ANOTHER LOOK AT

SEAWEED AND ALGAE

By

DR. GEORGE FELFOLDI, Ph.D.

© 2023, George Felfoldi

\
 ANOTHER LOOK AT
SEAWEED AND ALGAE
 Table Of Contents

Title Page
Sub Title Page
Table Of Contents
Copyright Information
Dedication
About The Author
Other Books
Special Thanks
Introduction
What The Bible Tell Us?
What Is Seaweed?
Three Main Type Of Algae Using
Seaweed As Food Medicinal Uses Of
Seaweed
Uses Of Seaweed
It’s Good For Algae
What Is Algae?
Agars
Diatoms
Dinophyta:
Dinoflagellates
Future Prospects Of
Testimonial
More Seaweed Info.
Science Classification
Taxonomy
– Genera
Anatomy
Ecology
– Biogeographic Expension
More On Production Of Seaweed
– Seaweed Production By Country
– Farming Seaweed
Uses For Seaweed
– In Food
– Medicine And Herbs
– Climate Change Migration
– Other Uses For Seaweed And Algae
More Other Health Benefits
Forms Of Dietary Use
Health Risks
Threats
Seaweed Recipes
 Copyright Information

Copyright © ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Please feel free to distribute

this e-Book as long as
no changes are made.

ALL OTHER COPYRIGHTS

BELONG TO THEIR
RESPECTABLE OWNERS.
 Dedication

I would like to
take this time
to dedicate
this book to
all my
readers,
family and
friends.
 About The Author

Doctor George Felfoldi

Is an Author, a musician and also an Independent
Baptist Minister who is a native of Toronto, Canada.
George holds various doctors degrees in 8 different
fields, and has written several books on, The Occult,
Ships, Health, Herbals, Religion, Poetry and Lyrics.
George is married and has four grown children.
 Other Books

Katoomba-Columbia

The Powers Of Garlic

Speaking To God Through Prayers

Meaning Of New Birth

GINGER The Herb And Root Guide

The Complete Book On Angels

CHAMOMILE The Healing Herb

The Healing Powers Of Aloe Vera

 The Healing Powers Of CRANBERRY

Cooking Is For Everyone

From My Table Cookbook

The New Age Cookbook

Good Food And Art Cookbook

The Book Of Ginger

Tranquility Of Mind, Modern Lyrics & Poetry

Kimberley's Famous Recipes

Don't Stop Cooking

Angels Of Light

The Angels Connection

Hamsters Simplified

My Scottish Fold Long Haired Cat

Good Foods Made Easy

The healing Powers Of Black Pepper

The Healing Powers Of Coffee

The Healing Powers Of Turmeric

 The Healing Power Of Water

Arthritis Simplified

An Invisible Wall In Nature

Bedbugs Simplified

Farmer's Wife Olde And New Tyme Pecipes

Light Approach To Stress Management

Everyday Cooking

Cooking Through A Pandemic

Pandemic 2 Cookbook

The Facinating Facts About Gnomes

Cherries, A Superfood

The Healing Properties Of Bananas

The Healing Properties Of Corn

The Healing Properties Of Garlic

The Healing Properties Of Paprika

The Healing Properties Of Turnip

Pears, A Superfood
 Plums, A Superfood

Healing Properties Of Cranberries

Healing Properties Of Ginger

Healing Properties Of Pomegranate

Speaking To God Through Prayers

The Future Of Solar Energy

Cleaning And Kitchen Tips

From Hungarian And Scottish Kitchens

Blue Mountain Cookbook

Vintage Recipes

Yes You Can Cook

Health Benefits Of Ginger

A Modern Look At Poetry

Cooking Is For Young And Old

Eating Healthy With George

Cooking Healthy With George

According To The Bible

 Great Foods Made Easy

Healing Benefits And Use Of Elderberry

Another Look At Seaweed And Algae

 Special Thanks

I would like to thank the

following people and
Organizations that made
this e-Book possible:

The Toronto Library System

FOA Organization, (China)

The Seaweed Organization, (Ireland)

B. A. Hall

Print Artist, (Front Cover)

Margaret Felfoldi

WikiPedia Organization

Dr. Sydney Davis, M.D.

Dr. P. K. Fung, M.D.

Erno Yeno Felfoldi

 Introduction
Over the world for several centuries there has been a
traditional use of seaweeds as food in China, Republic of
Korea and also in Japan. As people from these countries
have migrated around the world, this custom has moved
with them, so that today there are many more countries
where the consumption of seaweed is not unusual. Coastal
dwellers in tropical climates such as Indonesia and Malaysia
have also eaten fresh seaweeds, especially as salad
components.

In the recent years there has been a strong movement in

France to introduce seaweed into the European cuisine and
also in European cooking, with some success, although it is
still regarded as an exotic component of the menu. It has
gained some acceptance in regions like California, Hawaii,
Toronto, where communities of Japanese are large and the
taste for seaweeds spreads out into the surrounding
population through finding them on restaurant menus and
supermarket shelves.

On the east coast of the United States and Canada, around

Maine, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, some companies
have begun cultivating seaweeds onshore, in tanks,
specially for human consumption, and their markets are
growing fast, both in those two countries and with exports
to Japan.
Ireland and North Ireland are showing a renewed interest in
seaweeds that were once a traditional part of the countries
diet. Already on the market in many countries around the
world are cooking books incorporating recipes using the so
called “sea-vegetables”. With the current trend for
consumers to embrace organically grown foods and natural
foods from clean enveronments, seaweeds should receive
an increasing acceptance.
 What The Bible Tell Us?

Gen. 1:1 In the beginning God created the heaven and the
earth

Gen. 1:29 And God said, Behold, I have given you every
herb bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth,
and every tree, in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding
seed; to you it shall be for meat.

Gen. 1:30 And to every beast of the earth, and to every

fowl of the air, and to every thing that creepeth upon the
earth, wherein there is life, I have given every green herb
for meat: and it was so.

Rev. 22:2 In the midst of the street of it, and on either side
of the river, was there the tree of life, which bare twelve
manner of fruits, and yielded her fruit every month: and
the leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations.
 What Is Seaweed?

SEAWEED are algae that live in the sea or in brackish

water. Scientists often call them “benthic marine algae”,
which means “attached algae that live in the sea”.
Seaweed come in three basic colors: which are green,
brown and also red, as dulse is the red seaweed; sea
lettuce is amongst the green algae; and the brown is a
wrack. Red and brown algae exclusively marine, whilst
green algae are also common in freshwater and in
terrestrial situations. Many of these ancient organisms,
and although lumped together as “algae” are not
actually closely related, having representation 5
Kingdoms of organisms. There are about 10,500 species
of seaweeds, of which 6,500 are red algae (Rhodophyta).
 Sargassum

In general all aspects of seaweed are marine algae: which

is a saltwater dweller. A single organism that fall into the
outdated general category of “plants”. Most of these plants
are green in color but there are, green (1200 species)
brown (2200 species) or red (6500 species). The king that
are shown here on this page attached by holdfasts, which
just have an anchorage function. Most part major groups of
seaweed: wracks (member of the brown algae order as
Fucus and kelps (member of the brown algal order
Laminariales Laminaria, and some have heard of
Carrageen Moss (a red alga), and Dulse (also a red alga,
Palmaria palmata). Seaweed makes up the sea, a large
ocean gyre in the western Atlantic Ocean where drift plants
of the Sargassum accumulate or build up. These different
forms of seaweed are very important ecologically: they
dominate the rocky intertidal in most of temperate and
polar regions dominate rocky surfaces in the shallow
subtidal. Some of these plants can be found at deep depths
particularly in clear water.

Seaweed are found throughout the world’s oceans and seas

and none of these plants are known to be poisonous. Many
are considered to be a great delicacy. Seaweed are used in
many maritime countries for industrial applications and as
a fertilizer. The major utilization of these plants as food are
in Asia, where seaweed is cultivated has become a major
industry.

