How do organisms

Reproduce?
Why do organisms reproduce?

After all, reproduction is not necessary to

maintain the life of an individual
organism, unlike the essential life
processes such as nutrition, respiration,
or excretion.

On the other hand, if an individual

organism is going to create more
individuals, a lot of its energy will be spent
in the process.

So why should an individual organism

waste energy on a process it does not
need to stay alive?
It ensures the continuity of
the species!
What is
Reproduction?
Reproduction is the process
of producing offsprings that
are biologically (genetically)
same/similar to the parent
organism.
Ques. How does it happen though?

Chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell

contain information for inheritance of
features from parents to next generation
in the form of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
molecules.

The DNA in the cell nucleus is the

information source for making proteins.

Therefore, a basic event in reproduction is

the creation of a DNA copy
No bio-chemical reaction is absolutely reliable.
Therefore, it is only to be expected that the process of
copying the DNA will have some variations each time.
As a result, the DNA copies generated will be similar,
but may not be identical to the original.
This inbuilt tendency for variation during reproduction
is the basis for evolution
Definition: Differences in the traits of an offspring from
their parent. Process of copying the DNA will have some
variations each time.

Ques. Why is variation beneficial to the species

but not necessarily for the individual?

1. This inbuilt tendency for variation during the

reproduction is the basis for evolution!

2. Increases the chances of survival of the species.

 Modes of Reproduction

Sexual Asexual

In Plants In animals
Asexual Mode :

1. One parent required.

2. Offspring is similar to parent

3. It doesn’t promote evolution

Sexual Mode :

1. Two parents are required.

2. Offspring is genetically different

from parents, always.

3. It promotes evolution
Asexual Reproduction :

One parent is involved and it occurs in all

unicellular organisms and some
multicellular organisms.

Fission
● Common in most of the unicellular organisms.
● When the fission results in two daughter cells, it
is binary fission (e.g. paramecium) and when
fission results in many daughter cells, it is
called multiple fission (e.g. Plasmodium).
 MULTIPLE FISSION

➢ This type of fission occurs during adverse

conditions.

➢ The parent cell develops a cyst around it. The

parent nucleus divides repeatedly to form multiple
daughter nuclei.

➢ A small amount of cytoplasm gathers around each

daughter nuclei.

➢ Upon the return of favourable conditions, the cyst

of the parent cell bursts and multiple daughter cells
are released.
MULTIPLE FISSION IN PLASMODIUM
Fragmentation :
In multi-cellular organisms with relatively simple
body organisation

Spirogyra, for example, simply breaks up into

smaller pieces upon maturation. These pieces or
fragments grow into new individuals
This is not true for all multi-cellular
organisms. They cannot simply divide
cell-by-cell.

Many multi-cellular organisms, as we have

seen, are not simply a random collection of
cells. Specialised cells are organised as
tissues, and tissues are organised into
organs, which then have to be placed at
definite positions in the body. In such a
carefully organised situation, cell-by-cell
division would be impractical. Multi-cellular
organisms, therefore, need to use more
complex ways of reproduction.
Regeneration :
If the (multi cellular) individual is somehow cut or
broken up into many pieces, many of these
pieces grow into separate individuals.
Steps in Regeneration :

Regeneration is carried out by

specialised cells.

These cells proliferate and make large

numbers of cells.

From this mass of cells, different cells

undergo changes to become various cell
types and tissues.

These changes take place in an

organised sequence referred to as
development.
FRAGMENTATION REGENERATION

Organisms that are Regeneration occurs when an

fragmented result in each organism only regrows a lost
fragment growing into an limb or any other part of the
individual organism body.

A new individual emerges No new organisms are formed

from each fragment

Only a few organisms can All organisms exhibit the ability

fragment and form new to regenerate (Only to some
individuals degree)

E.g. Spirogyra E.g. Lizard and Star Fish

Budding
● Organisms such as Hydra use regenerative
cells for reproduction in the process of
budding.

● In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due

to repeated cell division at one specific site

● These buds develop into tiny individuals and

when fully mature, detach from the parent
body and become new independent
individuals.
BUDDING IN YEAST
Spore Formation :
● In simple multi-cellular organisms

● Rhizopus : The thread-like structures develope

above (hyphae) which have little blobs on them.

● These blobs are sporangia, which contain cells,

or spores, that can eventually develop into new
Rhizopus individuals. The spores are covered by
thick walls that protect them until they come into
contact with another moist surface and can
begin to grow.
How does binary fission differ from multiple
fission?
How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces
through spores?

● Spore reproduction is quick and multiplies many

at once, hence the population will increase and
survival chances are high
● As they are light, they can be carried by wind
and water and thus can start growing in
different regions
● They possess thick walls which enables them to
survive even in unfavourable conditions
● As it is an asexual form of reproduction, there is
no error in the copies of new entities produced,
hence parental characters are not lost
● They assist the entity to tide over the bad phase
 Why is vegetative propagation practised for growing some
types of plants?

Vegetative propagation is practiced because:

1. It is more rapid and easier method.
2. It can help plant to grow in regions where germination
failed.
3. It is useful for propagating those plants that do not
produce viable seeds or produce less number of seeds.

Example- Tuber of potato, the rhizome of ginger.

Why is DNA copying an essential part of the process of
reproduction?

1. Additional copies of DNAs are made.

2. Leads to variation and thus evolution