Ports and Maritime Organization

Seafarers' Affairs Directorate

Exam Code: TEMK-993

Subject: Motor Engineering Knowledge Date: 1399.07.29

Rank: 3rd Engineer Time Allowed: 3 Hours
(Pass mark: 60)

1-2-3-MK-4-S-18-01-04-01-01-01 engine vibration

With regard to diesel engine state:

a) What is the purpose of the flywheel? (6M)

b) Why are air inlet and exhaust valve springs arranged in such a manner that more
than one spring is used per valve? (6M)
c) What do you understand by the terms “critical speed” and “barred speed” range?
(6M)

Answer:

Source: question and answer on the marine diesel engine by john Lambs page

If the frequency of the natural vibration of the air inlet or exhaust valve springs
is a harmonic of the camshaft speed, the springs may vibrate axially and are said
to surge.
Surge can be avoided by modifying the sizes of the springs. By arranging the
springs in pairs and fitting one inside the other the avoidance of surge is made
less difficult. Another advantage of having pairs of springs is that if one spring
fails the valve is held up and is not damaged by striking the piston.
Note A stopper or safety ring is usually fitted around valve stems to prevent a
valve falling into the cylinder, but in the lower position it is still possible for the
valve to be struck by the piston.

The turning moment from an engine crankshaft is subject to considerable

variation during its rotation, and the variation can be shown on a torque
diagram for the engine. If the average torque required to drive the load is
plotted on a graph as a straight line with a constant value it will be seen that the
actual torque at any instant will be greater or less than the mean torque. When
the torque from the engine is greater than the mean torque requirement the

excess torque causes some increase in the rotational speed of the crankshaft.
The excess energy is thus stored in the flywheel by virtue of its increased speed.
During the periods of the cycle when the torque from the engine crankshaft is
less than the mean torque requirement of the load, the extra energy stored in
the flywheel is returned to the shafting system, and helps to maintain the rotational
speed of the crankshaft. The flywheel is designed to hold the fluctuation
in the rotational speed of the engine within the limits required by the load.
The flywheel also assists in holding the speed of an engine nearer to the
desired value while the engine governor is altering the fuel pump setting to suit
some changed condition in the load on the engine. It also stores energy from the
starting system during the starting operation and keeps the engine turning at
sufficient speed to initiate combustion.
The speed fluctuations discussed above do not alter the speed of the engine
when measured as revolutions per minute, but cause small changes in angular
velocity within the period of one or two revolutions depending on whether the
engine is of the two- or four-stroke cycle.
Note The flywheel is also used in conjunction with the turning gear for
turning the engine. In smaller engines teeth are cut in the flywheel rim which are
engaged by the pinion of a starting motor when the engine is started.

The graph of the turning moment from a single-cylinder engine is made up from
a combination of the forces acting on the pistons and the inertia forces from the
running gear. The turning moment reaches a peak each 720° of
crank rotation in a four-stroke cycle engine and each 360° for a two-stroke cycle
engine. In multi-cylinder engines there will be a peak for each cylinder. In a
four-stroke cycle engine the number of peaks will therefore equal the number of
cylinders firing in 720° of crank rotation, or half the number of cylinders for
360° of rotation. In two-stroke cycle engines the number of peaks per revolution
will be equal to the number of cylinders. If the peaks per 360° of crank
rotation are multiplied by the engine rev/min we can get a frequency per min. If
this frequency is similar to any one of the various natural frequencies of the
engine shafting system we have a resonant condition.
The speed of the engine in rev/min at which the resonant condition occurs is
referred to as the critical speed. The high stresses associated with resonant
conditions start to build up as the engine speed approaches the critical speed,
and do not come back to some safe value until the engine speed is beyond the
critical speed. The unsafe stresses either side of the critical speed are referred to
as the flank stresses. The barred speed-range of an engine is the range of speed
from the beginning of build-up of unsafe flank stresses to the dying-away of
these stresses at some higher speed. Obviously the engine must not be
continuously operated at speeds within the barred range.