The main food species grown by aquaculture in China,

Korea and in Japan are Nori (Porphyra, which is a red
alga), Kombu or Kondu (Laminaria, a brown alga), and
Wakame (Undaria, which is also a brown alga). In the
country of Japan alone, the total annual production value of
nori amounts to 1 billion dollars in (US), one of the most
valuable crops produced by aguaculture in the world. In
most western countries food and animal consumption is
relatively restricted and there has not been any great
pressure to develop mass cultivation techniques.
Nori (Japanese Red Seaweed)
In the country of Japan, industrial utilization is at present
largely confined to extraxting for physical to a much lesser
extent, certain fine biochemicals.
Fermentation is not being carried out on an industrial scale
at present time but are possible in the future, particularly as
conventional fossil fuels run out. Seaweeds are in
cosmetics and fertilizers. They have the potentials to be
used as a sound short-chain chemicals with medicinal and
industrial uses.
Marine alga is used as energy-collectors and potentially
useful substances may be a fermentation and pyrolysis.

Seaweed extracts appear in the oldest of places: you have

probably has sort of seaweed extract in the last 24 hours as
many food contain seaweed polysaccharides such as agars,
carrageenans and alginates. Seaweed have been popular in
Ireland since Edwardian times. The latest innovations is the
incorporation of seaweed into a fiber as well and absorb
what your skin excretes. Seacell is mostly being used in
bras and briefs.
 THREE MAIN TYPE OF ALGAE
CHLOROPHYTA: GREEN ALGAE

Example: Chlamydomonas, Spiroyra,

Ulva.

Characteristics: Green color from Chlorophyll a and b in

the proportions as the higher plants, vu-carotene; and
various xanthophylls. Food reserves starch, some fats or
oils. Thought to be the origin of the higher green plants but
there are some doubt on this point.

This green algae may be unicellular, multicellular, colonial

or it could also be composed of one large cell without
cross-walls; the cell may be uninucleate or multinucleate.
They have membrane-bound and nuclei. Most species are
aquatic and are found commonly in freshwater and marine
habitats; some are terrestrial growing in trees or on rocks.
Some are symbiotic with fungi given licher symbiotic with
animals, the freshwater coelentrate symbiotic species of
Chlorella as does Paramecium bursai protozoan. Chlorella
is now grown and sold as a health supply. A number of
freshwater green algae such as charophytes and desims are
now included in the Charophyta, a phylum of most free
terrestrial algae, that are more closely related to the higher
marine algae.

Asexual reproduction may be by fission (splitting)

fragment zoospores (motile spores). Sexual reproduction is
very common between isogamous (gametes both motile and
same size); Anisogamous (both motile and different sizes -
with the female being a bit bigger) or oogamous (female
non-motile and egg-like; male motile). May have an
alternation of haploid and diploid phases. The haploid
phases from gametangia (sexual reproduction organs) and
the diploid phases from zoospores by reduction division
(meiosis). Some do not have an aternation of generations,
meiosis occurring in the zygote. There are however about
8,000 species of green algae, and about which 800 of them
are marine.

AONORI OR GREEN LAVER (Monostroma

spp. and Enteromorpha ssp.)

These two green seaweed genera are now cultivated

in Japan. Enteromorpha cultivation has been
attempted also in the Republic of Korea but with very
limited success.

Monostroma latissimum occurs naturally in the bays

and gulfs of southern areas in Japan, usually in the
upper eulittoral zone. These two are cultivated in
shallow, calm waters, such as found in bays and
estuaries, but, like the Porphyra, it can also be grown
in much deeper waters using floating rafts. It is a flat,
leafy plant and it is only one cell thick. It averages
20% protein and has a useful vitamin and mineral
content. This plant has a life cycle involving an
alternation of generations, one generation being the
familiar leafy plant, the other microscopic and
approximately spherical. It is this latter generation
that releases spores that germinate into this leafy
plant.

FOR CULTIVATION, these spores are collected on a rope

net by submerging the nets in areas where natural
Monostroma population grows; the spores settle on
the nets as they are released by the microscopic
spheres. There are other artificial ways of seeding the
nets that are used, if the waters around the natural
populations are too muddy. The seeded nets are then
placed in the bay or estuary using either of the two
methods. Previously described for Porphyra, fixed to
long poles so that they are under water at high tide
and exposed for about 3 to 4 hours at low tide, or
using floating rafts in deeper waters.

The nets are harvested every 3 to 4 weeks and the

growing season allows about 3 to 4 harvests. All the
harvested seaweed is washed well in seawater and also
in freshwater. It can then either be processed into
sheets and dried, for sale in shops, or dried, either
outside or in dryers, and then boiled with sugar, soy
sauce and other ingredients to make “nori jam”.
Enteromorpha prolifera and Enteromorpha
intestinalis are both cultivated although the production
of Monostroma is much greater. Both species are
found in bays and river mouths around Japan, and are
also found in many other parts of the world, including
Europe and North America. It can thrive in both salt
and brackish waters and is usually found at the top of
the sublittoral zone. It contains about 2o% protein,
very little fat, and is very low in sodium and iron and
calcium. Its vitamin B-group content is generally
higher then most vegetables, and while its vitamin A
is high, it is only half of that found in spinach. It was
and is collected from natural sources, but careful
cultivation can ensure greater uniformity and better
color (green is good, but greener is better).

“Sea lettuce” adequately describes a thin green

seaweed, a species of Ulva, that appear in the mid to
lower eulittoral zone. It is collected from the wild and
sometimes added to the above two seaweeds as part of
aonori. It has a higher protein content than the other
two, but is much lower in vitamin content, except for
niacin, which is double that of Enrtomorpha.
 PHAEOPHYCEAE: BROWN ALGE

Examples are: Laminaria And Saccharina, Fucus,

Sargassum multicum Characteristics:

The brown color of these algae results from the dominant

xanthophyll pigment fucoxanthin; this mask the other
pigment Chlorophyll a and c (no Chlorophyll b), beta-
carotene and sugars and higher alcohols; the principal
carbohydrate reset laminaran and true starch is absent
(compared with the green) walls are made of cellulose and
alginic acid, a long chained heteropolysaccharide. There
are no known unicellular representatives; the simplest form
of plant is a branched, for thallus. The kelps are the largest
up to 70 meters long and the brown algae and are the only
algae that is known to have inter differentiation into
conducting tissue; there is however, no tissues found in the
higher plants.

Most of the brown algae have an alternation of haploid and

diploid generations. The haploid thalli from isogamous,
anisogamous or oogamous gametes and the diploid thalli
from zoospores by meiosis. The haploid (gametangial) and
diploid (sporangial) thalli may be smaller (isomorphic) or
different (heteromorphic) in appearance, or the
gametangial generation may be extremely reduced
(Fucales). There are about 26,000 tons of the brown Giant
Kelp Macrocystis pyrifera are harvested each year of the
coasts of Mexico, California, and Chile for extraction of
alginic acid. This is used commercially for toothpastes,
soaps, ice cream, tinned meat, fabrics painting, and a host
of other applications. It forms a stable viscous gel in water,
and its primary function is the above applications is as a
binder, stabilizer, emulsifier, or a molding agent.

ABOUT 16,000 tons of Ascophyllum nodosum (Feamainn

bhui in Irish), refering to the yellow color in summer each
year in Ireland, dried and milled in factories at Kilkerrin,
Co. Galway; and about 3,000 tons of the resulting seaweed
are exported and processed in Scotland for the production
of alginic acid. Laminaria hyperborae strips (sea Rod) and
harvested in Norway and used to be collected in drift in
Scotland and in Ireland. The rods are used for the
manufacturing of grade alginates. Other brown algae are
used for the extraction of agricultural sprays (liquid
seaweed extracts), are used at low concentrations on crop
and there hormone-like activities are thought to be due to
betaines.

There are about 2200 species of brown algae, and most of

them are marine. In general, brown algae are larger then
most that are found in colder or cooler waters and virtually
all the biomass worldwide comes from relatively small
number of species such as Laminariales and Fucales.
Kombu or Haisai (Laminaria japonica)

Kombu is the Japanese name for the dried seaweed that

derived from a mixture of Laminaria species. The species
include L. longissima, L. paponica, L. angustata, L.
coriacea and also L. ochotensis. All these species are
harvested from natural sources, mainly on the northern
island of Hokkaido, with about 10% coming from the
northern shores of Honshu. The first three of the above are
the main components of the harvest. The plants grow on
rocks and reefs in the sublittoral zone, from 2 to 15 meters
deep.
They prefer calm waters at temperatures between 3 and 20
degrees C.

Haidai is the Chinese name for Laminaria japonica, a

seaweed that was introduced to China by accident from
Japan in the late 1920s. Previously, China had imported all
requirements from Japan and from the Republic of Korea. It
is now cultivated on a large scale in China.

