good that is why modern societies
change clothing styles seasonally.
2. Many industries promote or even dictate
change in the name of profit.
3. Fashion trickle down from the top, most
fashions originate from the upper-class
people, who like to adopt some style for
status symbol.
Fad: accepted only by a few segments of society. It is
sometimes scorned by others. Fads can be a vehicle
for people to develop a sense of being a part of a group
by imitating others.
Craze: is a fad which has serios consequences. It
preoccupies the individual such that it becomes a all-
consuming passion.
Panic: collective behavior is irrational and
uncoordinated but is collective which is induced by
the presence of an immediate and severe threat or
danger.
Rumor: a piece of information transmitted rapidly
from one person to another that is difficult to verify.
As the story passes around, each person alters the real
story by dropping some facts and adding his own
versions.
Not all rumors are false, they may contain a strand of
truth.
Public Opinion: Public refers to dispersed collection
of people who share a particular common interest or
concern. Is a collection of ideas and attitudes shared
by the members of a particular public. Its quality is
based on certain factors such as the availability of
information, freedom of expression of opinion of the
public, the quality of political leaders, and pressure
groups.
The opinion of a person is subject to change.
Propaganda is a tool used to influence one’s opinion.
It may be true or false.
Sociologists Alfred and Elizabeth Lee identified
certain methods that are frequently used to influence
public opinion.
1. Name calling or negative labelling:
technique is used to make the public reject an
idea, person, or product without any
substantial basis.
2. Glittering generality is the opposite of
name calling: an idea or product is
associated with a general, ambiguous, but
extremely popular concept or belief.
3. Transfer: associating an idea or product with
something else that is respected, admired, or
desired.
4. Testimonial: having well-known person to
endorse or oppose a product or idea
5. Card stacking: made by focusing only on the
good side or negative side of an idea or
product to support or oppose the latter.
6. Bandwagon: creates an idea that everyone is
using the product or supporting an idea or
person.
Explanations of Collective Behavior
Contagion Theory: By Gustave Le Bon, “law of the
mental unity of crowds” this approach was echoed by
Herbert Blumer, human beings are in a herd like
behavior when they are in a large crowd.
Thus, a crowd is often referred to as a single unit, as
if it were a real thing- “the crowd shouts” and “the
angry mob surges forward”
This theory depicts the crowd as a mob that
overpowers the rationality of man.
Three mechanisms:
1. Imitation: the tendency of one person to do
the same thing others are doing
2. Suggestibility: is a state that which
individuals are inclined to images, directions,
and plans formulated by others.
3. Circulation reaction: is a process whereby
the emotions of others are absorbed by an
individual, in turn intensifying the group
emotion.
Emergent-Norm Theory: even in the most chaotic
situation, the emerges norms that explain the crowd’s
action. What often appears to be collective agitation
looks different from those who are involved in the
actions.
This theory discounts the idea that people are
spontaneously influenced by the emotion of others to
behave the way others do.
Value-added theory: Sociologist Neil J. Smelser
presented another dimension in examining collective
behavior based on value-added model.
It is postulates that each step in the process of
production from raw materials up to finished product.
Collective behavior is products of sequences of steps
that constitutes the six determinants of collective
behavior.
1. Structural conduciveness: Refers as the
whether the existing social structure favors
the existence of collective behavior.
2. Structural strain: occurs when society is
unable to solve a social problem, or the social
system fails to effectively operate such that
the government fails to meet the citizens’
needs. Stress accumulates across time and
individuals experience social malaise or
feeling of discontent.
3. The growth of a generalized belief: the
more people are aware of what is happening
the more it will grow a general belief.
4. Precipitating factors: Dramatic events that
bring social strain to a high pitch which
confirms that general belief of the people.
5. Mobilization of participants for actions
refers to the presence of a leader that
encourages the action. Their speeches were
so persuasive, their words were the rights
ones that the public wanted to hear, and they
felt it was the ripe time for a change.
6. The failure of social control: The inability
of the authorities to prevent, interrupt,
deflect, or inhibit the mounting collective
action.
