PART I

ANCIENT INDIAN
POLITICAL THOUGHT

1
Historical Review

the Last.
In the history of poltt1cal thought, Indian political thought represents
have devel oped
While China, Japan, Iran and South-East Asian countries
oped a
rudunentary political thought, India like ancient Greece, devel
compared
pohtical thought in ancient times which may still be favournhly
fore,
with some of the most developed pohllcal thoughts in the world There
stand mg
the study of Indian political thought is a necessary prelude to under
nts and
Indian political problems. This 1s particular.)' important for stude
West and Imp.
researchers working in In<lian society. The researchers from the
Western
the Indian researchers, looking through the spectacles of the
of Indian
pobtical thought, have more than often missed the real spirit
Chanakya
political concepts. Jt is patently wrong to compare Machiavelli to
concepts
to understand the Indian political philosophy. The current Western
political
cannot be directly applied m the analysis of Indian polity. lndian
political
thinkers developed their own tools and concepts to understand the
of lndi,10 political
fabric. It 1s, therefore, necessary to have a background
thought to understand Indian society and social institutions.

Ancie nt India n Political Thought

b) the
Ancient Indian political thought has been significantly represented
ht found
\'edas, the Upanishads, and the 13hagwadgita. The political thoug
complex
in the great Epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, is more
with
and comprehensive. 1he Manusnmti, along with other Smritis, dealt
n hfe vertically
every political tnstitulion and the entire panorama of huma
,tate. The
and honzontally The vertical perspectiw led to the concept of the
conCl'pts
horizontal perspective led to the concept of Dharma. Both thcsc
concl'pts
logether form the backbone of Indian politiczl thought. Both thcsl'
ii i, no
were supported equally by philo~ophy and science Thl'rdorl',
 ec INDIAN POUIICAL THOUGH I
0 2
0
tnin,kr th,ir rh,· ,on11111pl,n11·r /111/1,111 /l(lllfk,_al 1l1111k,·r\ /1,1n· 1111 11111110
,
0
0 .,,,,,m,.tt('(I H111 nh,11 11111 u, 1/11• 1u1111ll b,1sb o/ po/Hy
0
(:) l'Ol/llC \t l'IIILO\O l'IIY or UIIAGWAD GI fA
0 1hr Hh ~ 11 ,111 <,il.1 h 11/l1•11 rdl'nl·1/ lo ,1, the c.~s~·ncc u/
rhc: Upilllfshn
0 11cd 111 pr,tcr,,
(:) M,lmi' 1h,· 1unlf,11111·11MI thouglll o/ tht /,1lln h,1s bcc:11 prc:m
and ('J.,1/r,, 11111u1u,.1hlt lorm Ill tilt' C,llu., /11 rhc: Mahu oh,1ru ln, the leach,
0 1una ,,
ofrhr c; 11,1 ,>i\·urs .11 ,l Msr11/rc,11~1lr hurn,1111slll occ,1s1011 bccou5c.A1
of rhc Gita, s
t,,\",mir pun/"! hr ,1 (Onll,cr o/ loyalr1cs. ln 1/w 18 ch,1pters 1
:- .,, '1,1 tlh"J ,,,,J l'.mous kinds of ,1rgun
m1ts lo conv111cc ArJuna of /1\
Juril'~ n ,1,,onl,11K1' w1rh Im s1,11us III socrcty, .10~ to
urg,· hin~ ro_fu/61 rhc1~

r 11 , "il,1,~mc111 h)ll,1n.ls the

result. In order lo gwc forceful Jt1sllficar1011 rd
his hum.1111slk .1dr11:e, Sn 1\11shnu 111dulged Ill ,I detailed a11nly
Xalur<' ;ind God. 1his 1111,1/)'~Js is, in essence, rooted m the spmr
s1s of mon
ua/ism of thJ
onship o(
Up.in1shJd, Thu,. 111 rhe GIIJ also, .1s 111 rl1c Upanishads, the rcl,1ti
pronounced.
unit;1nnt~, existing bctll'c:en man, Narure i!nd God lias been
of God or
According 10 the Gita, Mans highest ob1ec11vc 1s realiz,ition
g it along
coruohdarion of sol1e1r This is J huma1mtic 1dc11I, ,u1d by placin
11·11h realization ofGod in Lhe Gila, the highest s1gmficance /1Js
been attached
action. The
10 it Th 1s ideal 1s attamab/e through k11oivledge, devotion or
, as a result of
Gita pro,'ides 3 derailed consider.111011 of each of Uicse paths
and thereby
ll'hich further commenrators concentrated on one or the other
Sri Krishna
pmducL,J mdependcnl analyses or critiques of the Gita. But
se they re/arc
himself bclie"ed that these tlirce paths were identical occou
conalire and
ro the three aspects of the hum,m pcrsonal1t, - cognitive,
111 human life. Ju the
aifeclJl·e. All the three occupy an equally significant place
aclJons arc
G11a, the ideal individual is called 'stbitnpragyn'. His thoughts and
Gita supports
descnbed in derails in the Gita. 1h1s makes ii expl1crt that the
o(/1edo11ism
the u regra.J personalih, and that it pro1·idt'S a l1armonious blend
re1umc,atio11,
and stoicism, external actJon and 111lern,1I peace, actrl'ism and
m1·oh cmen · and detachment, knoivledge and derotion, indiv
idual frt•edom
and 50Cial solidarit}·
and the
The concept of social barmon) m the \ edas, the Upamshads
cal aspect.
Bhagwad Git 1 has a metaphysical, a sociological and a psychologi
re and God,
While the mt•tapbysical aspect believes in the unity of man, Natu
cal aspect is
the soc10logic1J aspect is the Varna systems and the psychologi
ts are in
the Ashram sy ,tem and the 1deJ/ of Purusharthas These tliree aspec
wr. Indian
fact one. eren identical and cannot be separated from one anotl
sociological
philosophr docs not differentiate between the metaphysical, the
a11d integral.
and the psrchological asprcts of Rea/ii}: Its approach is total
ding of tliem.
The aspecls ~ave been distinguislwd 10 lielp the understan
The theoq of KarmJ and rebirth ,s ,m elaboration of the V.1m
a system since
cosmic fabric
dut1e~ ~re not confined to human world but form apJTt oftotal
and divine purpose,
p

lflSTOIHC.,'ll flrVlt w 3
fhc ,vteta1>hysic11I /\s1lec1 or Society
t.,kc the Vcdus and ih~ Up,1nlshnds. lhc C,1111 mnt111,1hlft h1<'11tl1y l,elwccn
1111111 , Nntu1c ond God. Ihis identity In the foi m of Urahrn.111 11 1111 bam of
h,,nnony, intcgrnlily 11ncl Jusllcc in the Individual, M>Cicty and humanity.
ji\lil i~ ,111 eternal pu~l of God. '[hcrcforc, Goel rculisallon is self rtaliiati,,n,
prnkriti is the mnn1festalton of God. Ile guides Prakrili. Jhc Prakriu of
God h,1s two aspects - Para and nparn. Apara or lower Prakrtu includes
life, water, air, ether, mind and inlcllccL lhcsc arc the material, the physical.
the vital nnd the psychological worlds. The Para Prakrili or hrghcr Nature
sustains the limited, embodied soul. The Apara Prakrili is unconsc1ou~ while
the Para PraknU is conscious. Both arc God's powers. Hence, ullimattly God
is the mntcnal as well as the efficient cause of the universe. Both man and
Nature aim at realisation of divine values. God himself helps man 111 the
realisation of the ideal of harmony. Harmony must win in the end. Social
harmony is bound to achieve its aim. The destiny of the individual. however,
Hes in becoming a successful instrument of this divine purpose.