It is a large seaweed, that is usually 2 to 5 meters long, but it

can grow up to 10 meters in favourable conditions. It
requires water temperatures above 20 degrees C.,
Laminaria japonica grows naturally in the Republic of
Korea,
and is also cultivated, but on a smaller scale; the demand
for it is low because Koreans prefer wakame (Undaria
pinnatifida).

Laminaria species contain about 10% protein, 2% fat and

useful amounts of minerals and vitamins, though generally
lower than those found in nori. For example, it has 1/10th
the amounts of vitamin and niacin, half the amount of B1
but has three times the amount of iron compared with nori.
Brown seaweeds also contain iodine, which is lacking in
nori and other red seaweeds.

The Japanese have a tradition of eating kombu, going back

for several centuries, and had a plentiful supply of
Laminaria by harvesting from its natural beds on
Hokkaido. The naturally growing plants are biennial and
are ready for harvesting after 20 months. Harvesting is
from June to October, from boats. Hooks of different types
are attached to long poles and used to twist and break the
seaweed from the rocky bottom. As demands grew in the
1960s, attempts were made to develop artificial cultivation
methods, but the two year cycle meant the cost were too
high. In the 1970s, forced cultivation was introduced,
reducing the cultivation period from 2 years to just 1 year,
similar to the system developed in China in the early 1950s.
Today about one third of Japan’s requirements come from
cultivation, with the remaining two thirds still coming from
natural resources.

China itself has no natural source of Laminaria but it

appeared in the northern city of Dalian in 1927 with the
importation of logs from Hokkaido in Japan. The Japanese,
who then occupied that part of China, tried to increase the
growth by their traditional methods of throwing rocks into
the sea. As it spread, it was harvested from these sublittoral
rocks, but there had always been a strong demand for haidai
in China, so importation was still necessary. In the 1950s,
China developed revolutionary techniques for its
cultivation and today about 4 million tons of wet seaweed
are harvested per year.
 RHODOPHYTA: RED ALGAE

EXAMPLES: Palmaria, Coralline algae

Characteristics: The red color of this type of algae results

from the pigments phycoerythrin and phycocyanin; this
masks the pigments, Chlorophyll a (no Chlorophyll b),
beta-carotene and the unique xanthophylls. The main
reserves are typically flavor and floridoside, the true starch
is absent. The walls are many and agars and carrageenans,
both long-chained polysaccharates widespread commercial
use. There are no unicellular reset of diverse origin; more
complex thalli are build up of filament.

A very important group of red algae is the coralline algae.

It has calcium carbonate on the surface of their cells. Some
of these corallines are articulated, with flexible erect
branches; others are crustose. These corallines have been
used in bone-replacement therapies around the world.
Coralline algae were also used in ancient times as
vermifunges.
 THE RED ALGAE

The Red Algae Kappaphycus and

Betaphycus are now the sources of
carrageenan, and commonly used ingredients
to add flavor to yogurts, chocolate milk and
prepared pudding. Gracilaria, Pterocladia
and other red algae are used in the
manufacturing of all imported agar, which is
used widely as a growth to microorganisms
and for biotechnological applications.
 Purple Laver Or Nori (Porphyra
spp.)
Nori is the purplish-black seaweed often seen wrapped
around a small handful of rice in sushi. It comes largely
from cultivation in Japan, the Republic of Korea and also
from China. In Japan’s list of products from marine
culture, nori has the highest production, which is
followed by oysters, yellowtails and wakame, the last
being another seaweed used as food.

Nori grows as a very thin, flat, reddish blade (as seen

below), and is found in most temperate intertidal zones
around the world, illustrated by its history of being eaten by
the indigenous people of northwest America and Canada,
Hawaii, New Zealand and other parts of the British Isles.
Nori (Porphyra umbilicalis)
 Net Cultivation Of Porphyra

It is among the most nutritious seaweeds, with a protein

content of 30-50%, and about 75% of that is digestible.
Sugars are low (0.1%), and the vitamin content very high,
with significant amounts of Vitamin A, C, Niacin and Folic
Acid, but the shelf life of vitamin C can be short in the
dried product. During processing to produce the familiar
sheets of nori, most of the salt is washed away, so the
sodium content is very low. The characteristic taste of nori
is caused by the large amounts of three amino acids:
alanine, glutamic acid and glycine.

While Porphyra can be collected by hand from natural

sources, most is now derived from cultivation. Porphyra
has an unusual life cycle that was not understood until the
early 1950s. Until then it has been cultivated but nobody
knew where the spores came from, so there was little
control over the whole cultivation process.

The seaweed, as we know it today, sheds spores and these

settle on mollusc shells: in nature it is any nearby; in
cultivation they are deliberately placed beneath the blades
of the seaweed. An alternate generation of filamentous
algae develops from these spores and burrow into the
surface of the shell: this is called the conchocelis stage.
With lowered light (shorter days) and lower temperatures,
more, but different, spores form from the filaments and
these are allowed to settle unto nets. It is these spores that
develop into the blades of Porphyra. The nets are placed in
the ocean in such a way that they are exposed to air for a
few hours a day. The Porphyra is reasonably resistant to
some drying out, but the pest seaweeds that try to grow on
the nets do not survive. The nets were originally set up in
intertidal flat areas, but a space becomes short, a new
system of floating nets in deeper water was developed. The
spores germinate on the nets and grow into new blades of
Porphyra.

Good Quality of nori is in demand in the Republic of

Korea, where production methods differ between the
northern and southern areas. The floating system is used in
the south and production cost are cheaper than in the north,
where the original shallow water pole system is used.
However, the northern quality is better and it commands a
higher price.

Attempts have been made to cultivate Porphyra in non-

Asian countries, notably the west and east coast of the
U.S.A. . Cultivation on the west coast- Puget Sound in
Washington State, was successful but became unviable
commercially when residents of the shore areas objected to
the presence of seaweed farms and access to sufficient
space to expand the pilot farm was refused. In Maine, on
the east coast, cultivation problems with indigenous species
of Porphyra slowed process, but as these were being
overcome, regulatory issues between landholders and
commercial fisherman again delayed progress. In the
meantime, the company was recognized, decided to
develop other marine biotechnology interests and to
discontinue the nori project.
Japanese cultivation of Porphyra yields about 400,00 wet
tons per year and this is processed into ca 10 billion nori
sheets (each 20 x 20 cm, 3.5 - 4.0 g), representing an
annual income of US$ 1,500 million. In the Republic of
Korea, cultivation produced 270,00 wet tons, while China
produced 210,00 wet tons of the product.

The process of wet Porphyra into dried sheets of nori has

become highly mechanized, rather like an adaptation of the
paper-making process. The wet Porphyra is rinsed,
chopped into small pieces and stirred in a slurry. It is then
poured onto mats or frames, where most of the water is
drained away, and the mats run through a dryer machine.
Rate of drying is carefully controlled by adjusting
conveyer speed and temperature. The sheets are peeled
from the mats and packed in bundles of ten for sale. This
product is called “Hoshi-Nori”, which distinguishes it from
“yaki-nori”, which is toasted. Toasted nori is nori pre-
toasted and sold in sealed packages; in use it may be
brushed with a mixture of soy sauce, sugar, sake and
seasonings.

Nori is used mainly as a luxury food. It is often wrapped

around the rice ball of sushi, which is a typical Japanese
food, consisting of a small handful of boiled rice with a
slice of raw fish on the top. After a short baking, nori can
be cut into small pieces and sprinkled over boiled rice or
noodles. It can be incorporated into soy sauce and boiled
down to give an appetizing luxury sauce. It is also used as
a raw material for jam and also for wine. In China it is
mostly used in soups and for seasoning fried foods. In the
Republic of Korea it is similar uses to Japan, except that a
popular smack with beer is hoshi-nori that has been
quickly fried in a pan with a little oil.

Dried nori is in constant over supply in Japan and

producers and dealers are trying to encourage its use in the
United States and in other countries. Production and
markets in China are expanding, although the quality of the
product is not always as good as that from the Republic of
Korea and that of Japan. Good quality nori is in demand in
the Republic of Korea..
 Using Seaweed As Food
There is a trend today in Ireland that is refer to marine
algae used as a food as “Sea vegetables”. The main species
used in Ireland at present time is both dulse, carrageen
moss, and various kelps and wracks. Dulse which is also
known as Dillisk in a number of areas, is a red alga that is
eaten on both sides of the North Atlantic. Generally only
eaten in Ireland, most commonly in the west and north
parts of the country after it has been dried, it is very often
sold in small packets. About 16 wet tons are used in Ireland
at the present time; the species is also eaten in Canada,
Iceland, France, Scotland, and Norway. About 53 wet tons
of carrageen moss were gathered in Ireland in 1994.