CHAPTER 12: Population and the Demographics
The Need to Study Population
The need to study population lies on the fact that a
change in population size constitutes some of the
important features of social transition and change.
Example of these is the introduction of new forms of
technology, increase or decrease can also be a catalyst
for social change.
It is not an individual concern but an other’s concern.
But population dynamic is inevitable to study because
it has big impact to environment, health, and
development that could in one way or another.
In many countries in the world today, population is
skyrocket while economic growth is stagnating, thus
intensifying problems of unemployment.
If one would base his estimation on the current
population statistic, he would know that an additional
250,000 human beings every day, this figure would
further provide the idea that 2 babies are born every
second.
Demography: The Study of the Population
Population: refers to the number of persons
occupying a certain geographic are drawing
subsistence from their habitat and interacting with
one another.
Scientific study of the population is demography. A
demographer gathers data about the size, distribution,
composition, and change in population order to
describe them. He also analyzes the structure of
population in terms of factors such as age, gender,
race, ethnicity, and some other demographic
variables.
Three components of the Population
Size: refers to the number of people while growth
refers to the changes in number of people over time.
Composition: describes the characteristics of people
comprising the population, their age, sex, distribution,
education attainment, economic activities, ethnicity,
religion.
Distribution: refers to how the population is
distributed in each geographic area. This is best
measured in terms of population density.
The three Demographic processes:
Fertility: refers to the amount of reproduction among
women of reproductive ages. This is usually
expressed in terms of number of children born by
women in ages 15-49.
Two parts of Fertility:
1. Biological: is the capacity of the women to
reproduce, sometimes known as fecundity,
which is the physical ability to reproduce.
2. Social: refers to the social environment that
determines the actual and number of children
to be born, given the capacity to reproduce.
Morality: refers to the number of deaths in each
population. Declining mortality, not the rising
fertility, is the root cause of current world population
growth.
Due to the over time, people can bring mortality under
control that most of the people are able to take and
enjoy a long life.
Two biological aspects of mortality
1. Lifespan: is almost entirely a biological
phenomenon
2. Longevity: has both biological and social
components.
The former refers to the oldest age to which
human beings can survive. It pertains to how long
a person can possibly live.
Migration: refers to the relatively permanent
movement of people with the purpose of changing
their residence.
Two types of Migration
1. Internal: involves permanent change of
residence within national boundaries, and
many sometimes refers only as a movement.
2. International: permanent movement across
national boundaries. Under this, a person is
called an emigrant in terms of the area of
origin, and an immigrant in terms of the area
of destination.
Population pyramid
- Graphical representation of the entire
population according to age and gender.
Hence, based on the population pyramid, one
can determine whether the population is
young or elderly, dependent or working,
make or female dominated.
Population change is expressed in terms of an
increases or decrease of population.
Decrease in population usually happens in time of
famine, epidemic, and disaster (natural cause) or in
times of war (artificial cause).
Increase of population, usually happens where is an
improvement of health that results to low mortality,
and when there is low contraceptive practice among
sexually active individuals.
P2=P1+(B-D) +(IM-OM)
P2: population at the later date
P1: population at the earlier date
B: birth between earlier and later dates
D: birth between earlier and later dates
IM: in-migration between earlier and later dates
Om; Out-migration between earlier and later dates.
A population growth rate refers to the rate of which a
population is increasing or decreasing each year due
to natural increase or decrease and net migration.
Thus, a positive growth rate means that the population
is increasing, a negative growth rate means the
population is decreasing perhaps due to heavy out-
migration, or the existence of natural and artificial
disasters.
Sources of Population Data
Population census is the most relied-upon source of
data. It is device used by the government to determine
how many people were under their rule and control,
who the taxpayers were, and who were the potentials
laborers and soldiers.
Census: defined as the total process of collecting,
compiling, and publishing demographic, economic,
and social data pertaining at a specified time or times,
to all persons in a country or delimited territory.
The earliest population census was conducted by the
Egyptians, Babylonians, China, Palestine, and Rome.
Vital Statistic pertains to the important events in the
life of a persons such as births, deaths, marriages,
divorces, and abortions. These vital events are
recorded and compiled by the government for
possible use.