Varna System as Social Stratification

Toe Gila has preached the Varnashram Dhrama but the fulfilment of this
Dharma becomes a duty only because it has been ordained by God. Krishna,
the author ofGita himselfasserts, "The fourstrataofsociety(viz., the Brahman,
the Kshatriya, the Vaisya and the Sudra) were created by Me classifying
them according to their prenatal qualities and apportioning corresponding
duties to them; though as the author of this creation, know Me the immortal
Lord, to be a non-doer:' Every man has some native determined duties.
He ma)' achieve his personal and social ultimate end by performing these
determined actions. The distinctions of traits and actions have been utilized
for the stratification of society into four Varnas, viz., Brahman, Kshatriya,
Vaisya and Sudra. Sattva abounds in the Brahmanas while rajas overpowers
tamas and the reverse is the case with the Sudras. Clarifying the duties of
different Varnas the author of Gita say, "Arjuna, the duties of Brahmans,
Kshatriya and Vaisyas, as weU as of Sudras, are dassified according to the
qualities born of their respective natures. Control of mind, control of the
senses, undergoing hardship for the sake of duty, purity (both internal and
external), forgiveness, straightness of mind and body, belief in God, the
scriptures and the other world, knowledge of the sacred lore and knowledge
of God based on direct experience - these are the Brahman's duties, born of
his own nature. Prowess, majesty, Firmness, bravery, ingenuity, not running
away from battle, generosity, rulership - these are the Kshntriya's dutiei,,
born of his own nature. Cultivation, protection of cows and trade arc the
Vaisya's duties, born of his own nature. Service of all the three varnns is the
Sudra's duty, born of his own nature:• Accordingly, the Gila's ethics resembles
that of F. H. Bradly in the idea of every person having a porticulnr station to
fulfil in society. The on ly point where they dilfcr is that while Bradley treats
 rfl OIJGtlf
IN Dl ~N l'Ot lJI CAI
<,1111 co11s1dcr1
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11<•111 111 11 ,~
the 1111u1111 w 1por. I ,ci,•I., is ,1 c1,v1111• 111u I' "' ' II f
'lh ,u k mo~JI ,11
" •
l o ,~c,
I v111g 'Ille~
.c
, c 111 ,ohu111. w11. All
" '
·/ 11111 lll tl' of m u, il ,,n -, u.' ,1m
111: crnph.1Ms
,n ~o ,1 tl)
.
, ,
Howc1\'I, I po < •
ll"I C k.now/nl,it· • . • ,111d c/crofim1 I iy1 .
1.1i1/ h.1r111<m~,
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Id ik I I o1 r l• cings,
rm
•
~oc1.1 u . ,111t c 111 l II )
1II I w hom
•
I\ tlw <.'111,111.1tm11. o ,1I'.
icr /il .. k /r<
upon I eir ell• the G,,1.1 ~.,p, 1 wor.,1 . ,,,111 .
111
.
111 through th e pcr,oI rmbance
I• th , ·d _ , bv 111 8 I s ccn
1 t< :iu nil t 1us. • .Jut •
,,,1:, n. " Sinc e th e V,1r. na I) wrm d
a 1a
' ,
b . ,l'hom ,a fr ct io
~ J . m.111.:iuain~. 1 .
1 l11s dutrcs. Acc or rnfg to G1 h
1a
ol h,, o11·11 ut ), ,·inc no one has ,1 right lo swa1 d o a1101 er
L · -' L • D
merit, than rhc uly
pre,crwn. 1 ''),.•.•,,I •., •'u'
t,·, • thought devoid of _ hi
.
s own nature, docs
• ·
"Better 1s on..., Hv " who 11crfon11s the dut}'•Cn•I o111cd
• 1 u by
.- d
we11-C.\ C~ U 1C . ...
not in.:ur ~in."
Purusharthas
Ashram S)stem and J be lie ve s in \'a ma Ashram Dharm
a
pom1ed out, G 1t ita
A) has been alrcad} th e \'a rn a sy st em ment1oned abore, G
s. Besides ishes
ori~natcd in the Ved.1 te m Th e au th or of the Gila distingu
ram sp m, the
acc;pts the Vedic Ash tie s pe cu lia r to the V.1rna, the Ashra
:s of du to be
between different typt cle of ac liV Jti es. All th ese dulles l1a,•e
cy
human nature and th
e daily
lia s ha ve be en re fe rr ed to Ill the words,
The Purwhart t o f actions, catches
performed without fail. , w ho se ek s th e frui
which the man Dharma (Virtue),
':.\nd the firmness by ce ob Je ct s of lrf e, ,,,z.,
s the first tJu mness, son o f Kunt1
, is
"·ith extreme foundnes (P le as ur e) , th at fir
d Kama as
Artha (Prospenl\) an en ds no t on ly th e first three Purusharth
recomm er,
Rajasic." Thus, the Gita fo ur th is th e au n of the first three. Howev
fact, the n but
but also the fourth. In \\' ha t ha s to be re nounced is not actio
neglected. , "He who neither ha
les
the first three are not th e w or ds of th e G ita
r frmts. Io ch is
the attachment to thei ha pp in es s, no r is at tached to action, whi
t lead to ness, has
action, which does no on , im bu ed w itl i the quality o f good
at pe rs iation."
conduch·e to good, th e is w ise an d a man of true renunc
doub ts : 11 e, the
allained freedom from vi ne or de r its el f fL xes the process of tim
di
According to Gita the f di ffe re nt Varnas and the dutie
s o f the
s, the du tie s o s have
deslin>~ the social dutie at di ffe re nt oc ca sions. All these dutie
night an d upon
individual in day and th e sc ri pt ur es . 1b e Gita Jays emphasis
ibed by
been daborately prescr us e th ey ha ve be en socially apprO\·ed or
s, not beca to
follo~ing the scripture th ey em bo dy th e divine injunctions
te but because di\'inc
sanctwne_d by t_he sta use o f morality suffers the
men, h_aving faiths th that whenever the ca . ul
'
ti nn• td)', the
. ncc. 'Illll s
power 1tse/( lielp e
. hment of social mI an
t
/J JJ °
l/l la m lhc balu '
llow it
bl
es ta is
.
m o1 1y
.. ,
is ,1 m ust, the man has o11I}' lo fo
iar · I l the author of Gita asks Arjun..1 to
•v,·thout ati acJ1ment. It is 0 11 ti bJs.1s I Ja
• us
follow his duties.
 HISTORICAL Rl Vl[W 5
POLITICAL PIIILOSOPIIY or MAIIAFJIIARATA