While dulse and carrageen moss are worthy sea vegetables

with a history of utilization and a small but proven market,
other species also show considerable promise. Our kelp
resources are considerably under-utilized.
All of the kelp species are edible but Laminaria saccharina
is probably the most palatable as it has a somewhat sweet
taste, which is probably due to its high levels of mannitol,
and it also cooks better. Two other brown algae with
potential as food are currently under investigation.
Himanthalia elongata, which is known in some places as
thongweed, and the other is Alaria esculenta, which is also
known as murlins.
Himanthalia is eaten in France after drying or pickling
“Spaghettis de mer”, and plants are sold in Ireland dried.
After soaking in the water it makes a surprisingly fine
accompaniment to a mixed salad; it does not have a strong
seaweedy taste that some people dislike. With the aid of a
basic research grant from Forbairt, the Irish research and
development body. Researchers are examining the growth
and life cycle of populations of this species on the west
coast. Plants are very easy to collect but must be dried
quickly and packaged well to preserve their excellent taste.

Alaria is a large, kelp-like brown alga that grows on

exposed shore lines. In Ireland, plants grow to considerable
size up to 6 meters in length is some areas, but these plants
are dwarfed by some Pacific species that may grow to 18
meters in length. With Marine Research Measure funding, a
study of the possibility of developing fast-growing hybrids
of crossing species from the

Atlantic and Pacific is being carried out right now. We have

growing in culture isolates of A. esculenta, Ireland, France,
Scotland, Norway and Atlantic Canada and other species
from British Columbia and Japan. These genus are ideal for
cross-breeding studies as the males and females are tiny
filamentous plants that are relative and propagate in culture.
Red light stimulates reproduction, so we have a red-light
district in our growth rooms for female reproductive
structures occur on different plants so that we can put
plants from one country in with those to see if they are
sexually compatible. To date, we have obtained interesting
results with A. praelonga, a large species from Japan, that
co-operates sexually with A. esculenta from the Aran
islands and other Irish sites. The resulting Irish progeny are
grown initially in urine sample bottles agitated on a small
shaker and their growth rates compared with having
resulted from self crosses. By this we hope this method to
obtain sterile hybrids or even polyploids, that will not
reproduce in these can introduce foreign genome without
the fear that some sort of a tryffid will be introduced that
will take over Ireland.

While studies are being done these two food species look
very promising. We all must bear in mind that the market
for such sea vegetables, is very small and needs
development and investment in marketing.

Nutritionally speaking, sea-vegetables are as good as a

regular vegetable and in some cases, notably nori, are
superior in their vitamins, trace elements and even protein
contents.

Catholic food tastes in Europe should see increasing

utilization of sea- vegetables in the next two decades.
 Medicinal Uses Of Seaweed
Important Warning: I would like to point out here that all
medicines, including herbal medicines, should be taken
only on the advice of a medical doctor or a healthcare
practitioner. Many beneficial treatments do not work in
particular circumstances and may be antagonis medicines a
particular dose and course of treatment must be observed; it
should be noted that more of a good thing is not necessarily
better. You should not treat yourself on the basis of any
information.

In Europe And in North America, many claims have

been made for the effectiveness of seaweeds on human
health. It is suggested, amongst other things, that seaweeds
have curative powers for tuberculosis, arthritis, colds and
in flu infestations, and that it may even improve one’s
attractiveness to the opposite sex. Digenea (Ceramiales;
Rhodophycocyanin), an effective vermifungal agent
(kainic acid). Recently, aqueous extracts from two red
algae belonging to the family of Dumontiaceae have been
found to inhibit the herpes simplex virus but no tests have
been carried out on humans.
Carrageenans have been patented as anti-viral agents. Many
of the reported medicinal effects of marine algae
substantiated. Corallina is being used in bone replacement
therapy on humans.

Some kelps may have polysaccharides that apparently

reduce the incidence of breast cancer.
Four seaweeds that are commonly used in CHINESE
MEDICINE:

 The kelp Saccharina japonica and Ecklonia kurome as

sources of kunbu (Saccharina sometimes it is called
haidai, to distinguish it from Ecklonia and other sources)
 Sargassum, the brown algae, as the source of
haizao; Sargassum is a large genus and several
species are used.
 Porphyra, a red algae, as the source of zicai

Saccharina and Sargassum have been used in China for the

treatment of cancer. Inhibition of cancerous tumors seems
to be caused by long-chained
polysaccharides. Dry Saccharina stipes have long been
used in obstetrics cervix and were known as “Laminaria
tents”. The dry stipes slowly takes upwater and expert
stipes are also used in Chine for the insertion of intrauterine
devices.

According to Chinese Medicine, seaweeds have a salty

taste that is an indication that the material can disperse
accumulation, particularly as it forms soft masses,
including goiter, the thyroid swelling that indicates
severe iodine.

The following are descriptions of seaweeds from the

Oriental Materia Medica:

Kunbu (Saccharina and Ecklonia) (Kombu in Japan)

 Essence and flavor: Salty, Cold
 Channel Entered: Liver, Stomach, Kidney
 Actions: Softens hardness, disperses accumulation,
resolves phlegm, cleanses heat
 Applications: Scrofula, goiter, tumor, edema,
accumulation, testicular pain and swelling

Haizao (Sargassum) (Hiziki in Japan; generally

Sargassum fusiforme, but other sargassi are used in
cleanses)
 Essence and flavor: Bitter, Salty, Cold
 Channel Entered: Liver, Stomach, Kidney
 Actions: Disperses accumulated phlegm, disperses
goiter and tumor, delivers water, cleanses heat
 Applications: Tumor, goiter, scrofula, edema, testicular
pain and swelling

Zicai (Porphyra) (Nori in Japan)

 Essence and flavor: Sweet, Salty, Cold
 Channel Entered: Lung
 Actions: Resolves phlegm, softens hardness, dispels
heat, promotes diuresis
 Applications: Goiter, beriberi (leg swelling), edema,
urinary infections, sore throat

The description of kunbu and haizao are quite similar.

Yang Yifan wrote about the differences between these
seaweeds; Haizao and Kunbu are salty and cold, and enter
the liver, lungs and kidney meridians. Both can cleanse
transform phlegm, softens hardness and dissipate nodules.
They can also promote urination and reduce edema
practice, they are often used together to treat nodules such
as goiter and scrofula. There are some differences in the
two seaweeds. Haizao is stronger in softening hardness and
in reducing congealed blood; it is more suitable for treating
enlargement, liver cirrhosis, and tumors.
 Uses Of Seaweeds
Seaweeds are used in many maritime countries as a source
of food, for industrial applications as well as fertilizers,
utilization of these plants as food in Asia, where seaweed
cultivation has become a major industry. In some countries
where food and animal consumption is restricted and there
has not been any pressure to develop seaweed cultivation.
This present and potential uses of seaweeds. Industrial
utilization is at present largely confined to extraction for
and to a much lesser extent, certain fine biochemicals.
Fermentation and pyrolysis are not been carried out on a
scale at present but are possible options for the 21st century.

The present uses of seaweeds at the present are human

foods, cosmetics, fertilizers, and for the extraction of
chemicals. They have the potential to be used as a source of
long-and short-chain chemicals with medicinal uses.
Marine algae may also be used as energy-collectors and
potentially useful substances may be extracted.
 It’s Good For …
MEDICINAL

 Thyroid swelling
 Goiter
 Scrofula
 Tumors
 Edema
 Disperse accumulation
 Testicular pain and swelling
 Urinary infections
 Sore throat
 Liver
 Stomach
 Lungs
 Kidney
 Reduces congealed blood
 For treating enlargements
 Bone replacement therapy
 Anti-viral agents
 Tuberculosis
 Colds
 Arthritis
 Flu infections
 Breast cancer
 Absorb skin excretions

FOOD

 Ice cream
 Flavoring
 Chocolate milk
 sea-vegetable

 Nori (used in sushi)

 Nori (used in Jam)

INDUSTRIAL & OTHER USES

 Fertilizers
 Cosmetics
 Binder
 Stabilizer
 Emulsifier
 Molding agent
 Energy-collectors
 Grow micro-organisms
 Biotechnical applications
 Finger nail hardener


Research is still ongoing in different areas such as

Medicine, Manufacturing of Cosmetics and even new
products for human consumption. I will be updated in
newer version of this book in the future.
 Algae

This is a basic
Algae,
freshwater,
 terrestrial and
marine algae,

(in other words it is a seaweed)

 What Is Algae?