It was first practiced by the church.
This mechanism paved the way for almost all
countries today to establish vital statistic office.
Sample surveys are often resorted to when
population censuses and vital registration are
suspected to be inaccurate or erroneous, or when they
are found to be incomplete or underreported.
The World Population in Historical Perspective
Because of the lack of reliable information, accurate
population count is hard to determine, especially if
one is interested to trace absolute number upon the
start of human civilization.
The Philippine Population Growth
It was only in 1903 when the Philippines had an
accurate tabulation of the population because of the
official census administered by the American
colonizers. Based on the record and estimates
recovered from earlier accounts, Philippine
population had been recorded by the Spanish friars
and officials during their 300 years of the Spanish
reign in the Philippines.
CHAPTER 13: CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF
POPULATION GROWTH
CAUSE AND EFFECT OF POPULATION
GROWTH
The preference for large family size is grounded on
the benefit that can be derived from children, and not
on the capacity of the parents to raise healthy and
well-educated children.
More women today find it more difficult to raise
children because recently, they are more concerned
on their responsibilities as parents.
This is the reason why they are no longer confining
themselves in domestic work. Women decided to go
out from their respective homes to help men in
earning for a living.
They are at the same time restricted by domestic
works, which culture traditionally assigned to them.
Interesting questions: “What makes these women
shift their views about children and parenting?” or
maybe “What makes them prefer small family size?”
Population size raises concerns among the population
and policy experts, thus, to find possible intervention,
one needs to know various theories and explanations
on the preferences for large or small family size.
One also needs to know the reasons for the drop and
the causes of the mortality, as well as the dynamics of
migration because these too, contribute significantly
to in the rise or fall of population in a national border.
These are the theory of demographic transition, the
Malthusian theory of the population, and the Marx
principle on population.
The Theory of the Demographic Transition
This can be viewed as one way to explain how the
world today experienced the rapid population growth.
Using a historical approach, the demographers form
out that the world population is continuously
undergoing a series of transition in death rates and
birth rates.
This is the transition from the high birth rate and high
death rate to relatively low birth rate and low death
rate.
Stage 1: High birth and death rates with little
population growth:
- The world is characterized by high birth rate.
However, because of the corresponds of high
death rates, there is only little population
growth- thus a stable population. Health
remained relatively poor, that is why the way
to maintain a relatively stable population is to
desire for large number of children.
Stage 2: Declining death rate, primarily the result
of reduction in infant death, along with medium
fertility-resulting to significant population growth
- The mortality rate drastically declines
because of the improvement of health, which
resulted to a decline in infant death.
However, there remains high birth rate, this
resulting to rapid population growth.
Stage 3: Low birth and death rates with little
population growth.
- The low birth rate is almost comparable to
that the low death rate. This is because of the
effort to curtail fertility, thus resulting to low
population growth.
Almost all the societies today have surpassed the first
stage and now entering the second stage. The world
today is experiencing a rapid population growth.
That is why the campaign for the use of family
planning method is prevailing in the less developed
countries to prevent a rapid population growth.
Criticisms against the theory of the Demographic
transition
1. The demographic transition is not a law of
“population growth”, but rather a general
description on how population grows in
industrial societies.
2. Although, the historical analysis sound
logical and acceptable, it has less
predictability for future population
projection.
- Noe could not generally claim that what
happened among highly developed countries
would happen for less developed countries.
One must consider the cultural acceptability
insofar as contraceptive use is concerned.
The Malthusian Theory of Population Growth.
Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-184) who made a
critical analysis on population and resources.
“Essays on the Principle of Population” most
important legacy in his controversial work (1798)
He argued that the recent population is growing more
rapidly than the availability of food supply. While the
population is growing in geometric progression (2,4,
16…) the food supply on the other hand has been
increasing in the arithmetic progression (2,4,8…).
This gap continues over time and unless the people do
something to curb the increasing rate of population,
the population will experience the so-called “positive
check”- the natural way of curbing the population
growth such as famine, poverty, and misery.
His work got a strong criticism from the church
during his time, he did not explicitly advocate for
artificial means to curtail fertility. Rather, he
campaigned for the postponement of marriage as a
possible way to reduce the number of children in the
family.