value of Danda
In ,1ddition lo the Vcdns, the Upt111l.~hntl!I, the. Aranynkas 1111 d Br,1hrnan texts,
the gre,1t epics c,1n also hl' trcntcd ilS 1111clcnl l11dit1n polit1cJI literature. 1he
t\l'O nrnin epics nrc the Mahubharnta ,mcl the flarnayanu. 'fhc Hhagwad Gila
~ , p,1rt of the ~l.1hablrnrala. In fact, the philosophy of the Mahabhiuata is
1 1
crpt,1li1cd in the Gita. 1hc political philosophy of the Gila ,s humanist. In
the ~lalubharata the most important part, from the political viewpoint, is
the Shantiparva, in which a Lheory of punishment is advanced as a political
tbeorror the science ofgovernment. In general, Indian thinkers have regarded
the power of pumshmenl (Danda) as the chief characteristic of the state.
although they have consistently stressed the use of pumshment exclusjvely
for public welfare. Temporally, punishment originated earlier than the state.
This important realization proves that punishment was universal, that the
state was not created to implement il, nor was punishment evolved to make
the slate functional. This makes it clear that long before the emergence of Lhe
state, punishment existed for the purpose of maintaining social organization.

Slate as Means
According lo the Shantiparva in Mahabharata, Vishnu first created a
monumental text on life and administration, and then established a king,
government and a state. This implies that power should not be used as a means
by Lbe stale; instead, the state should be considered a means whereby power
is concretized so as to help in the maintenance of social organizaoon. In this
way, from very ancient times to the present day, the state has always been a
means to public welfare in lndia. Vishnu's text on political setencc mentioned
in the Mahabharata, gives an account not merely of the rules pertaining to
governance by the state but also of rules governing relations between states.
A sh1dy of these rules clarifies the fact that they are inspired by humanist
sentiment. Tolerance has been given special significance. According to the
Mahabharata, administration is a part of the normal social organization. The
duty of the state is to establish the varna-ashrama system. The state should
create such an organisation in which every individual should be able to
perform the duties appropriate to his status and stage of Life. By this time.
the brahmins had begun to be treated with special respect withm the Yama
system. Consequently, there were special provisions for the punishment oi
a person murdering a Brahmin. However, on this subject, discrimin.,tion
between individuals on varna basis was avoided.

Theory of Origin of the State

In the Vana Parva of the Mahnbharntn, II has been shown th,,t in tlw ,mdent
period, the life of people was exccplionnlly happy and l1H1lcntl'd 1ht' Shanti
Parva also provides a glowing description or till' lik of lht· period. Howc\'cr,
 0(
a INOIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT
a 6
a there came a gradual detc, !oration in human relations as ,1 result
of which th
a gods felt protound grief. which compelled them to approach the God
v,~hnuc
e \'ishnu did not wn111 to give supreme ,iuthority to nny 111d1v1dual. So,
wiih h· ·
a Oll'n power, he brought 11110 existence J kmg whom he called
Virjas. But /s
a the d)11JSt\ of Virjas, a corrupt ruler named Vena came to be born.
Divin:
G to his so 1
G agam mrcrvened and took away Vcnas power and handed 1t over
, Par,/
e who wai- cager 10 use the admfoistration for the public weal. The Sham
by gods an~
G provides a detailed accowlt of the advice given 10 Vena's son
of the state
e seers. In 1h,s \\,1\', the Mahabharata tJ1eory concerrnng the origin
e postulates the concept that not merely men but even the gods consi
der rt the
a kini:s divine duly to promote the welfare of the populace. If the king
faus in
e this.du£)~ not only men but even the gods consider 11 necessary to depos
e hun
& anJ 10 replace him wllh one who ,s devoted to his fundamental duty.
G
& Harmony in Political Organisation
a everywhere
G In the Mahabharata, the greatest importance has been given
to the
·{ to tht slate, and the people have been directed to show patriotism
requir ed
slate. 'Ihe proper funclioning of the stale and the admmistration
equally
the mutual cooperallon of the brahmins and the kshatriyas. But
these two
important was the creation of harmornous relations between
on the other. In this
classes on the one hand and the vaisyas and the shudras
bharata,
way, as 1s the case with the Vedas and the Upanishads, in the Maha
poLti cal
100, harmony or synthesis have been considered important for
because
organ,1.ation. All of them support the theory of a welfare slate,
duty is
,ts obJectiw 1s security and happiness. Jn all these te~ts, the kings
he caruwl
assumed to be the estabLshmenl ofsocial harmony, without which
cive to
ad.mirnsler the state. The state must create conditions wh1Ch arc condu
the achie\·ement of the values of dharma, arlha and kama.

Dece ntralisation of Power

state. 1he
The Mahabharata consistently suppo rts the decentralized
which has
de,enrra/izauon of the states power is a humanist concept
present day.
characterized Indian political tJ1ought from ancien t limes to the
In the same way, tbe humanist principle governed the relatio
ns between states
frequenlly
also. Although, the thought of gaining victory over other states
wars which
appears in these texts, the ancient wars were considered normal
were characterized by the observance ofcertai n moral rules.

Democracy in Pract ice

ln this way, although the Mahabhara ta supports autocracy
or kings hip in
not 111ferior
the sphere of polllteal thought, in pract,ce this autocracy was
has hinted at
lo a democratic organization. In the Shanti Pan,a, Bhishma
that rt was
the various d1fficult1es 1mpJ1c1t in a democracy, wJ11ch irtd1cc1tes
rt. However,
because of these difficulties that democracy did not find suppo
 HISTORICAL R£V1EW 7
the basis
h,umom bc:t,,·een lhe ,·,trious org.ins of the st,\lc w,1s con51Jerrd ns
ic
of politic~. eren in a lheorcllc syslem. lhough ii 1\ ~cen often us a charnclrrnt
of democraq.

POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY OF RAMAYANA

1s into
The Ramayan~ •. hke lhe Mahabharata, pro\1des import.ml msigh
social .ind pohttcal lhought but these are not as comprehensiYc
as in the
c,,se "ith the Mahabharata. In fact, the vision of an ideal state presented
thinking
in the Ramarana h~ been an important aspect of Indian political
modem
from anoent tunes. till toda), so much so that l\fahatma Gandhi, a
the ideal
political thinker, used the term 'Ram Rana' for his concepllon or
constant
slate. The ideal organization of the Ram Rajva has been providmg
yana till
inspiration to Indian political thought from the period of lhe Rama
order.
the present day. Va.lmiki refuted the idea of anarchism and supported
a single
God is nol an anarchist. Even in modem India pohtical lhinkmg, not
consi stently
thmker supports anarchism. Hence, Indian polilica.l thought has
yana are
supported the state, bul the ideals of the king stated in the Rama
ed
democratic ideals. which is made clear from the fact tha1 Rama banish
, the
Sita on the basis of the allegations made bv a simple \\rnsherman. Hence
cratic
advocacy of kingslup in the Ramayana is ultimately based on demo
postulates 1he state was a means to publit welfare, which was the
purpose
a state
for which ii was created, and since human welfare was impossible in
the
of anarchy, the political stale was considered essential. However, ,;ince
bharata,
basic objective was public welfare, the Ramayana also, like the Maha
evinces the humanist ,iewpoint in its political thought.

POLITICAL THOUGHT IN THE MANUSMRITI

epic
In the history of Indian political thought, the period succeeding the
ancien t harmo m·
period is the period of the Smrit1s. In th1s penod, the
Smrilis
graduall)' declined. Social and polillcal laws became more rigid. The
of the vanou s
are a collection of these laws. v\'hereas equality was a feature
is,
Vamas m society dunng the ancient period, in the period of the Smrit
most
the Brahmins and the Kshalriyas were given greater importance. [he
tance from the
important among these Smritis is the Manusmnti. Its impor
a
humanist viewpoint is established by the fact that ii is called Manava Dharm
huma n lite In
Shastra. It provides a detailed analysis ofalmost every aspect of
pts
addition to psychology, ethics and philosophy, 11 proYidcs ,,aluable conct'
dharm .1
on polittcal science, justice, law and education. The characteri~tics 01
elaborated m the second chapter of Manusmrili are 1hc fo.,turc~ ot
\',Ull.l
lhapll 'r
dharma. The third chapter elaborates the ashrama srstem. lht' fourth
lilt'.
gives a detailed picture of gnhastha ashrama, or the period of domt'stk
th, ilml eighth_
From the viewpoint of political science, the fifth, ~ixth, seven
are ol
chapters are the most important, and even ,tmong thrn.•, tJ1e last two
special significance.
 ae:
a 8 INlllAN POll llCAI llfOllC ,Ill
(;)
G Dutic~ ol tht• King
a In lh<' \c,rnth d1ap1r1, ~l.11111 i111f11lg, 111 n wh1l1• 1111ly I nf the 'V•
a .. rluu1
a a,r,-x h ,,, Ihr ,t,lll", f is ,1 tll all. Ih1• il111 h'~ nl IIH' k1111: ,11 l' clul1111 ,11,·ly dfLc111,cd
a 1hc u,t kmi; ha, hrrn pr,uscd ,111J 1hr 1111111~1 k111g c1illwed Acc<irdurg l<i
a ~l.2nu, the- kmg h,is liCt'n 111•.11,,J lo protcd the v,11 rh.1Shrnm,1 sy5tcm I lcrict,
a hc ha, ,,,n,ickmi 111 dc1,11I 1h1 l1111dlom b well us lhc non fu11cl1<,ns b( th~
a
a
J..mg, al,1ng " 1th 111, 11u,1ht11:s and ,hmtco~ing~.. In add,11011 10 the king,
~t1dl othtr Ol]311S ol the stall· as 1111111stc1, diplom,1ts or amb,1ssadors, heads
a of nl .igcs, ct,., ha,c been considered in detJ1I. 1he pnnoplcs underlying
1hc appom1mcn1 of rninistcrs, and the juslice of such considerations have
bt--en c:1.plam<.'d. In addition, lhc duties of the army generals have also been
danfied.

Occentrali"cltion of Power
~fanu's dahoration of the duties of the head of a village indicate that ht·
supported de,enLralization. Each ,·illage had a state functionary whose
i actl\1t1es were supernseJ by Lhe mm1stcrs.

Ruler of Statecraft
Corrupt officials were sub1cc1 to severe penalties. 'There were provisions for
collecting taxes from traders and others. Heavy taxation of sculptors was
proh1b1ted. The Manusmriti explains the importance of safeguarding the
public. The charactenstJcs of a friend, an enemy and an alienated person
have been described The methods and occasions for treaties and wars ha\'e
been ana.'ped. Detailed rules have been suggested for war. The duties of the
fang subsequent upon a war have also been considered. Rules concerning the
fang's diet, his mode of life, etc., have been made explicit. In this way, Manu
has provided a very detailed picture of the various aspects of a king's life and
dutJes.

System of Justice
The eighth chapter ofManusmrlli pro\·ides a detailed analysis of the system of
Justice. Manu ha5 Jaid down d11ferem forms of punishment for different ktnds
ofcnmmaJs belonging to difforcnt varnas. He makes prov1s1on for Judgement
o cromnaJ action by the Brnhmins m the absence ol the king. 1hc duty of
e ~ IO\lards immoral women has been specifo:d. A detailed ~\'~lt'm of
pum hment ha~ been madt' explicit for such cnmcs ,b theti, loo11ng. r.1pt·.
cheaung m trade, etc. '!hen: is provision for Jiffert•nt forms of puni~hnwnt
for per60n of different c.ut~ committing thl• same Lflllll'!> ht•l,lll~ ,lllt1nling
_,o Manu, ,y lem, the duties of a penon in 5u..:1l'I)' ..:11r1t'spond to hb rights.
Jhe greater tl,e nglll6, tl1l' grc.11c, rhe dutil•:,, 111 this wu,·, ~l.musmrill 111.1kt'S
111en11on ol a liurn,1111cligio11, a11d 1m1111ilng polllll:; to h·t• 11 pro111111t·nt .1spt·..:I
of human life, its pnnc,plcs h:ivc hccn m.idt· upltdl,
 HISTORICAL REVIEW 9
Humanism in spite of Brahmani!lm
lhe ewlua11on of the Mam1\mrlli clMiflcs the humanist altitude of Manu but
the braJ_rnrnnism th at pcrvaclcs it indicates lhat the humanism characterising
the pohltc,\I thought of th c ancu:nt period c:imc lo fall below the level of
humanit) during the penod of the smritis. 1he importance attached to first
1wo "arnas in tl e varna
1 system later on gave birth to casteism which has
been severely criticized by all modern Indian political thinkers. l)csp1te this,
.\{anusntnll reflects aJI the characteristics of the humanist attitude of Indian
poh?cal ~hought, apa~t from its bra~man1sm. Jt assumes the existence of unity
in dwcrs1ty m the universe and believes that man's ideal is the expression of
his spirituality. It talks of basing society on duties.

