Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

Mechanical Vibrations
References:
1- “Mechanical Vibrations” – Singiresu S. Rao – Addison_Wesley publishing
company.
2- “Theory of Vibration with Applications” – William T. Thomson – Prentice
hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
3- “Vibration of Mechanical and Structural systems” – M. L. James, G. M.
Smith, J. C. Wolford, and P. W. Whaley – Harper & Row, publishers, New
York.
4- “A course in Mechanical Vibrations” – Mahmoud Mostafa – Faculty of
Engineering, University of Alexandria.

1
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

CHAPTER I
Fundamentals of vibration

Vibration:
It's the motion of a body or a system that is repeated after a given interval of time
known as the period.
Frequency:
-The number of cycles of the motion per unit time (c.p.m, r.p.m, cps, Hz, rad/s).
Amplitude:
- The maximum displacement (velocity, acceleration or force) of the body or
some parts of the system from the equilibrium position is the amplitude of the
vibration of that point.
-

Figure 1 Phase relationships among displacement, velocity, and

acceleration are shown on these time history plots.

Natural Frequency:
If a body is suddenly disturbed in some manner it will vibrate at a definite frequency
known as its natural frequency (ω).

2
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

Figure 2: The Main parameters of the Simple harmonic motion

Importance of the study of vibration:

I- Most human activities involve vibration in one from or other:
1- We hear because our eardrums vibrate.
2- We see because light waves undergo vibration.
3- Breathing is associated with the vibration of lungs.
4-Walking involves oscillatory motion of legs and hands.
5-We speak due to the oscillatory motion of larynges (tongue).

II- Most prime movers have vibrational problems due to unbalance in the engines.
The unbalance may be due to faulty design or poor manufacture:
1- Imbalance in diesel engines can cause ground waves sufficiently powerful
to create a nuisance in urban areas.
2- The wheels of some locomotion can rise more than a centimeter off the
track at high speeds due to unbalance.
3- In turbines vibrations cause spectacular mechanical failures.
4- The structures designed to support heavy centrifugal machines, like motors
and turbines, or reciprocating machines, like steam and gas engines and
reciprocating pumps, are subjected to vibration. The structure or machine
component subjected to vibration can fail because of material fatigue
resulting from the cyclic variation of the induced stress.
5- The vibration causes more rapid wear of machine parts such as bearings
and gears and also creates excessive noise.
6- Vibration causes looseness of fasteners, poor surface finish.
III- Whenever the natural frequency of vibration of a machine or structure coincides
with the frequency of the external excitation, there occurs a phenomenon known as

3
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

resonance, which leads to excessive defection and failure (Tacoma narrows bridge
during wind –induced vibration opened on july\1940,collapsed on nov,7(1940).

IV- The transmission of vibration to human beings results in discomfort and loss of
efficiency.

One of the important purposes of vibration study is to reduce vibration through

proper design of machines and their mountings, the mechanical engineer tries to
design the engine or machine so as to minimize unbalance, while the structural
engineer tries to design the supporting structure so as to ensure that the effect of the
imbalance will not be harmful .

In spite of its detrimental effects, vibration can be utilized profitably in several

consumer and industrial applications.
1- Vibration is put to work in vibratory conveyors, hoppers, sieves,
compactors, washing machines electric tooth brushes, dentist's drill,
clocks, and electric massaging units.
2- Vibration is also used in pile driving, vibratory testing of materials,
vibratory finishing processes, and electronic circuits to filter out the
unwanted frequencies.
3- Vibration has been found to improve the efficiency of certain machining,
casting, forging, and
4- It is employed to simulate earthquakes for geological research.

Basic concepts of vibration

1- Elementary parts of vibrating systems:

-Vibratory system, in general includes:
a- A mean for storing kinetic energy (mass or inertia).
b- A mean for storing potential energy (springs or elastic members).
c- A mean by which energy is gradually lost. (dampers).

-the vibration of a system involves the transfer of its potential energy to kinetic
energy and kinetic energy to potential energy, alternately. If the system is damped,
some energy is dissipated in each cycle of vibration and must be replaced by an
external source if a state of steady vibration is to be maintained.