He opined that couples must take full responsibility in
deciding the number of children they want to have,
i.e., limit only the number of children according to
their capability to provide them a better quality of life.
Marxist Principle on Population
Karl Marx badly criticized the Malthusian view, in his
point of view, rising world population is not the root
cause of the recent poverty and misery, but rather
capitalism is the root cause of all forms of social ills.
Rising world population should rather be considered
as potential aspect for national development, large
population simple means rich source of manpower,
and that if only the government would provide better
and equal opportunities, poverty and misery are out of
the issue. The negative thing is according to him, is
the fact that capitalistic society invests more on
buildings and machines instead of providing more
equitable distribution of food, housing, and other
necessities of life.
In this Marxist principle on population is further
boosted
“Development is the best contraception” it means that
if one need to limit childbearing the best alternative is
to improve the socio-economic conditions of the
family through equal access to education and
employment.
Only then individuals can stop or reduce family size
because maintaining social status takes precedence
over fertility preferences.
This can further be sustained by technological
advancement to sustain quality of life.
The development and affluence experienced by these
countries are not true to the other parts of the world.
Despite the technological advancement to sustain
quality of life for the population. The poorer nations
serve as the sources of raw materials by the rich
nations. Thus, the interplay of political power, as
contended by Karl Marx, is the major cause of the
problem.
It is not also true that equal distribution of resources
is the best and the only solution to the problem of
overpopulation.
It is true that much of the world’ poverty results from
the unequal distribution of each resource, but even if
all the food in the world is to be distributed at the
dietary level, it would feed only one- third of the
world’s current population.
Again, Malthus is right in his thesis that resources
could not cope with the increasing population unless
something must be done.
The problem is further aggravated because of the
unequal distribution of wealth, an evidenced by the
widening gap between the rich and the poor nations.
Explanations for High Fertility
One of the most comprehensive theoretical
frameworks was proposed by Kingsley David and
Judith Blake regarding the biological components of
fertility. They theorize that the woman’s fertility is
influenced by its three phases namely, intercourse,
conception, and gestation.
That gestation may take place only if there is
conception, and conception happen only if there is
intercourse. Along this process are several variables
that can affect fertility. Thus, early exposure or entry
to sexual union, as one important intercourse variable,
creates a higher risk of childbearing.
Conception on the other hand is determined by the
woman’s fecundity, which in turn, is highly
determined by one’s good diet and physical care/
Gestation is also determined by the experience of
miscarriage or abortion.
The theory of Davis and Blake however explain the
factors of fertility, not that of high fertility.
High Fertility is rooted on its social component, one
explanation on why almost all societies experience
high fertility is the virtual feeling that individuals
seem to be pressured to have children.
Pronatalist view that one function of marriage is to
legitimize reproduction, and that generally,
procreation is the goal of marriage or any sexual
union.
In the event of high mortality, the more that couples
are encouraged to reproduce. More than five decades
ago, couples are most looked upon and honored if
they beget more children and being frowned upon if
they have only few or no children at all.
Another reason for preferring more children is for
security and labor: children are regarded as old-age
security- the ones to take care of them during their old
age. In the case of agricultural society, children are
often regarded as additional labor for the ever-
demanding manual agricultural works,
In the concept of patriarchal societies: desire for sons
is one of the compelling reasons why couples opt to
have another child. They push through childbearing
until they have at least one son.
Couples may still opt to chose for large family size
because of the feeling of ambivalence. This means
that childbearing, although unwanted at the moment
may still be desired, if it is expected to achieve other
equally important goals in life.
Example: a woman may no longer want for another
child, but she may rather do so if it is the only way to
get a lion’s share of their families’ estate.
According to Weeks, there are several factors that
pave the way for the ambivalence factor in fertility.
1. Identification of woman’s role with
reproduction
2. Lack of participation of women in work
outside of the immediate family
3. Low levels of education
4. Lack of communication between husband
and wife
5. Lack of potential for social mobility
6. Extended family system
In which couples need not be economically
independent to afford children.