1-2-3-MK-4-S-16-01-04-01-01-01 fuel injection

With reference to the fuel injection system define the following terms:

a) Viscosity (3M)
 b) Atomization (3M)
c) Penetration (3M)
d) Turbulence (3M)
e) What is the consequence of operating an engine on high-viscosity fuel at too low
temperature? (4M)

Answer:

Source: A.J Wharton Diesel Engines page 88, 89

Source: question and answer on the marine diesel engine by john Lambs page 80, 81

Viscosity, or resistance to flow, in a fuel oil is important when considering

combustion. It must be low enough to ensure correct atomisation at the fuel injector.
Since viscosity reduces as temperature is increased, it will be necessary to heat heavy
fuel oil to reduce its viscosity to about 15 cSt at 50°C before atomisation for
combustion.
Atomisation is the splitting up of the fuel into very small droplets by the fuel injector
forcing fuel at high pressure through small atomiser holes. The droplet size will depend
upon the size of holes and the pressure difference between fuel pump discharge and that
of the compressed air in the combustion chamber, and consequently the size of droplets
may vary over the whole injection period. Atomised droplets have a high surface to
mass ratio giving good heat transfer from the hot compressed air in the cylinder
causing rapid evaporation and mixing.
Penetration refers to the distance the oil droplets travel into the combustion space
before mixing with the air and igniting. This will depend upon droplet size
(atomisation), velocity leaving the injector and the conditions within the combustion
chamber. It is desirable that fuel should penetrate into the whole of the combustion
space for good mixing, but droplets should not impinge on the internal surfaces before
burning. The number of atomiser holes and their position will decide the spray pattern.
Turbulence is the movement of compressed air and fuel within the combustion space
before combustion occurs. This may have several causes. Swirl is imparted to the air
during its entry at scavenge ports. It may be further agitated by the fuel spray pattern
and the shape and movement of the piston crown. Turbulence will improve the mixing
of fuel and air for effective and rapid combustion. It is particularly desirable for rapid
combustion of heavy fuels in medium or higher speed engines.
Fig. 5.3 illustrates these processes.

If an engine is operated with a fuel of the high-viscosity type at too low a

temperature the injection viscosity will be too high. This will affect the degree
of atomization and penetration.
With a small decrease below the correct fuel temperature poor atomization
and penetration will cause after-burning to occur. Further decrease of the fuel

temperature increases the amount of after-burning. Eventually the point will be

reached when fuel will come into contact with the piston crown, the sides of the
piston, and the cylinder walls, and will burn on the surfaces of these parts.
The fuel coming into contact with the cylinder walls destroys the lubricant
and causes increased wear. Fuel on the piston sides enters the ring grooves,
forms carbon, and eventually seizes the rings in the grooves so that blow-past
occurs; finally the sides of the piston burn away in localized areas.
While an engine will continue to operate with fuel at quite low temperatures,
the consequences are disastrous and result is very costly repair work to correct
the damage.

1-2-3-MK-4-M-18-01-04-01-01-01 speed control

With reference to speed control of diesel engine:

a) Describe the principle of the mechanical centrifugal governor. (6M)

b) Why the over speed trip is installed on diesel engines therewith speed governor?
(6M)
c) What do you understand by the term “electronic governor? Name the various parts
of an electronic governor. (6M)

Answer:

Source: question and answer on the marine diesel engine by john Lambs page 472, 482,
483