4
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

2- Degree of freedom:

Degree of freedom is the minimum number of independent coordinates required to

determine completely the positions of all parts of a system at any instant of time.

5
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

3- Discrete and Continuous System:-

-Some systems, especially those involving continuous elastic members, have an
infinite number of degrees of freedom. (e.g. cantilever beam).
-Systems with an infinite number of degree of freedom are called continuous, or
distribute systems.
-Most of the time, continuous systems are approximated as discrete system, (more
accurate results are obtained by increasing the number of degrees of freedom.
-The analysis methods available for dealing with continuous systems are limited to a
narrow selection of problems, such as uniforms beams, slender rods, and thin plates.

6
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

Classification of Vibration
- Free and forced vibration:

Free vibrations: If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own,
the vibration is known as free vibration no external force acts on the systems (e.g.
simple pendulum).

Forced vibration: If a system is subjected to an external force, the resulting

vibration is known as forced vibration if the frequency of the external force
coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the system, a conditions known as
resonance occurs (large oscillation). Failures of such structures as building, bridges,
turbines and airplane wings have been associated with the occurrence of resonance.

- Undamped and damped vibration:

- If no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other resistance during oscillation,
the vibration is undamped vibration.
- If any energy is lost, it is called damped vibration.
-consideration of damping becomes extremely important in analyzing vibration
systems near resonance.

Figure 2.4: Effect of damping in free vibration

on the 7 amplitude of the vibration
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

- Linear and nonlinear vibration:

- If all the basic components of a vibratory system, the spring, the mass, and the
damper, behave linearly, the resulting linear vibration.
-If any behave non-linearly, the vibration is called nonlinear vibration.

- Deterministic and random vibration:

-If the value or magnitude of the excitation (force or motion) acting on vibrating
system is known at any given time, the excitation is called deterministic. The
resulting vibration is known as deterministic vibration.
x(t)

t


Deterministic (periodic) excitation

-If the value of the excitation at a given time cannot be predicted,

the resulting vibration is known as random. (e.g. wind velocity,
road roughness, and ground motion during earthquakes).

8
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

Random excitation

Vibration analysis procedure

- A vibratory system is a dynamic system for which the variables such as the
excitations (input) and responses (outputs) are time-dependent.
The response of a vibrating system generally depends on the initial conditions as
well as the external excitations.
-Most practical vibrating systems are very complex, and it is impossible to consider
all the details for a mathematical analysis.
-The analysis of a vibration system usually involves mathematical modeling,
derivation of the governing equations solution of the equations, and interpretation of
the result.

Step1: Mathematical Modeling:

The purpose of it is to represent all the important features of the system for the
purpose of deriving the mathematical (or analytical) equations governing the
behavior of the system.
The mathematical model is gradually improved to obtain more accurate results.

9
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

Step 2: Derivation of governing Equations:

Once the Mathematical model is available, we use the principles of dynamics and
derive the equations that describe the vibration of the system. The equations of
motion can be derived by Newton's second law, d'Alembert principle, and the
principle of conservation of energy.

Step3: Solution of the governing Equations:

The equations of motion must be solved to find the response of the vibrating system,
using the following techniques.
1-Standard methods of solving differential equations.
2-Laplace transformation methods.
3-Matrix method.
4-Numerical methods.

Steps4: Interpretation of the results:

-The solution gives the displacements, velocities, and accelerations of the various
masses of the system, these results must be interpreted with a clear view of the
purpose of the analysis and possible design implications of the results.

10
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

Spring Elements

The stiffness "k" of a spring element is a relation between the force “F” and the
deflection “x” where;

dF
k= = the slope of curve
dx

a b c

The relation between the force and the deflection is illustrated in previous figure.
If the stiffness increases with the force, curve (a), the spring is called nonlinear
hard.
If the stiffness decreases with the force, curve (c), the spring is called nonlinear
soft.
If the stiffness is constant, line (b), the spring is called linear spring.

Linear springs are available in a broad range of springs and elastic elements. All
springs are considered approximately linear over a certain range of deformation.
The analysis in this course is concerned only with applications having linear
springs. The following table lists a variety of spring elements.