Lower Status of Women

Apart from brahmanism, another feature of Manusmriti, which militates
against its humanism, is the inferior position allotted to women. Jn the field
of education, too, the principle of equal rights for all was abolished.

Divine Right of the King

By assuming the king to be invested with divine power, every action of the
king was regarded as sanctified and therefore important According to the
eighth couplet of chapter seven, the child king should not be insulted by
regarding him as merely human because in the king's form there existed a
great divine power. By assuming the king to be divinely inspired, Manusmriti
helped in establishing autocracy and the infinite supremacy of the kirig.
According to the lhirteenth couplet, the system propounded by the king
should not be violated even by its opponents, which implies that it is wrong
to violate any law of the state in any circumstance. ft is clear that such a
view supports lhe inst1lutionalization of kingship. Despite this, Manusmnt1
upholds the just king and denigrates the unjust, and believes that humility
and denial of sensual pleasures are important for the king. Hence, it would
be wrong to argue that Manusmriti is not basically humanist, though it can
certainly be argued that at this stage, the humanism of trad1t1onal Indian
political thought had lost most of ils vigour.

POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY OF ARTHASHASTRA

An even greater decline m humanist thought lhan in the Manusmri ti is endcnt
in Kautilya's Arthashaslra although many Indian and Western scholars regard
Kautilya's treatise as the most significant text on Indian political thought A~
far as the question of scientific and systematic cogniza11on 1s conccrnt'll.
Kautilya's treatise provides detailed and subtle analysis of cwry ,,sptxt of
a welfare state. In simple terms, the view propounded in the Arthashastra
of Kautilya 1s that the state creates circumstances in society which favour
the achievemen t of the ideals of fulfilment of duty, material wealth and
satisfaction (dharma, artha and kama). To this extent, the Arthashastra is ,ls
 10
INOf/\N POllllCIIL flfOLIGIII

much a ,urr,11tcr ,,, rh, 11.-ll,Ul' ,1,111• ,ts lhl' ,\l1111ll~lllrhi 1~ A~ 1p,111 {J
1
an.:i,n 'In d,..•n r~ ...,ltll<lll · \ 1 1h,l'h,1~tr,11tlst11q:111dR 11/111111111 II\ th~ fr 11111cJ 11I 111•
~ , • , ,ll·II 1, 111 rd,11it1m hc1wcc11 Nhttcs. llut lro 111 lh1: 11 ' r,,,1
)t,lnC ,lI lh , ' 1••1\ •1 '· . t1111u
th • 1:Id, ,,inu•r 11ing dJplonmcr cxpn:sscJ ln AI tli L 11111
11<.'l1}'klJnI• , • · . us,,il
..11nnot bC ., ,...,.,....1l\llV
_, •., '1·, humanhlll .
bc,.1usc It s,111clihcJ every .
mc '1,1.,.,l(J/ ~t,,
"'ni·rit l(1'lllh ,rrc~nt·ctin- of their moral propriety. lhouuJt I( t'1,
.,, hI.:"\~ ' I o • ' t . ' ( • ' o autjf .
~-' illPi"lrlN the .i,nnc thcoq· ol the orrg_in o the slate, h_e ha\ laid grcat4
.in.ph.:.,•~ ut'<m ,t kings du11c~ r.ithcr than !us rights, but u~likc the preccdi er
lndim 1., ,1,.._r.-. he Joe., not grvc importance to dec~ntralu.aLlon, lhoug1i 11g
Ol~ ci\C ,o ,sid,rablc authority to smaller groups within the state. he
Thoush 10 ..omp~is~n 10 ancient lnd!~ political thought, lhe pofitica
nc,,'). of ~fanu and Kaultlya possessed mmrmal humanistic leanings, the I
,.tJU exhibited all lhose features wbrch characterize Indian political thou hY
1
~udi as basing societv on dbarma, visua!izmg a welfare slate, e_mphasiz~ •
11
sro.al Justice. adopting a harmomous attitude towards human lrfe, etc. Thg
Dh:uma sur.ras. the Dharmashastras and the commentaries written on the e
subsequent to Manusmrit.i and Arthashastra provide a detailed analysis ;
political laws but they did not have as much inlluence as the Manusmriti and
Ule Arthashastra
EVOLUTION FROM PURANAS TO NITISHASTRAS
Alier the Dharma Shastras, that is, between 5 and JO A. D., political ideas
are to be found in the eighteen puranas which evolved gradually. From the
political ,iewpoint, the puranas wh.icb have special significance are Agni
Purana, Vayu Purana, Markaodeya Parana, Matsya Purana, Vrahnardiya
Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana, Narsingha Purana, Koorma Purana
and Srimad Bhagvada. '
Late Ancient
Buddhist and Jain Texts
In addiuvn to the Hindu socio-political literature, du.ring the medieval
pt:iod, Buddhist and Jain thinkers meditated upon social institutions,
though their thoughts differed markedly from the Brahmanic tradition.
Hcro\'e\'er, eren their thinking exhibits clearly the notable features of lndian
political thought The stupas, columns and caves which bear the inscriptions
inspire.d by Ashoka are coloured by the humanist sentiment. Even more than
the Brahmanic thinkers, the Jain and Buddhist scholars preached the equality
of man in human ;,OCiety. ln fact, it would be appropriate to say that when
the harmony of the '✓arna system collapsed during the period of the Smritis,
and excessive importance came to be given to brahrnins, Buddhist and Jain
thinkers revolted against tlus discrimination and taught lhe principle of
human_ equality. 1h: J;itaka ~tum:~ of rhr Buddhists reflect primarilr this
~umamst tendency, Jhe charac lcrizalion of Huddhn Ashva1-1hosa, rcllccts till'
importance of a welfare stale c~labJi~hcd u11 the basis of rdigion. Another
lex!, the Sutralankara, provulc~ a delmled accounl of the skills which .,
 HISTORICAL REVIEW 11
;rin.x muq n<Xt""1r ly ~os~css. Accordmg to Suchi, happiness, misery, love.
'\Stt:ht. m~)dcs ot bch,\\'1our, death, r\.',tr and hfo arc common chnractcrlstics
l)t .!11 men ;md therdore ther should not be distinguished on the basis of

,•.un.t. l 'kt the Buddhist philo..ophcrs, the Jain thinkers also opposed the
~ s-. 1 min.u 10r\ between men on the basis of Varna.