Explanations for Low Fertility
There is an observation that those who have more
wealth and better social status in life are less likely to
have more children those who have less wealth and
lower social status
The variance becomes more particularly obvious if
income and women’s occupation are carefully studied
and analyzed.
Two theory that explained the low fertility are
economic theory and sociological theory.
Economic Theory by Gary Becker
Who treated children as though they were consumer
goods that required both time and money for parents
to acquire. It exposes the relationship between
childbearing and economic opportunities.
The theory further asserts that parents in the higher
strata are exposed to a greater number of
opportunities to buy goods and engage in time-
consuming activities.
Overall. This choice to limit childbearing assumes
that couples perfectly exercise economic rationality
and practiced perfect contraceptive effectiveness.
Sociological Theory
Suggests that in due time, people will be motivated to
delay marriage and limit births within marriage if
economic opportunities make it advantageous for
them to do so. The preference for low fertility is a by-
product of our day-to-day interaction and
communication with other people, usually those
belonging to the same social status.
It is also due of the evolving culture that children are
rather more of a responsibility than an old age
security, and that if one must better secure his further,
he will rather invest financially for himself and never
rely on his children.
Components, Causes, and Differentials in
Mortality
There are three reasons why people die
1. They degenerate
2. They are killed by diseases that can be
transmitted from one person to another
(communicable diseases)
3. They are killed by products of the social
and economic environment
Degeneration is usually referred to as chronic
disease. It is always will be permanent and is caused
by nonreversible pathological alternations brought
about by natural deterioration of the human body.
Communicable diseases also known as infectious
diseases and are dependent upon human contact.
World Health Organization has identified the major
communication diseases in the world.
Products of the social and economic environment
include those artificially invented by man which,
although aimed at improving the general welfare of
the human being, was eventually found to be
detrimental to human health.
It is estimated that cancer diseases in the recent years
are found to be the consequence of human
innovations- mostly chemical based products thrown
to be environment irresponsibly, or chemical
processing for the food that we take.
Another kind of death belonging to this category is
the accidental death. May range from automobile
accident, or murder to other causes brought about the
natural phenomena such floods, earthquakes, and
others.
Differentials in Mortality
With the improvement of science of technology, there
is now a worldwide drop in mortality. This drop is due
to a reduction in deaths resulting from communicable
diseases.
Several studies show relative differences in mortality
in several areas.
Those households belonging to upscale occupations
are found to be significantly lower level of mortality
compared to those with low scale occupations. This
observation however should be equated with the
couple’s education and income.
With education, good income, and upscale
occupations, and diseases are immediately remedied,
and death outrightly prevented.
High mortality is expected during the infanthood or
within the first five years of life. The single most
vulnerable age in a persons’ life is the first year.
After the five-year period, mortality drops
significantly during the young adulthood to
adulthood, until it rises again upon reaching old age.
Of course, accidental deaths on the other hand, are
most common among teenagers and young adults.
With respect to marital status, marriage people tend
to live longer than unmarried people. According to
gender, females generally outlive their male
counterparts. Urban dwelling was previously shown
to have higher likelihood of suicidal deaths, but over
time, cities tend to have lower death rates than rural
areas.
Migration as Mode of Population Redistribution
Population size is not solely determined by the
number of births and deaths in each geographic area.
It is explained by the movement of people from one
place to another called migration.
In the case of the movement of people from less
developed countries to developed countries, or
from rural to urban areas.
Explanations of Migration
Push-pull theory: this theory states that some people
move because they are pushed out of their former
location, or because they have been pulled or attracted
to some places elsewhere.
Pull factors but insignificant among married men. Most cases,
women are expected to join with their husbands
1. Bad or oppressive laws
immediately or sometimes after marriage. Number of
2. Heavy taxation
children also affects their movement status.
3. Unattractive climate
4. Uncongenial social surroundings The families grow larger, the need or desire for a
5. Even compulsion larger house, or for a better paying job also
increases.
Push Factors
Educational attainment, with high education are
1. Stress or strain
mostly likely to migrate than those with low
2. Employment or better economic
education, again, this is expected because good
opportunities
education carries better opportunities which can be
3. Marriage
found somewhere else other than his/her place of
4. Peace and order situation
residence.