Pond scums, terrestrial algae, snow algae, seaweed,

freshwater and marine phytoplankton. The plant body is
undifferentiated, there are no true roots, leaves, etc.

Algae is a very simple chlorophyll-containing organisms;

some people and experts say that they are plants, others say
that are more Protists or Protoctists. We use the term
“algae” very loosely because defining them is very
difficult. In general, they are very simple organisms
composed of one cell, or grouped together in colonies, or as
a organisms with many clusters collaborating together as
simple tissues.

Most algae form some sort of spore, which is a cell that is

often motile and serves to reproduce the organism. A sex,
often a very simple kind of sex where the algae themselves
act as gametes, but sometimes very complicated sperm-like
cells.

Some of the large kelps have translocation but most of

them do not. They have no need for water-conducting
tissues at some stage, surrounded by water. They reproduce
by spores of some kind. There are no seeds. Spores may be
motile; which varies from phylum to phylum, e.g., the red
and blue- green algae are non-flagellated.
Algae of one kind or another have been around for more
than 2 billion years. We are still discovering new algae,
whole groups of them at a time.
Algae of another groups usually have two flagella.
Reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamous, or
oogamous, gametangia are not enclosed by a wall of sterile
cells as in cryptogams. Mostly autotrophic
(photosynthetic), pigments are the basis of classification;
all have chlorophyll a; others c; all have accessory
pigments of some kind.

Some are heterotrophic. Great variations in size -

unicellular and 3-10 um (micro) kelp up to 70 meters long
and growing up to 50 cm per day. Found in mostly aquatic
situations (need water and generally, to photosynthesise).

Where are algae found? Well algae are found just about
everywhere on earth, in the sea, in oceans and lakes, in
animals and on plants (as symbionts
-partners collaborating together); in fact just about
everywhere where there which to photosynthesise.

There are about 30,000 species of algae: up to date numbers

and the numbers for each phylum are given.

Don’t forget: Algae (“al’guy” or “al’gay”) is the plural

(“al’ga”) is the singular.
 Agars

AGARS, a general name for polysaccharides extracted

from certain kinds of red algae, is built up of D-
galactopyranose units. The name Agar is derived from the
Malaysian word “agar-agar”, which literally means
“seaweed”.

As a gelling agent “kanten”, it is known from Japan since

the 17th century; extracts from red seaweeds were carried
up the mountains to freeze overnight so that water and
other impurities could be extracted from the material. Agar
finds its widest use as a solid microbiological culture
substrate. Modern agar is a purified form consisting largely
of the neutral fraction known as agarose; the non-ionic
nature of the later makes it more suitable for a range of
laboratory applications. Agar in a crude or purified form
also finds wide usage in the food industry where it is used
in various kinds of ices, canned foods and bakery products.
 Diatoms

Examples: Asterionella, Amphipleura.

Characteristics: Golden-brown color form fucoxanthin

masking chlorophyll a and c; beta-carotene; various
xanthophylls. Each cell is enclosed in a unique type of
siliceous cell wall which takes the form of a box with an
overlapping lid.

DIATOMS are unicellular or colonial coccoid algae.

Having membrane- bound chloroplasts and nuclei. Most are
aquatic, occurring in the sea or in freshwater, but some
occur on damp soil and rocks. Marine phytoplankton
largely consists of diatoms and in temperate oceans where
there is upwelling bringing nutrients to the surface they are
responsible for the very high primary productivity in these
areas.
DEAD DIATOMS accumulating under such high-
productivity areas from the diatom oozes. Geology derived
from such oozes, mainly Tertiary in origin, are now mined
as diatomite or diatoma used for water filtration, in
toothpastes (as an abrasive) and in deodorants.
 “Diatom”

It is estimated that the total primary production on earth is

about 1.4 x 10 to the 14th kg of which 20% contributed by
marine planktonic diatoms and a further 15-20% by other
plantktonic algae are thus critical for the ecosphere integrity
of “Spaceship Earth”.

Because the siliceous cell wall is so well preserved the

diatom have an extensive fossil record, more extensive than
any other group of algae, and can be used to determine
whether deposits have a marine or freshwate origin. The
oldest fossil diatoms date the early Cretaceous (120 million
years ago) and were marine.

There are two types of diatoms: centric and pennate. The

centric diatoms are radially symmetrical and the pennate
diatoms are bilaterally symmetrical.
Centric diatoms appear to have evolved first.

There are about 250 genera of living diatoms and around

12,000 described species, by far the most numerous group
of algae.
 Dinophyta: Dinoflagellates

Characteristics: Chlorophyll a and c, beta-carotene and a

range of xanthophyll pigments including fucoxanthin and
characteristic peridinin, neoperidinin, dinoxanthin,
neodinoxanthin, and diatoxanthin. Histones are absent.
Food starch (similar in structure to that of flowering plants)
and oil.

The wall or theca, when present, is composed of cellulose

and eyespots may be present. Projectiles known as
trichocysts are found in a number of species and probably
have a protective evasive function. The dinoflagellate
nucleus is very distinct and has an unusual combination of
prokaryotic and eukaryotic. It is described as a mesokaryon
and has permanent chromosomes. Some species of
dinoflagellates have non chromosomes at some stage in
their life cycle. Chromosomes generally membrane
attached and the nuclear membrane during mitosis. The
Dinophyta are probably a very ancient form diverged from
other eukaryotic organisms before the evolution of
eukaryotic chromatin.

Dinoflagellates are a typically unicellular free-swimming

organisms that constitute an important component of fresh
and marine phytoplanktonic communities. These are
however, of non-motile forms including amoeboid,

coccoid, palmelloid filamentous types. Most have some

form of
photosynthesis saprophytic (feeding on decayed organic
matter), symbiotic (feeding like an animal by ingesting solid
food particles). Some modified parasites.

The flagella of the motile cells are very distinctive. The

typical pair of unequal, heterodynamic flagella, which have
independent patterns.

In dinoflagellates belonging to the class of Dinophyceae,

they are located in grooves or depressions. An acronematic
(lacking hair), posteriorly-directed flagellum is located in
the oriented groove called the sulcus, and a flattened or
ribbon-like flagellum is located in a transverse groove,
those which encircle the cell in the equatorial region or
closer to one pole than the other. The transverse flagellum
coccoid cell, and its beat causes the cell both to turn and to
be propelled in an anterior direction. Fine hair are reported
to the transverse flagellum.

The other, smaller, class recognized in the Dinophyta, the

Desmophyceae, includes dinoflagellates that have both
originating from the anterior end, and are bilaterally
symmetrical. Asexual reproduction takes place by fission.
Some reproduction have been only rarely reported by
scientists; vegetative cells divide by meiosis in Noctiluca
miliaris to form up to a uniflagellate isogametes. Pairs of
gametes fuse and the zygote, after a resting period,
develops directly. This species is unusual in having what
appears to be a typical eukaryotic nucleus in the vegetative
cell.

The Dinoflagellates include about 150 genera and about

1500 species.
 Future Prospects Of
Seaweed
The seaweeds eaten in very large quantities in China, Japan
and in the Republic of Korea (nori, kombu nad wakame) are
all in a state of full supply, if not oversupply, in those
countries. Nori producers in Japan are looking for exports to
the United States and other countries to absorb their surplus
production. This, taken with the experiences of the two
companies that attempted nori production in the United
States, means it would not be advisable to invest in new
production facilities for nori in the future.
Certainly any prospective investors in developed countries
would first need to secure rights to all the cultivation areas
they propose to use.

Those marketing wakame and other edible seaweeds in

Europe, and France in particular, have shown that patience
is needed to gain acceptance.
However the oversupply of wakame in the Republic of
Korea has shown how new innovative products can expand
a market. Similarly, there is something to be learned from
the two success of the two Canadian ventures, Sea Parsley
and hana nori. Both are new products from seaweeds that
have been accepted as human food for many decades. The
success of their investors reflect both their ability to
identify and exploit niche markets and the expertise to
cultivate a consistent product.
The venture in Hawaii illustrates another approach that can
be taken. Here there was an established market for fresh
seaweeds but an unreliable supply from natural resources.
By investing in the equipment and expertise for cultivation,
a successful operation producing fresh edible seaweeds has
been established. The Philippines experience with Caulerpa
cultivation as a fresh vegetable is another illustration of
using cultivation to widen a market first established from
wild seaweed; it is very surprising that this kind of
enterprise has not been copied in other tropical countries.