\ itisha~tras
Aiter Atthash3Stra. Dharmashastra, Purana, Up-purana and the Buddhist
and fain texts, political ideas are to be found in the texts called Xitishastras.
Among. these, the Nitishastra of Kamandaka deserves special mention but in
~eneral. it provides the same ideas as Kautilva·s Arthashastra 1n addition to
this te.u detailed anal\"SiS of the various organs of political philosophv is to be
found in the •shukramti' also. Apart from these, the remaining Nitishastras
haYe, in the main, merely repeated the ideas of Arthashastra.
 2
f undamental Concepts
. .. d to be the root of or the quintessence of all Dharm,
by oharn,ashastr"•
Ra1JJ,anna was sa> Ho,""•"• separate treatises _dealing
· with RaJdhanna
alone came into eJUstcnce ,n very early u,nes. Ihese were unknown as
Arthashastras of which the A,thashastras of [(autilya is the most important
Jlic Mahabharata has described in details the duties of the king particularly
in Santiparva. Toe word Rajashastra meaning the systematic discussion of
the kingly duties was first employed by the Mahabharata. 1he science of
Govemmenl was called oandaniti and the chief duty of the king was to
wield Oanda. The science of government was also known as a nitishastra or
Rajniti,l,astra. These words were used by Mahabharata. Rajnitishastra was
pa<t and pa<ed ofDhannashastra. Rajdharma was a very important subject
of Oharrnashastra. Even Arthashastra was properly speaking, a art f
obarmashastra. P o
RAJDHARMA
';;;~h the duties of a king, as described by the Mahabha..at d th
O
' ""st"'• are "'"' impo,tant, we will confine • a•"' e
W Dh,umash,stm alone. Acco,din to w- d,s"'.ss,on here
dl,pense justice, being free from ang.1; and Dha'.mashastra a king h,s to
Dharrnashastra. Therefore when a s ·t avarice and in accordance with
· ' ut comes befi kin
~i;cco,d'.ng to law, even though be ma lose thore '. g he must decide
1 doc.s,on goes ,gainst the latter A;'. . e fnendship of per,on if
pr~ectmg his subject and meting o~l p ~rdl10g to Manusmriti, the king,
pe orms every da •fi ums unent to tho h ...
cows ' Ya· I y ""' ces in which the fe se w o deserve ,t
. Jnm ky,.l,o ,u es " ' one hund d h .
Manu m~ntainsthal the ppo,ts this view. Pointing out th r~ l ousand
!>hould not run a ( king, when protecting h. b e duties of a kin~
lo hea.
• vcn•• suJijecls
way rom the battle. 1hc k'mg, W.1s!,o • against
• im ",._1·'1~1·
V •
lh"', the p,im" d . e hghtmg in h,,uk go
from internal and . y uly
-;-;-----external ol the king w·1.
dangers. •s the prot~•ctillt1 l)f hi»II
. . b.1ects
' M .
' '.'"""'"• lll. "'6 .
lbrd., Vil, 87-89. .
 rUIJDAMWTAL COtlC(l'TS 13

po~ili~e Oulie\ of lht• King

pmitive.
f-fowcver, the dut1c of the king were I( • tltfJh ve and m<>re
ct hut
ACcording to Dha.rma,ha,tras the <lut cf the ~,rg 11101 cmly to prote
functi om ,,f
also to support Im nib1rc1i. In tlu· word~ of I'. V. Kane, "'I he
peace and
Government were not •,uppo cd to rnd ·.·. ,11h th1 maintenance of
of culture.'
order, but the Government mu~t be ,1n in6trumcnt of the diffusi1,n
peopl e, the
'Jhus, the ki~g was call.cd up.on lo \Uprort helplc,,•. and aged
diseases
blind, the cripple, lunatics, widow,, orphans, those suffering from
g, food
and calamities, rregnant women by gmng them medicines, lodgin
when a
and clothing according to their requirements Madhatithi states that
ry no
king liUpports his sub1ec1, in famine distributing food from his treasu
question of his b~ing in mourning would come in the way.
1

ss
'These prov1s1ons for the old, the blind, the widow orphans and helple
shudras
persons and for the relief of unemployed kshatriya vaisya and
by P.V.
~trike one as rather modern in tone. It ha.~ been rightly remarked
of Parlia ment
Kane, In ancient India, though there were naturally no acts
the views
guaranteeing the above services to the subjects, public opinion,
sphere
of eminent writers and the practice of the best kings created an atmo
sentin g
in which it was thought that il was imperative for the king repre
blind, the
the State and its resources to encourage learning. to care for the
who were
decrepit., the old and the widowed and to give employment to those
day. to
unemployed.' Manu advised the king. on rising from his bed every
wisdom
wait upon Brahmins learned in the three Vedas and endowed with
ibed in
and to abide by their directions.• The Dharmashastras have descr
ideals , grades
details the responsibilities of the king, his daily duties, his high
uerers
ofsovereignty, conditions for different titles, types of conquerers, conq
hereditary
duties, procedure of coronation, safeguards against enemies,
legislati\'e
monarchy, republics and oligarchies, Janapadas, checks on king, his
here only
powers and limited scope for royal edicts. Of these we will mention
ion of social
those which are relevant from the point of view of the provis
justice in state by the king.

Checks and Limitations on the King

rs were
The king was the pivot of the whole slate. Therefore, some dange
ct iOn
naturally possible to him. The Dharmashastras have given detailed instru
have laid
about his safety. Jn spite of all his importance, the Dharmashastras
ssed to
down several checks and hmitat1ons upon the king. Exhortations addre
1m11riti
the king himself exercised a restraining inOuencc. According lo .\1a11
Dand(I, personified as a Deity, strikes down a bad king. There
fore, the king
trust. He
was not to act as he pleased but to regard his high office as a sacred
1
Kane, P. ~'.. Ilistory of Dharmashastra, Vol. Ill, p. 59.
1
Madhatit/11 ofMam,, V 9-1
1
Kanr, P. V., 1/istory of Dltarmasl,astras, Vnl. Ill, 11. 60,
' Manusmrrtt, VII. 31
-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
INDIAN POI I J ICAI l I IOLJGI IT

f rhl' I >hn1 m,t'lh,1,1, ,11. I It' h,,d 11, ~l' ·k

14 I II l.
,1 owc,J 11
, , rnk nno r, I111~ r,1 rh,· ,lrd ,1ll ". ,
11 1
lhl' ,h,,sl1,1!- 1,1v, I cI vc11
I le
1 •1 10 1 ., 1111 1 jllll e1 1 .
111 klll ,, ,11h uu I cc I y, 11111. M.,,
11111
.,d, 1, l tro111 hr, 11 I '\\'111 < ' , a II
l'\ l'II
II I I It,
1 1I 1l•"" lllo Il h1111 rlu• gl111 \ ol ,1 ',•,r l'JI, wh,111•v
,uh Jn:: , h>,11I I,1111 I,111 • . I I I er
. . rlu k111J1. 1,1, II,1,: ,,l',111hlisl11 •~11111 wh1f 1•v1 ·1 ucrio, 1 1
..n, ,1111\11 l 1111 "Il l' I I I I I
111,llll 1,, 11 ll l 1 r, , 111111 111 1• 1111111 11, /I 11111 d 111,1 I,
111 ll•
I I.,.,
1 ,hk " .
ruk , .1, 11•.i:,1 11 ' ' · ' / 11 11111 c:
,kd11n·., .1~ u11cl1 ,11,11>1, ,11111111)1 I 11 l
\' I Jilt'• I
fl,11 1\~r (',\l' II Il\ ,Ill