5. Reunion with family members
Gender and education are considered together, it
Social scientists believe that the pull factors are more
appears than more women migrate than men and their
important than the push factors because for every
education attainment increase, two possible reasons
push factor, there is always an underlying pull factor,
of either more demand for women after obtaining
while the reserve is not always true,
good education, or less opportunities for them from
“Implementing strategy” most of the movement or the place of their present residence, relative to that of
migration has been considered. The goal can be in men.
terms of advancement of education, a better job, a
Consequences of Migration
nicer house, a more pleasant environment.
Migration has both individual and social
This implementing strategy that migration in selective
consequences.
and more apparent at certain stages in one’s life.
The individual consequence is that likelihood of
It is apparent only at a certain stage of the life cycle
stress or disorganization of daily life, which may
because there is specific age group of population that
sometimes lead to mental illness.
is more prone to migration.
Coping mechanisms is hard to obtain especially if
Young adolescences are more mobile compared to
the social environment of the new place is entirely
people of the other age group. This even becomes
different from the place of origin.
apparent at the age of maturity where individuals
would tend to separate from their parents and look for Social adjustments and integration may or may not
their own fortune, or for some other factors. be easy to find, and social support system must be
established to attain a healthy migration.
Of course, there is no significant gender differential
in migration, although just recently more and more (This is especially true among Filipino where close
women are becoming mobile compared to their family ties and pakikipagkapwa toa are two of the
counterparts a decade or so. This explained prevailing social norms)
considering more participation of women in the labor
Social consequence of migration on the fact that
force especially in urban areas. Even when it comes
population size composition and social structure of
to international migration, women migration is
both the place or origin and destination are affected.
increasing over time.
That host area may have the difficulty of
In the concept of marital status, likelihood of
accommodating the influx of migrants when it comes
migration is more apparent among married women,
to providing the basic services such as
 1. Food
2. Housing
3. Sanitation
Application if the migrants lack the potential to
become economically productive.
This may happen if poorly educated people may flock
to the cities with the perception that cities are indeed
the places where heavens are.
The movement of the segment of its population may
create a
a. Social
b. Cultural
c. Economic imbalance
If the heavy volume of out-migration takes place. This
may create the weakening of the extended kinship
relations, or a phobia or societal dissolution owing to
decreasing number of people.
The cultural ties that bind the society may be at the
brick of breaking down and may create the sense of
xenocentrism instead ethnocentrism.
Lastly, the outflow of individuals to other places may
pave the way to brain-drain, where other countries
would rather benefit from the brightest and the most
skilled individuals, leaving behind the mediocre
individuals who cannot do something to elevate the
development of their own country.
CHAPTER 14: FAMILY PLANNING AND
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH.
Alternative Solutions to Overpopulation
Majority of the population experts, policy makers,
and public officials agree that population growth is
one of the most serious problems in the society.
The Three strategies
Family Planning
- Most popular strategy introduced especially
for nations having high population growth.
As the term implies, it means that couple
decide when and how many children they
should have.
- It is often used interchangeably with
contraception and birth control
- Family planning further does not merely
mean contraception nor birth control because
it includes every measure that can be taken so
as to give a couple their requires freedom to
determine when they want to have their
children and what time gap should be a
planning more than one child.
- Family planning also protects the well being
of women or mothers because it avoids
unnecessary abortions and reduce the number
of times a women giver birth.
- It also leads to an enhancement in the health
of the baby is born since a healthy mother
would give birth to a healthy child.
Incentives
- Encourage couples to limit their desired
number of children is to provide incentives.
- May be in terms of tax exemptions for people
with only few children.
- Can be gifts or cash incentives.
- Example: in the Philippines, the maximum
number of children, which can be included
for the list of tax exemption, is only four.
Economic Reforms President Corazon Aquino junked support on family
planning and publicly opposition on birth control.
- “Development is the best contraception”
Although with reluctance, the Ramon administration
- “The rich become richer, and the poor beget
provided support on the family planning despite
children”
public opposition by the Church.