Innovation, cultivation and niche markets: the combination

of these three may lead to greater success for the future
investors, rather than attempts to break into the large
markets for nori, kombu and wakame.

We all know that not everyone will jump at the opportunity

of having a plate of Caulerpa with their salad or having
dulse as a snack. A different approach to the use of
seaweeds in human food is “sea farina”. This is a food grade
seaweed meal (ground dried seaweed) with a particle or
mesh size dependenton the final application: fine for
baking, coarser for use as salt substitute or condiments. This
could be made on a small or on a large scale. There is a long
list of sea plants that have been a traditional sources of
human food around the world and this information could be
used as a reference for collection and for cultivation. What
would be a health benefits to people in developing countries
if just 3% sea farina were added to the tortillas, pitas and to
the breads of the world. Is there a market in developed
countries for such a natural and organically grown additive
to the normal diet? Properly dried sea vegetables and sea
farina are stable for months, perhaps even longer. They do
not need to be frozen or refrigerated, and sea farina is very
compact and so easy to transport.

THE LAST WORD. In the English language we have

done ourselves a disservice calling this plant a (seaweed):
weeds are something that we do not want, seaweed implies
something negative about the product. When trying to
convince other people to eat it, “sea plants” or “sea
vegetables” or even just classify them under “vegetables”
doesn’t matter if it is grown in the sea or it is grown on
land, may be it is the “appropriate word/words” to describe
it.
 Testimonial
I have just received an e-mail from my sister Margaret
Felfoldi-MacPhee who has informed me that she did use
seaweed. This is in her own words, “ I used seaweed
“Kelp”, when my nails were too brittle and also it is good
for your hair. I took it in a pill form in 1990s, when my
nails didn’t grow and always broke. It did help, and my
nails greatly improved, but the smell and taste was not the
greatest.” Margaret Felfoldi-MacPhee is a (RN or
registered Nurse) here in Toronto.
 MORE SEAWEED INFO.

SEAWEED / ALGAE

Seaweed, or macroalgae, these two names refer to

thousands of species or macroscopic, multicellular, and
marine algae. The term here includes some types of
Rhodophyta (red), Phaeophyta (brown) and Chlorophyta
(green) macroalgae. The seaweed species such as kelps
provide essential nursery habitat for fisheries and many
other marine species and thus protect food sources; other
species, such as planktonic algae, play a vital roll in
capturing the carbon in the air, producing at least 50%
of Earth's oxigen.
The natural seaweed ecosystems are sometimes under
threat from human activities. One example of this is,
mechanical dredging of kelp destroys the resources and
the development of fisheries.

Other forces also threaten some seaweed ecosystems;

such as a wasting disease in predators of purple urchins
that has led to a urchin population surge which destroyed
large kelp forest regions off the coast of California,
United States.

The human race has a long history of cultivating

seaweeds for their uses. In recent years, seaweed farming
had become a world wide agricultural practice, providing
food, source materials for various chemical uses, (such as
carrageenan), feed for cattle, fertilizer. And because of
their importance in marine ecologies and also for
absorbing large amount of carbon dioxide from the air,
recent attention has been on cultivating seaweeds as a
potential climate change mitigation strategy for
biosequestration reduction, increased habital and free
space for coastal aquatic species, and also in reducing
local ocean acidification.

But there still have to be more studies done and research

done in mitigation tactics.
 SCIENTIFIC
CLASSIFICATION

Fucus serratus
Seaweed

Informal group of macroscopic marine algae.

Scientific Classification

Domain: Eukaryota

Seaweed can be found

in the following groups
. Chlorophyta (green algae)

Phaeophyceae (brown algae)

Phaeothamniophyceae

Chrysophyceae (gold algae)

Cyanobacteria

Rhodophyta (red Algae)

 TAXONOMY

The “seaweed”, lacks a formal definition, but seaweed

generally lives in the oceans and is visible to the human
eye.

The term refers to both the flowering plants that are

submerged in the ocean, such as eelgrass, as well as
larger marine algae.

Generally speaking it is one of several groups of

multicellular algae: red, brown and green.
They lack one common multicellular ancestor, forming a
polyphyletic group. In addition, bluegreen algae,
(Cyanobacteria) are sometimes considered in seaweed
literature.

The exact number of seaweed species are still being

discussed by researchers and scientists, but most likely
there are several thousand species of seaweed ans algae.

GENERA:

Here below are a very few examples of seaweed.

Genus: Caulerpa
Algae Phylum: green
Remarks: Submered

Genus: Fucus
Algae Phylum: brown
Remarks: In intertidal zones on rocky shores
Genus: Gracilaria
Algae Phylum: Red
Remarks: These seaweed are cultivated for food

Genus: Laminaria
Algae Phylum: Brown
Remarks: This is also known as “Kelp”, it is 8 to 30
meters under water and is cultivated for food
Genus: Macrocystis
Algae Phylum: brown
Remarks: Giant kelp forming large floating canopies

Genus: Monostrome
Algae Phylum: green
Remarks:
Genus: Porphra
Algae Phylum: Red
Remarks: Intertidal zones in temperate climate. This
plant is also cultivated for food
Genus: Sargassum
Algae Phylum: Brown
Remarks: Pelagic, this type of seaweed is found in the
Sargasso Sea

Sargasso Seaweed
This seaweed, Ascophyllum nodosum
is exposed to the sun in
Nova Scotia, Canada.
 This seaweed is also known as
Dead Man's Fingers (Codium fragile)
is off the Massachusetts coast line
in the United States.
This is a picture taken of the top of a kelp
forest in Otago, New Zealand.
 ANATOMY

SEAWEED

Many seaweed's appearance resembles a non woody

terrestrial plant.

The plants anatomy includes the following that are listed

here below:
. Thallus: algal body

. Lamina or blade: flattened structure that is somewhat

leaf-like

. Sorus: spore cluster

. Pneumatocyst, air bladder, a flotation assisting

organ on the blade

. Kelp, float: a flotation assisting organ between the

lamina and stripe

. Stripe: a stem like structure, may be absent

. Holdfast: basal structure providing attachment to a

substrate

. Haptera: finger like extension of the holdfast that

anchors to a benthic substrate

The stripe and blade are collectively known as the frond.

 ECOLOGY

TWO ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS:

Two environmental requirements dominate seaweed

ecology.

THESE ARE seawater, (or at least brackish water) and

light sufficient to support photosynthesis. Another
common requirement is an attachment point, and
therefore seaweed most commonly imhabits the littoral
zone, (nearshore waters) and within that zone, on rocky
shores more than on sand or shingle. In addition, there
are few genera, (for example, Sargassum and Gracilaria),
which do not live attached to the sea floor, but they float
freely.

Seaweed occupies various ecological niches. At the

surface, they are only wetted by the tops of sea spray,
while some other species may attach to a substrate
several meters deep.

In some other areas, littoral seaweed colonies can extend

many miles out to sea. The deepest living seaweed are
some species of “red algae”. Other seaweed have to adapt
to live in tidal rock pools. In this habitat, the seaweed
must withstand rapidly changing temperatures, salinity
and occasional drying.

Macroalgae and macroalgal detritus has also been shown

to be a very important food source for benthic organisms,
because the macroalgae shed old fronds. These
macroalgal fronds tend to be utilized by benthos in the
intertidal zone close to the shore line.

Alternatively, pneumatocysts, (gass filled bubbles), can

keep the macroalgae thallus afloat fronds are transported
by the wind and also by the currents from the coast into
the deep ocean. It has also been shown that benthis
organisms that are also at several 100 meters down tend
to utilize these macroalgae remnants.

As macroalgae takes up carbon dioxide and that they

releases oxygen in the photosymthesis process,
macroalgae fronds can also contribute to carbon
sequestration in the oceans, when the macroalgal fronds
drift offshore into the deep ocean basins and they sink to
the sea floor without being remineralized by organisms.
The important of this process for the blue carbon storage
is right now actively discussed by researchers and many
scientists.

BIOGEOGRAPHIC EXPANSION

Today a number of vectors, such as transport on ship

hulls, exchanges among shellfish farmers, global
warming, opening of trans-oceanic canals, all of these
combine to enhance the transfer of toxic seaweeds to new
environments.