• . .. . •
Fun ctio n, of !ht• ""'~ . I ih ,/ 11 lh, (11.,1 1cc1111rrd liim
, 111d ~l·c11 /,11
<' w
1 1 1011 . ' d
1h~ J-1 ' ·u td11 H1,- ll'l'I ling god s and
t "
unseen powers .111 rcmovrog
' ":-· · ,1, 1, 1tll i . iini nliJ l d r. . I
to d,, .<•rt,1111 .11 lh hdJ' of 1hc puro 11ts ..1n I ds,1cnir
• c1.1 priests an<J
d h I
'
duti!<'n- rlwn·lnH n ,,1 , His sccul,,r funclwns 111c u e I osc t 1at led to
<:
. • . ' ll1Jr1111 lar caJ·,urntres · d
he ll.ld 1,1 gu,m , ' ' ·
ple in fum
.
,nc and sum , ealrng
rhar hcln cd thl peo d ty ii th .
pn.1.,pcnt); d •justice,r
rdrn
.
g per son s an pro per rom ,eves and
t'l-en-I _ -,Je gua
tr~p3 ssc:rs ,1•1d against invJs1on.
TH E SU BJ ECTS
DUTIES OF THE GOVERNMENT AN D
g but also b}' the amatya, janpada,
The su ·e 1s constituted not only by the kin
en angas of the state the question
du,xa, kosa danda and rmtra. Of these sev
, the amatya and the mitra, the
of .funcuons arises conccrmn g the svamm the
re.t being material const1tuenls.
Thus, while the king has duties towards
towards the king. Aga in, the kin g's
subjects, the sub1ccts have also duties
duties are not solitary. He i,; not the
sole ruler. He is helped by his ministers
rule according to justice provided
and a whole retinue ofstale ollicers. 1le can
cient for the king lo follow his own
all these equally follow justice. It 1s rnsulli
duties, he has al~o to ensure that other
officers follow their duties. Thus, the
the duties of the government. On
king along with his officers, together fulfils
their duties. 1hough this fulfilme at
the other side the sub1ects too have lo fulfil
imposed by the state. In fact, both
musl be voluntary yet somet:Jm es 1t is also
watch each other's performance
the government and the sub1ects sho uld
ile each has to fulfil his duties, it has
since their intere~ts are inte r-related. \Vh
the state also performs its duties.
also to see ano insist that the other par t of
defaulter subject. The authors of
It is not only the state which punishes the
t but considered it a duty of the
dh~rmashastr~ ha\'e not only given a righ
s not fulfil its du ty. Thus, the
sub!ects t.o pumsh the go\·ernment which doe
were inte rde pen den t inter-related,
duties ofthe governme nt and the subjects
com plementary and inlegral to each other.

Duties of Ministeri,
· II , 1
aka, 1't 1s . .. lo prl'Vl'lll ,1 km~
Ac" ord,ng .10 Kamand
. it c uty o 1 I 11c 111111,slt.'rs •
Ii "I I I
rom pursu111g an cvll course• •Sukra ,tsks, ow c,;,111 I 1c kingdom hl' brt>ught

1
Ibid, 13.
 >
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 15
c:t•k
•ht• prosperity by those mi~slers whom the king is not afraid to offend?
10
They are no bcrte~ than ladies who are l_o be decked with ornaments and
'""
>'t •r Ii e clothes. What IS the use of those m,rusters, whose advice does not tend
l11.: ,: the advancement of the kingdom,_the people, the army, the treasury,
be good government a~d to the destruct1~n of enemies?" 1 Tt was difficult for
the ministers sometimes t_o please the kmg and also to placate the subjects.
However, normally the rnrn1Ster was supposed to do both while in cases of
conflict he was praised for doing the welfare of the people even at Lhe cost of
his post. . .
The main duty of the minrsters was to provide mantm, i.e., the line of
policy to be ad~pted by th_e State. rniis mantra was panchanga (five-fold) 1 iz.,
1

,neans of carrying out actions or works, plenty of men and materials, proper
a//o1menl of time and place, remedies against pitfalls, the happiness of the
kingdom or people that will result from the accomplishment of the course
decided upon.~ Different ministers used to be incharge of different portfolios
and so differed their duties. Each was required to provide advice to the king
,n his own field. Of these the most 1mporlnnt were the chief ministers, the
commander- in-chief. the purohita and the treasurer. Each minister was also
responsible for ensuring the fulfilment of the duties of the officers under him.
'fhc Sukrrmitisar lays down that each minister should be allowed portfolio
according 10 his ability and there should be a change of portfolios among the
ministers from time to lime, since otherwise there is a danger of their being
intoxrcatcd with power. 3

Oulies of the Officers

The Dharmashastras have described in very minute details the duties of
1hc officers of the Slate. It is impossible to enumerate all these details here.
However, it will be relevant to summarise the most important duties of some
of rhe big officers of the state. This summary is as follows:
J. Yuvaraja Yuvaraja or crown prince had to assist the king and the
ministers in whatever matters he was asked to do so. He, however, got
full powers of the king a~er the lauer's death. Before that he used to
perform duties firstly, on unimportant offices and gradually on the
important ones.
2. Purohita The duties of purohita were mainly concerned with Dharma,
religious rights and education. He was required to know all types of
rituals. He was also consulted by the king for the auspicious moments
in peace and war. According to Yaj navalkya the rise and fa ll of kings
depend on the aspects or influences of planets and therefore it is
the most important duty of the pUiohits to advise the king in these
matters.

· Sukrn,,itisar, IT. 82-83.