- The rich become richer because they manage
to limit their family size and concentrate on The immediate passage of the bill was blocked by the
good opportunities for them. outrageous opposition of the Church, which makes
- The poor beget children because they lack the bill pending until now.
economic opportunities and their idle times
Family planning has been conceived as contraception
become more focused on reproduction, with
or birth control, as manifested by a rural health
the hope that their children would later
worker who distributes different family planning
provide them good fortune in life.
method among the rural folks.
- Terms of progressive taxation wherein, to
achieve egalitarian society, higher earners Family Planning Methods
may be taxed relatively higher compared to
those who are not earning much in life. Natural

Other Strategy Natural family planning methods pertains to those

methods where no technological devised is being
- Coercion is the most effective way of curbing used to pregnancy. Instead, it relies heavily on the
the population woman’s natural infertile phases.
- It involves the intervention of the
government, directly coercing couples to 1. Abstinence
limit their family size 2. Rhythm
- Political coercion is justified in the light of 3. Breastfeeding
national interest. 4. Withdrawal

History of the Family Planning in the Philippines Artificial method pertains to those methods where
artificial devices are utilized to prevent any sexual
Family planning was unpopular before the Second encounter from Pregnancy.
World War, may be because despite the increasing
population, the Philippines felt there was no need to 1. Pills
curb the population growth. 2. Condom
3. Injectable
It was only during the time of Marcos that the 4. Intra-uterine device (IUD)
government felt the need to at least curb the 5. Female sterilization
increasing population in the country. This was 6. Vasectomy
materialized when the Philippine government through
the National Economic Council in cooperation with Abstinence
the United States Assistance for International - Abstinence is the act of avoiding sex, whether
Development (USAID) launched the family planning sexual contact altogether or just intercourse
program in 1958. between couple. It is 100% effect from
Population Commission was established, and to preventing pregnancy and protecting against
assess and evaluate the activities of the family sexually transmitted disease (STDs)
planning program, the Population center foundation
was later established in 1971.
Rhythm
- Also known as Fertility awareness method. It
is the act of abstaining from intercourse on a
woman’s fertile days, when she is most likely
to become pregnant.
- The most popular way of determining the
woman fertility under this method is calendar
method, although the temperature method
and the ovulation method.
- It is free from side-effects
- Disadvantage: risk of getting pregnant
especially when there is miscalculation of the
woman’s fertile and infertile days especially
for women who have irregular menstruation.
Breastfeeding
- By breastfeeding the baby, hormones that are
responsible for the formation of the egg cell
would be absent, as these hormones would be
diverted to become breastmilk for the
lactating mothers.
- Disadvantages: the length of protection
afforded by breastfeeding is highly variable
as one need to know the particular or specific
techniques. It naturally ends at the time the
mother naturally loses her milk. A need to
shift or supplement it with another method. It
is only available now the mother gives birth
to her first as succeeding babies
- Depriving those who do not want to have
their first child now.
Withdrawal
- Also known as coitus interruptus, it the act of
withdrawing the penis before ejaculation
- Pre-ejaculation that might cause conception,
also causes frustration for women
Artificial Family Planning
Birth Control Pill
- There are pills that contains only progestin,
and combination pill which contains both
progestin and estrogen.
- Birth control pill is found to be 95% percent
effective with standard use.
- Side effects: tenderness or swelling of the
breasts, weight gain, and retention of fluid,
nausea, headaches, depression, nervousness,
irritability, and bleeding.
Intrauterine Device (IUD)
- is a small cooper or plastic device inserted
into the uterus that creates a hostile
environment for sperm.
Depo (Injectables)
- Depot Medroxyprogesterone acetate
(DMPA) or Depo is an injectable drug the
prevent pregnancy for three months 13 weeks
at a time
- The birth method is often called the shot
DMPA is a good choice for women who want
safe, reliable, and reversible contraception.
Diaphragm
- A cervical barrier type of birth control, it is a
soft latex or silicone dome with spring
molded into the rim.
Advantages
1. Non-interference with a woman’s natural
cycle
2. no reversal or wait time
3. contraception is no longer wanted
4. good protection against STDs.