Since the piercing of the Suez Canal, the situation is

particularly acute in the Mediterranean Sea, a marine
biodiversity hotspot, that now registers over 120 newly
introduced seaweed species, which is the largest number
in the world.
 MORE ON PRODUCTION
OF SEAWEED

Green Algae Production (in China)

World wide in 2018, the top 10 countries that produced

96% of the global total of 2,165,675 metric tons of
seaweed were:
 SEAWEED PRODUCTION
BY COUNTRIES

COUNTRY METRIC TONS

China 699

France 617

United Kingdom 205

Japan 123

Chile 109

Philippines 96

North Korea 71

South Korea 67

Indonesia 47

Norway 41
FARMING SEAWEED

Kelp farming or seaweed farming is the practice of

cultivating and harvesting the product seaweed, (seaweed
in general). In its simplest form, it consists of the
management of naturally bound batches of seaweed. In
its most advanced form, it consists of fully controlling the
life cycle of the algae.

The top seven most cultivated seaweed taxa are:

Eucheuma spp.,

Kappaphysus alvarezii,

Gracilaria spp.,

Saccharina japonica,

Undaria pinnatifida,

Puropia spp.,

Sargassum fusiforme

Eucheuma and K. alvarezii are farmed for carrageenan, (

which is a gelling agent);
Gracilaria is farmed for agar; while the rest are farmed
for food.

The largest seaweed producing countries are:

. China

. Indonesia

. Philippines

Other notable producers include ,

. South Korea

. North Korea

. Japan

. Malaysia

. Zanzibar (Tanzania)

Seaweed farming has frequently been developed as an

alternative to improve economic conditions and to reduce
the fishing pressure and over exploiting fisheries.
Global production of farmed aquatic plants,
overwhelmingly dominated by seaweed, grew in output
volume from 15.5 x 10 tons, or (13,3000,000 long tons; or
14,900,00 short tons) in 1995 to just over 30x10 tons,
(30,000,000 long tons; or 33,000,000 short tons), in 2016.
As of 2014, seaweed was 27% of all marine agriculture.

Seaweed farming is a carbon negative crop, that is a high

or is a high potential for climate change mitigation.

More research has to be done on this subject in the

future.
 USES OF SEAWEED

IN FOOD

Seaweed is consumed across the globe, particularly in

these countries listed here below.
. East Asia

. Japan

. China

. North Korea

. South Korea

. Taiwan

Southeast Asia and countries that are listed here below.

. Brunei

. Singapore

. Thailand

. Burma

. Cambodia

. Vietnam

. Indonesia
. Philippines

. Malasia

As well as in these countries that are listed here below.

. South Africa

. Belize

. Peru

. Chile

. Canadian Maritimes

. Scandinavia

. South West England

. Ireland

. Wales

. Hawaii

. California (U.S.A.)

. Scotland
Also these different products:

Gin (Korea)

Nori (Japan)

Zicai (China)

are sheets of dried Rorphyra which is used in soup, sushi

or onigiri (rice balls).

Chondrus crispus, (Irish moss or carrageena moss) is used

in the following as a food additive along with
Kappaphycus and Gigartinoid seaweed. Porphyra is used
in Wales to make laverbread (sometimes with oat flour).
However in Belize, the seaweed is used and mixed in
seaweed with milk, nutmeg, cinnamon and vanilla to
make :dulce” (“sweet”).

Agar, Alginate, and carrageenan are gelatinous seaweed

products that are collectively known as hydrocolloids or
phycocolloids. Hydrocolloids are food additives.

The food industry exploits their gelling, water retention,

emulsifying and other physical properties. Agar is used in
foods such as confectionery, meat and poultry products,
desserts and beverages and moulded foods. Carrageenan
is used in different salad dressings and sauces, dietwtic
foods, and as a preservative in meat and fish, dairy items
and baked goods.
MEDICINE AND HERBS

ALGINATES ARE USED in wound dressings and in

dental moulds.

In microbiology, agar is used as an culture medium.

Carrageenand, alginates and agaroses, with other
macroalgal polysaccharides, have biomedicine
applications.

Delisea pulchra may interfere with the bacteriak

colonization. Sulfated saccharides from the green and
red algae inhibit some DNA and RNA enveloped viruses.

Seaweed and algae extracts is used in some diet pills.

Other seaweed pills exploit the same effects as gastric

banding, expanding in the stomach to make the stomach
feel more full.
 CLIMATE CHANGE
MITIGATION

Seaweed covered rocks

in the United Kingdom.

THERE HAS BEEN considerable attention given to how

large scale seaweed cultivation in the open sea can act as
a form of carbon sequestration to mitigate climate
change.

There was a number of academic studies done in couple

of years that have demonstrated that nearshore seaweed
forests constitute a source of blue carbon, as seaweed
detritus is carried by wave currents into the middle of
deep ocean thereby sequestering carbon.

There is seaweed on this

rocks on Long Island, U.S.A.

Moreover, nothing on earth sequesters carbon faster than

Macrosystis pyrifera, (which is also known as giant kelp),
that can grow up to more than 60 meters in length and as
rapidly as 50 centimeters per day in ideal conditions.
It has therefore been suggested that growing seaweeds on
a large scale can have a great impact on climate change.

According to one study that was done recently, according

to this study, covering 9% of the world's oceans with kelp
forests, “could produce sufficient biomethane that can
replace all of today's needs in fossil fuel energy, while
removing 53 billion tons of carbon dioxide per year from
the atmosphere, restoring pre-industrial levels”.
 OTHER USES FOR
SEAWEED AND ALGAE

In Tanzania women grow , what is called

“Mwani”. The farms are made up of little
sticks in neat rows in the warm shallow
water. Once the seaweed is harvested it
is used for many other purposes, such as
food, fibrics, cosmetics, etc.
OTHER USES FOR SEAWEED AND ALGAE

Other uses of seaweed may be used as a fertilizer,

compost for landscaping and other gardening projects, or
it can be used to combat beach erosion through burial in
beach dunes.

Seaweed is also under great consideration as a potential

source of bioethonal.

Alginates are also used in industrial products for example

like:

. paper coatings,

. adhesives,

. gels,

. dyes,

. explosives

and also in processes such as:

. paper sizing,

. textile printing,
. drilling,

. hydro mulching.

Seaweed is also used in the production of bio yarn, as a

textile.

Several of these resources can be obtained from seaweed

and algae through the process of biofining.

SEAWEED COLLECTING

Seaweed and algae collecting is the process of collecting,

pressing and drying seaweed. It was a very popular
pastime in the Victorian era and still remains a hobby
today.

In some countries, seaweed and algae is harvested on a

daily basis to support the communities.

Seaweed and other algae is sometimes used to build roofs

on houses on Laeso in Denmark.

Seaweeds and algae is also used as animal feeds. They

have long been grazed by horses, sheep and cattle in
Northern Europe. They are valued for fish production.
Adding seaweed and algae to livestock feed can
substantially reduce methane emissions from cows.
In this example the seaweed is lifted
out of the top of algae scrubbers
or cultivators to be discarded,
or used as food, ferilizer
or in skin care products.
 In Japan, Onigiri and wakame
soup is served in many restaurants,
and it is one of the great tasting
foods.
Another great food is
Laverbread and toast.
 In Indonesia, small plots are being
used for farming seaweed and algae,
with each rectangle belonging to
a different family.
 MORE OTHER HEALTH
BENEFITS
(EDIBLE SEAWEED)

HERE ARE SOME OTHER BENEFITS OF (EDIBLE

SEAWEED)

. Reduce serum lipids

. Prevents goitre
. Supports bone health

. Regulates blood sugar

. Prevents inflammation

. Strengthen immunity

. Protects against cancer

. Protects against colon cancer

. Protects against leukemia

. Aids in weight loss

. Rich in iodine

. Packed with nutrients

. Improves skin conditions

. Promotes heart health

. Strengthen eyes

. Prevents blood clots

. Prevents threat of stroke

. Prevents depression

. Prevents animea

. Prevents fatigue

. Increases hair and nail growth

. Virus protection

. Boosts glutathione

. Aids in digestion

. It is cholesterol free

. It is low in fat

. Stress relief

. Detoxification
 FORMS OF DIETARY
USE

. As salads

. In soup

. For sushi

. In desserts

. In breads

. As snacks

. In candy

. As flavour enhancers
 HEALTH RISKS

THERE ARE HEALTH RISKS

ROTTING seaweed and algae is a potent source of

hydrogen sulfide that is a very toxic gas,and has been
implicated in some incidents of apparent hydrogen
sulphide poisoning.