11
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

Element Name Stiffness

G d4
Coil k
64 n R 3
n = number of coils
R = radius
d = wire diameter

k1 k2 k1 k 2
Series k
k1  k 2

k1
Parallel k = k1 + k2
k2
E, A, L EA
Longitudinal bar k
L

E, I, L 3 EI
Cantilever beam k
L3

a b 3 E I (a  b )
Simply supported beam k
a2 b2

24 E I
L a Fixed-hinged beam k
a (3 L  8 a )
2

L a 3 EI
Hinged-hinged k
(L  a) a 2
EI
Spiral spring kt 
L

GJ
Torsion bar kt 
L

12
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

Damping Elements

The vibrational energy is gradually converted to heat or sound. Dampers are

devices which are used to dissipate energy from the system in order to reduce the
vibrations.
A damper is assumed to have neither mass nor elasticity.
Damping force exists only if there is relative velocity between the two ends of the
damper.
Damping is modeled as one or more of the following:

1-Viscous damping

Viscous damping is the most commonly used damping mechanism in vibration

analysis (fluid medium such as air, gas, water, or oil).
Typical examples of viscous damping include:
a- Fluid films between sliding surfaces,
b- Fluid flow around a piston in a cylinder,
c- Fluid flow through an orifice, and
d- Fluid film around a journal bearing.
Fd = c x

2-Coulomb damping (or Dry Friction)

The resisting force is constant in magnitude. Its direction is opposite to the

direction of the velocity. It is caused by friction between rubbing surfaces that
either dry or have insufficient lubrication.

3-Internal, solid, material or hysteric damping

When a material is deformed, there is an internal resistance due the sliding action
of the molecules, energy dissipated by the material, due to friction between internal
planes, which slip or slide.

13
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

SIGNAL ANALYSIS
When a body vibrates, it undergoes an oscillatory motion. In order to study the
nature of the vibrations of bodies we transfer the mechanical motion to an
electrical signal which is easier to deal with. A signal in its broad meaning has
repetitive nature. Generally, a signal is a combination of several signal
components. For example, if we study the electromagnetic signals of radio stations,
T V, or cellular phones, we find that these signals are combinations of discrete
frequencies, each represents one particular station. Sound signals are also examples
of compound signals. We hear different sounds at the same time. Sound results
from the vibration of bodies. Also, hearing the sounds is a result of the vibration of
the ear drum. We can hear different sounds at the same time and distinguish
between them. Each body has its unique vibration characteristics.

So, in general, a compound signal is the sum of many fundamental signals, each
has a single frequency and certain strength. Such fundamental signal is known as
the harmonic signal. In the following sections we shall discuss the different types
of signals. For compound signals, we shall be able to analyze them to extract the
constituents of the harmonic signals. This is known as signal analysis.

Harmonic Motion

It is the simplest form of a periodic motion. It is known as simple harmonic

motion. Mathematically, it is represented by the sinusoidal function (a sine or a
cosine function). Graphically, the sine curve is the vertical projection of a vector of
length “A” rotating with an angular frequency (simply called frequency) “ω”
which is measured in rad/s; it makes an angle “θ = ωt” with the horizontal axis; “t”
is the time. The cosine curve is the vertical projection of a vector of length “A”
rotating with an angular velocity “ω”; it makes angle “θ = ωt” with the vertical
axis, as shown in the figure. We conclude that the cosine function is leading the
sine function by 90o.

x = A sin θ (1)

y = A cos θ (2)

14
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

x = A sin ωt
ωt
t
2

A
ωt x = A cos ωt

t
2



Where, “A” is known as the amplitude and “θ = ωt”. Both curves make a complete
cycle when the vectors rotate an angle equals to “2"This corresponds to one
complete cycle of the harmonic curve. The time of one cycle is called the period
"" such that

ω = 2

2
 


The circular frequency "f" is the number of cycles per second. Its unit is Hz
(Hertz). Its value is given by

1 
f= 
 2

The relation between the circular frequency and the angular frequency is

ω = 2 f

Important conclusion For the sake of graphical representation, a sine function can
be considered as a vector that makes an angle with the horizontal axis. Likewise, a
cosine function can be considered as a vector that makes an angle with the vertical
axis as shown.