Disadvantages
1. Some women are allergic to latex
2. If not use properly, the chance of getting
pregnant are high

- Birth control is a method taken orally by the

woman to keep the woman’s ovaries from
releasing eggs, thus preventing fertilization.
Birth Control Ring
- Vaginal rings, intravaginal rings, or v-rings.
They are polymeric drug delivery devices
designed to provide controlled release of
drugs for intravaginal administration over
extended periods of time.
Control
- Latex covering that form a barrier between
sperm and the vagina, it is put on a man’s
erect penis and physical blocks ejaculated
semen from entering the body of sexual
partner.
Spermicides
- A contraceptive substance that eradicates
sperm inserted vaginally prior to intercourse
to prevent pregnancy.
Tubal Ligation
- Tubal ligation or tubectomy is a method of
sterilization and birth control, which involves
a surgical procedure of clamping, blocking,
severing, or sealing the woman’s fallopian
tubes to prevent eggs from reaching the
uterus for fertilization.
Vasectomy
- Surgical procedure for male sterilization and
permanent birth control. During the
procedure, the vasa deferential of a man are
severed, and the tied/sealed in a manner such
to prevent sperm from entering the seminal
stream.
Benefits Derived from Family Planning Use
Family planning use is beneficial to the health of the
women in general, and among mothers in particular.
Studies show that those who use contraceptives have
an improved health compared to those who are non-
users. The most important manifestation is the
reduction of maternal deaths.
Research shows that women who are family planning
users have more freedom to participate in the work
force and more time to participate in community
activities. It gives women more time to engage in
gainful occupation outside the home.
Economic benefits, family planning use has also
psychological benefits among women Studies reveal
that women who used family planning were generally
more satisfied with their lives and more likely to share
in household decision-making, which eventually
increased their sense of self-worth.
Reproductive Health: The New Face of Family
Planning
Attention shifted from a mere family planning to
curtain fertility rate to an innovation and strategy
known as reproductive health. This new term involves
not only family planning but also maternal and child
health, and all other areas of health especially focused
on reproduction.
The advocacy of reproductive health program, as
defined by the international conference on population
and development program of action, is to improve the
reproductive health status of the person to have a
satisfying and safe sex life and that they have the
capability to reproduce, and the freedom to decide if,
when, and how often to do so.
Reproductive Health
“a state of complete physical mental and social well-
being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity, in all matters related to the reproductive
system and its functions and processes.”
Three Components namely:
1. The ability to procreate
2. Regulate and enjoy sex. The successful
outcome of pregnancy through infant and
child survival and growth
3. Safety of the reproductive process.
Under the umbrella term “reproductive health” family
planning is just one of its several areas. Some other
areas include adolescent care, mother care or safe
motherhood, woman’s nourishment, a new-born care,
childcare, care for sexual health, genital and breast
care, post-reproductive health care, and infertility.
Importance of Reproductive Health
In this age and time, reproductive health is deemed
important and worthy to be studied because it sets the
stage for health beyond the reproductive years for
both men and women and affects the health of the
next generations.
Reproductive health is a universal concern, general
health continues to reflect earlier reproductive life
events.
Reproductive health is a prerequisite for social
economic, and human development. Human energy
and creativity are the driving force of development.
Such energy and creativity cannot be generated by
sick and tired people. It is considered as a
fundamental human right.
Issues against reproductive health
Its advocacy for sex education even for men and
women of young age. Its component known as
adolescent care, the youth are given wide information
about gender and sexuality.
According to the religious authorities teaching the
youth subjects of these kind, would rather promote
promiscuity. This is further intensified by the fact that
under the proposed reproductive health bill, even
unmarried men and women may demand from the
government health worker to give them the artificial
birth control.
The post-abortion management and abortion under
exempting circumstance, these circumstances are
couched in general terms, as it may include any
circumstance under the pretense that it would rebound
to the best interest of the woman.
The circumstances are deceiving and should not be
allowed in a catholic society like the Philippines.
But whatever may be the outcome of the proposed
reproductive health bill will solely depend on the
wisdom of our legislator as well as the vigilance of
the people as a whole.