This can cause:

. Vomiting
. Diarrhea

The so called, :stinging seaweed”, Microcoleus

lyngbyaceus, is a filamentous cyanobacteria that contains
toxins including lyngbyatoxin-a and also
devromoaplysiatoxin.

Direct skin contact cause seaweed dermatitis that is

characterized by painful, burning lesions that can last for
days if not treated.
 THREATS

Bacterial disease ice-ice infects Kappaphycus, which is

known as red seaweed, turning its branches to a white
color.

The disease causes heavy crop losses in the Philippines,

Mozambique and also in Tanzania.

Sea urchin barrens have replaced kelp or seaweed forests

in multiple areas around the globe. They are almost
immune to starvation.

Lifespans can exceed 50 years. When stressed by hunger,

their jaws and teeth enlarge, and they form, “fronts”, and
they hunt for food collectively.
SEAWEED RECIPES

Edible seaweed.
 WHAT IS IN THIS SECTION

. Japanese Seaweed Salad

. Classic Korean Seaweed Salad

. Great Chinese Tofu Seaweed Soup

. Japanese Seaweed (Nori) Soup

. Typical Traditional Korean Style Seaweed Soup

.
 JAPANESE SEAWEED SALAD

This seaweed salad recipe is a healthy Japanese dish. It

contains many nutrients like fiber, and contain tons of
vitamins and minerals such as iron.

MAKES: 4 serving
INGREDIENTS:

. 30 grams (1 ounce) dried seaweed

. 1 tbsp + 1 tsp rice vinegar

. 1 tbsp sesame oil, toasted

. 1 tbsp soy sauce

. 1 tbsp white sugar (or ½ tbsp agave)

. ½ tsp salt (or to taste)

. ½ tsp ginger juice

. 1 tbsp sesame seeds, toasted

. 1 scallion, finely chopped

METHOD:

Put the dry seaweed into a large bowl and fill it with cold
water. If you like your seaweed to be crunchy, cook it for
5 minutes, if you like it to be more tender, soak it for 10
minutes.
TO MAKE DRESSING:

To make the dressing, combine the rice vinegar, sesame

oil, soy sauce, sugar, salt and ginger juice in a small bowl
and whisk together.

Drain the seaweed and use your hands to squeeze out any
excess water. Wipe out any excess water that is in the
bowl, and then return the seaweed along with the
dressing and sesame seeds.

Toss thoroughly to combine. Plate the salad and garnish

with scallions.
 CLASSIC KOREAN SEAWEED SALAD

This is a cool Classic Korean Seaweed Salad, it is rich

and healthy. It is quick and easy to make, and it is very
addictive.

INGREDIENTS:

. 1 ¼ ounce dried wakame seaweed (or 4 cup hydrated)

. ½ onion, thinly sliced

. ½ English cucumber, thinly sliced

. ½ cup rice vinegar

. 2 tsp soy sauce (or liquid aminos, or coconut aminos)

. 1 tsp pink Himalayan salt (or ½ tsp kosher salt)

. ½ tsp white sugar

METHOD:

Pour boiling water over the dried seaweed. Allow the

seaweed to rehydrate for at least 20 minutes or until the
water reaches room temperature.

Drain and chop seaweed into approximately 1 inch

pieces.

Toss seaweed with remaining ingredients. Season with

additional salt if needed.

Serve at room temperature or chilled.

NOTE:
1. Cover the seaweed with hot water to make it soft.
Though you can just soak it in room temperature
overnight. It will just be a little more crunchy. If you
prefer the seaweed to be silkier in texture, cook in
boiling water on the stove for 2 to 3 minutes.
2. Save the seaweed water if desired to make miso soup
or other soup in place of water.
3. Rinse the onions in water to take away some of their
raw bite.
4. Optional garnish with sesame seeds for crunch and
sesame oil for extra flavour.
5. Make ahead and keep for up to 3 days in the
refrigerator, though it will start to discolor and
become less green the longer it sits with the vinegar
dressing.
 GREAT CHINESE TOFU SEAWEED SOUP

COOKING TIME: 25 minutes

TOTAL TIME: 25 minutes
MAKES: 6 servings
YIELDS 6
You can make this soup in just three steps. It is easy to
make and it is good nourishment for the body.

INGREDIENTS:

. 0.04 lbs dried seaweed

. 1.1 lbs pork, minced

. 1 tsp salt (or to taste)

. ½ tsp white sugar

. 1 tbsp chicken bouillon powder

. 1.1 lbs tofu (silken or firm) (optional)

. ½ liter cold water

METHOD:

In a large soup pot bring the water to a boil, then add

minced pork, salt, sugar, and chicken bouillon powder in
to simmer for 10 minutes or until the pork is cooked.
Rinse the seaweed under cold running water to remove
any impurities and squeeze out the liquid from the
seaweed, then add it to the pot.

Boil the mixture for 5 minutes before adding the tofu,

cook for another 5 minutes.

Put into bowls and serve hot.

NOTE:

1. You can use a vegetable or meat stock. This helps to

deepen the soup's flavor and give it another layer of
savoriness.
2. Opt for a fattier mince. The fat will render out into
the liquid and will improve its taste as well as its
texture.
3. Toast the seaweed. Give the seaweed a light toast in
a wok or pan to really bring out its flavor adding it
to the soup.
4. Adding tofu is entirely optional. You can opt for
silken or firm versions depending on your
preference. Cut the tofu into small pieces and be
mindful that the softer they are, the more delicate
they tend to be.
5. Pork mince is easier for this recipe, but some people
like to make them into pork balls.
 JAPANESE SEAWEED (NORI)
SOUP

PREP. TIME: 15 minutes

COOKING TIME: 20 minutes
TOTAL TIME: 35 minutes
MAKES:
YIELDS:
This recipe is a traditional Japanese seaweed soup. It can
be made easily and with ingredients that are found in
your local supermarket. Nori is the Japanese word for
dried sheets of seaweed.

INGREDIENTS:

. 1 lbs ground pork

. 2 qts water

. 1 cube chicken bouillon

. 1 (8 ounce) can water chestnuts, sliced

. 3 sheets nori (dried seaweed), cut or broken into small

pieces

. 1 large egg, beaten

. ½ tsp salt (or to taste)

. 4 green onions, chopped

. ¾ tsp sesame oil

METHOD:

In a large saucepan cook the ground pork, over medium

high heat until the pork is browned.

Drain off the excess fat and add water.

Bring to a boil, then reduce heat to medium, simmer

uncovered for about 15 minutes.

Stir in the bouillon cube until it dissolve.

Add the water chestnuts and mori.

Stir in the eggs and season with salt.

Remove from heat and mix in the green onions and

sesame oil.

Serve right away while the soup is still hot.

 TYPICAL TRADITIONAL
KOREAN STYLE SEAWEED SOUP

PREP. TIME 10 minutes

COOKING TIME: 35 minutes
ADDITIONAL TIME: 5 minutes
TOTAL TIME: 50 minutes
MAKES:
This is a typical seaweed soup that is a great dish in
Korea.

This soup is also served to new mothers as well on

birthdays.

The nutrients in seaweed is thought to help increase milk

production in new moms.

INGREDIENTS:

. 1 (1 ounce) package dried brown seaweed

. 2 tbsp sesame oil

. ¼ lbs top sirloin beef, minced

. 1 ½ tbsp soy sauce

. 1 tsp salt, (or to taste)

. 6 cups cold water

. 1 tsp garlic, minced

METHODS:
Place the seaweed in a bowl and cover with water.

Soak until it is soft, about 5 to 10 minutes.

Drain and cut into 2 inch pieces.

Heat sesame oil in a saucepan over medium heat.

Add the beef, ½ tbsp soy sauce, salt; cook and stir for 1
minute.

Stir in drained seaweed and the remaining 1 tbsp soy

sauce; cook stirring frequently, for about 1 minute.

Pour in 2 cups of water and bring mixture to a boil.

Stir in the garlic and remaining 4 cups of water.

Bring to a boil again, then cover and reduce the heat.

Let simmer for 20 minutes.

Season with salt before serving.

This is a
FREE e-
BOOK

Enjoy!