15
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

Combination of Two Harmonics :

a- Having the Same Frequency

Consider a signal given by,

x = A1 sin ωt + A2 sin (ωt + φ)

y C
A2

φ α
ωt A1
A1 x

“φ” is a phase angle between the two signals. Using the vector representation, “A1
sin ωt” is represented by a vector of length “A1” that makes an angle “ωt” with the
x-axis. Similarly, “A2 sin (ωt + φ)” is represented by a vector of length “A2” that
makes an angle “ωt + φ” with the x-axis. The resultant vector is a vector of length
“C” which makes an angle “ωt + α” with the x-axis, and is represented by

x = C sin (ω t + α) (3)

C2 = A 12 + A 22 + 2 A1 A2 cos φ (4)

A2 sin 
tan α= (5)
A1  A2 cos 

b- Having Different Frequencies

Suppose we have a signal which is composed from two harmonics with

frequencies “ω1” and “ω2”; “ω2 > ω1”. The resultant signal is

x = b sin ω1t +a sin ω2t

16
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

Periodic motion

1- The resultant motion is not simple harmonic motion but periodic motion,
2- The amplitude various between (a+b) when the vectors are in phase and
minimum value (b-a) when they are 180o off phase,
3- The period of the compound periodic motion is the time interval required for
one component vector to rotate a complete revolution relative to the other
[i.e. 2π/(ω1 – ω2 )],
4- The angular velocity of the resultant is (ω1 + ω2 )/2,
5- The interval between successive peaks is . 2π/[(ω1 + ω2 ) /2]

Beats:

Beating is an interesting phenomenon that occurs when a system with very little
damping is subjected to an excitation source that has a frequency very close to its
natural frequency,
(or, when two harmonic motions, with frequencies close to one another, are
added).

x = A1 sin ω1t +A2 sin ω2t

Case 1:

17
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

When A1 = A2 = A and ω2 is very close to ω1

C
y
A

ω2 t  = (ω2 – ω1)t/2
A
ω1 t
x

The resultant vector bisects the angle between the two vectors. Then

 = ½ (ω2 - ω1)t

The angle of the resultant vector is

ω1t + ½ (ω2 - ω1) t = ½ (ω2 + ω1)t

The length of the resultant vector is given by

C = 2 A cos ½ (ω2 - ω1)t

(ω 2  ω 1 ) t
2

Therefore,
x = 2 A [cos ½ (ω2 - ω1)t sin ½ (ω2 + ω1)t]
18
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

1- The amplitude of this motion slowly fluctuated between 0 and 2A according

to the term 2 A cos ½ (ω2 - ω1)t,
2- The period of fluctuating is 2π/ ½ (ω2 - ω1),
3- The time between two successive maximum and minimum values will be
2π/(ω2 - ω1), (period of beating),
4- The frequency of the harmonic signal is “½(ω2 + ω1)”,
5- The vibration period is 2π/ ½ (ω2 + ω1),
6- The beating frequency is “½ (ω2 - ω1)”.

Case 2:
When A1 ≠A2 and ω2 is very close to ω1

(ω 2  ω 1 ) t
2

x1 = A1 sin ω1t and x2 = A2 sin ω2t

if ω = ½ (ω2 + ω1), ∆= ½ (ω2 - ω1)

x1 = A1 sin (ω - ∆)t and x2 = A2 sin (ω + ∆)t

x = (A1 +A2 ) cos ∆t sin ωt + (A1 - A2 ) sin ∆t cos ωt

= C sin (ωt +φ)

Where,
C= A12 + A22 + 2 A1 A2 cos 2∆t

Max. amplitude Cmax = A1 + A2

Min. amplitude Cmin = A1 - A2

Vibration period 4π/ (ω2 + ω1),

19
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

Beating period “2π /(ω2 - ω1)”.

20
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

21
Mechanical Vibrations Chapter I

7. Determine the equivalent spring constant of the system shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3

22