Arthasastra, X. 15.
' Sukmnitisar, II. 107-J 13.
 '1111
!NO/AN POLITICAL THOUGHT
16
J. 1-cnapati 1h•• dull<'' Pl ,c1i.1p11li 01 lhc ,nmmnndcr 111 thirf Iv
~cncr.ilh ,t>ll(c.'lllr.l wllh 111,11111,111111111 111lrr1111I pcan• ,t1tcl l'~lc ''t
1
,l'.: un1,; '' •1
llf the n,c
I• l)ut~• •1'1,l' \•hid ,hit,n ,,(111<) .111111, 1h1· 11111h,1s~11d111
I I f II S\cr,
IH'rt' ,·,,i1< ,•rnc.1 ,, 11h lo1t·11111 .,ll,111 s, I h- 1111 l!I er ow I ht policy ,,t,t:r,
,t.1rran.t a, h,<'1 ,· rlw '"·11111•· <11 Ju, 11111l11111111111dr,111111,111 ~- 1<,1111 _11111 h,1
"ridll' ,("( 11111 1111• 1;,11,m 111g du1k, Pl th•• dur,1 dell', 111lr11ny.11,,,\t ~~~
arr inimk·al hi th,· king 1,1 whom he 1, sent, wl1111l11g over to hi\ ~•dt h,,
1
fric-nd, an.I rd.11th'' c1I the t'n<'lll} k111g, finding out the number ht
111
•'luipm,•nt ,,f fort~. the ewnomK resources and mrlnary siren 0 tJ
rhr cnc., m kang, ,ollc.:11011 of news as to what the enemy intends~o ~~/
,,frncnn countrY, collccl111g knowledge about the places of the cncin..1,
"·hm· t>attks c.111 be waged b)' the k111g or whence he can pass a1v··,
~1,if.h' ay
8c:-id~ the abo,·e senior officers the king ~ed Lo appoint superintcnden
in different departments of the state. The duties of these officers have b ts
d~ribed b, the Dharmashastras in details. The state was divided into sev;en
x\."tlons, each secllon · ·mto sub-sectwns · and ea d b.
1 su -section into mandaJs
raJ
of S to ) O1iUages. These categories have been named differently by differe
Dharrnashastras. Each sub-division was prescribed over by the officer who nt
d:tties has been specified by the Dharmashastras. Thus, the Dharmasbas~
have described the duties of not only the government officers but also f
:the officers of local self-government. A vast literature has been created ~
so man·., Indian and Western scholars about the institution of Republic i~
India which could be favourably compared with any contemporary local self.
government in the West. The Dharmashastras have also described in details
the duties of the officers concerning constituents of the states such as Durga
(fort of capital), Kosa (treasury of finance), Bala (the Army) etc. Besides,
much has been written about the duties towards allies or friends. Thus, the
Dha.':mashastras have propounded sound principles of international affairs,
the principles concerning war, peace and treaties, etc.
CRITICAL EVALUATION
J. Religious Colouring The entire political structure together with
political ethics exhibits a religious colouring which underlies all
theories and ideals.
2. Moral basis 'Jhe duties of the king and other constituents of the state
were based upon high moral ideals. TI1is ensured the provision of
political justic1: as well as social justice.
3. Highest Status to the King I lighcst status was given to the king 111
society. He was sometimes considered equal to gods. I Ir wus g1wn
privileges and exceptrons in so many mallcrs. Mona rch)' has been th~
only form of government in India before and even aficr the Christi.in
' Kamandaka, XII. 22-23.
..........-
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 17
era. 'Ihc king wns almosl synonymous w11h the government and
the stale though at some places the Dharmasastrns have prescribed
revolt and even killing of a l)'rnnl king by the sub1ccts. However, tn
practice the king en1oyed all the rights, though of course, tyrants were
except ions.
4. Support of the stntus quo The Oharmashaslras generally 111s1sted upon
following the prescribed rules in every sphere of life by each member
of society rigidly and without change. Exceptions were condemned.
This in its term served to ma.intuin the stat11s q110 which suited to
both the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas, the two dominant social
classes.
s. Insistence upon confirmation lbus, the Oharmashastras insisted upon
confirmation of the established rules. P.V. Kane rightlylaments, "Besides,
once the main outlines of the theory of the State were established by
the first writers on polity, for about two thousand years succeeding
generations of authors were content to follow in the old grooves and
hardly ever made any fresh approach to the problems of government or
started any rival conceptions of theories.'
6. Total absence of discussion on other forms of government One finds
a total absence of discussion on other forms of government such as
oligarchy or democracy in Oharmashastras. Their central theme has
been the monarchy.
7. Lack of national outlook Poinlingout this defect P.V. Kane has written,
"The old thinkers spun the same old webs of theories that have been
there for centuries, they did not formulate new theories nor did they
take steps to infuse into the common people a sense of solidarity and
unity as Indians and did not inculcate deep and abiding sentiments of
partriotism similar to those we find in Western counlries for the last
two or three hundred years.2
s. Low estimate of human nature The Dharmashastras had a very low
estimate of human nature. They believed that ordinarily men were
depraved. Therefore, they recommended that men should be kept in
the straight path by the fear of punishment. According to YajnavalJ...7a
Smriti the king should punish and bring lo the proper path caste and
guilds when they swerve from their Dharma.3 Similar passages may
be found in Manu Smriti. This shows that Lhe Dharamashastras do
not rely on the natural moral impulses of man and on his will to do
the right thing. From the point of view of social ethics this state of
affairs is not satisfactory whatever may have been its use in actual life.
At least such a lack of faith in the moral fibre of man is against the
contemporary moral principles.
1
Kane, P.V., Historyo/Dharmas/iastra, Vol. lfl, p. 235.
" Ibid., p. 236.
' Yajnavalkya Smriti, I. 363.
 tNotAN POllTlCAL THOUGHT

9. Insistence on swadharma Of the above characteristics, while the first

two are favourable, the remaining six are unfavourable from the Point
of ,iew of ethics. HowC\'er, the most important concept in Hindu
political ethics having everlasting value is the concept of swadharma.
As has been already pointed ou4 Indian sociaJ thinkers unanimously
accepted Dharma as the highest ideal of the indnidual and society.
Thus, rajadharma was the goal of ilie state. In the fulfilment of
rajadharma each constituent of the state was required to fulfil his own
swadharma. The king was primarily required to protect varnasaram
Dharma. Every citizen of the state was required to fulfil swadharma
according to varnasrama. It is undeniable as P.V. Kane and others
have pointed out, that undue emphasis on the confirmation to the
written injunctions concerning varnasrama dharma, led to status quo.
However, the Indian thinkers also held that ultimately swadharma must
be reinterpreted according to times and climes, and also according to
the individual moral reason of the person concerned.
10. Extra-terrestrial goal ~1oksha has been considered to be the goal of
life by the Indian philosophers. The same was the goal of the state.
Though generally the values were considered four-fold, as 1s clear in
the concept of purusarthas, in practice most of the Dharmashastras
have laid exclusive emphasis upon moksha. This undue emphasis upon
moksha made the goal extra-terrestrial.
However, the most valuable characteristic of Hindu polity was to consider
state as the means and not the end, ofsocial life. 'Ihe Dharmashastras considered
Dharma as the supreme power, above both the king and the state. The state was
only an instrument to realise the goal of Dharma. Therefore, it was prescribed
that if the state is anti-Dharma it should be opposed and changed.
The above critical evaluation shows that in spite of some gra\'e deft."Cts
in the prescriptions of the Dharmashastras concerning political ethics these
can be favou rably compared with similar scriptures in any other country of
the world of that time. 'Ihe ideal of basing political institutions upon Dharma
fulf1ls the requirement of ethics. Thus, theoretically the system has all the
possibility of delivering justice. In practice, however, if it supported vested
interests and status quo it could be changed by others. It will be wrong to see
a conspiracy of the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas in the prescriptions of the
Dharmashastras.

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