Mechanical centrifugal governors used in marine practice are of the Hartnell

type or modifications of it. The governor consists of a vertical shaft on which a
yoke is fitted. The opposite ends of the yoke are fitted with pins, and these pins
hold flyweights which are attached to the ends of bell cranks. The other ends of
the bell cranks are fitted into a circumferential slot at the top of a sleeve which
surrounds the vertical shaft. As the radius of the path of the flyweights is
increased the sleeve is raised up the vertical shaft. In some governors springs are
fitted to the weights so that the centrifugal force on the weights is balanced by
the pull on the springs. In others a helical compression spring is also fitted on

the top of the sleeve, in which case the springs between the balance weights may
sometimes be omitted.
The action of the governor is such that when the flyweights are revolving
the load on the springs is balanced by the centrifugal force of the flyweights.
The sleeve then takes up some position on the vertical shaft. An increase in the
engine speed increases the centrifugal force of the flyweights and they move
outward to a new radius. This causes the sleeve to rise and a new equilibrium
position is taken up when the increased centrifugal force is balanced by the
springs. The movement of the sleeve is transferred by levers and linkage to the
fuel pumps which then reduce the fuel quantity injected and slow the engine
down to its proper running speed.
The governor operates on the principle that the centrifugal force exerted by
the flyweights is balanced by the load on the spring or springs. Changes in
engine speed result in changes in the radius at which the flyweights operate, and
this in turn alters the height of the sleeve which controls, through levers and
linkage, the fuel pump settings.
Note The spring that is used to load the governor sleeve is also used to make
slight adjustments to the engine speed. This is accomplished by increasing or
decreasing the load on the spring by a screw mechanism.

Overspeed trips are fitted on engines where the governor does not fail safe.
Their function is to shut off the fuel supply to the cylinders in the event of the
speed of the engine rising to a dangerous level. They are always fitted on steam
turbo alternators or generators. The overspeed trip usually consists of a 'bolt'
with a relatively heavy head. The bolt is fitted at the forward end of the engine
shaft where no torque is transmitted. It is fitted in a space bored out across the
diameter of the shaft. The bolt is held in place by a nut and supported by a
spring. When the engine overspeeds the centrifugal force exerted by the bolt
head overcomes the support of the spring and flies outwards until restrained by
the nut and compression of the spring. The bolt head in the 'thrown' position
strikes a trip lever which is also thrown and shuts off the engine fuel eventually
bringing the engine to rest.
The means whereby the fuel is shut off varies with the make of engine. As
some motor ships have a steam turbo alternator it is worth mentioning that in
many turbo sets the overspeed trip often works through the lubricating oil low
pressure cut-out and the steam stop valve. In other cases the overspeed trip
operates through a system of levers and links to the turbine steam stop valve.
When the overspeed trip operates, the pawl holding the steam stop valve open is
released and a spring closes the stop valve. The tripping speed can be adjusted
by adding or removing thin spacing washers under the spring so that its
compression is altered.
A small permanent magnet alternator driven from the engine camshaft in
conjuction with a rectifier can also be used with an electronic governor to
prevent the engine racing. When the engine speeds up the voltage increases. At
some level it will operate the g~vernor to reduce the fuel supply to the engine
and prevent a dangerous increase in engine speed.

Electronic governors are manufactured in various forms. They contain parts

which act in a similar manner to the parts in other governors. These parts are a
speed-sensing device, some means of comparing the signal from the speedsensing
device to some selected norm, and a means of processing the signai from
the speed-sensing device to control some form of actuator and give a
mechanical output to control the fuel pump and the flow of fuel from the
injection pumps to the individual cylinders of the engine.
The speed-sensing device may be a set of flyweights controlled by a spring
and the engine speed. Speed change causes flyweight movement; this movement
is transferred to an output rod when the speed of the engine changes. A number
of electronic governors use a set of spring-controlled flyweights as the speed
sensor. The spring forms the speed reference device.
In other cases the field from a revolving permanent magnet driven by the
engine is used to generate an alternating current in a set of stator windings. The
alternating current output may be rectified to give a direct current output
having a voltage proportional to the engine speed. If the output is not rectified
the frequency changes occuring with changes of engine speed give a form of
speed sensing.
Proximity sensors may also be used as speed-sensing devices on engines (see
Question 18.52). The proximity sensor is located by the engine flywheel-turning
gear teeth. In some engines the voltage impulses generated by the proximity
sensor may be sufficient without amplification for an input signal giving the
engine speed.
In cases where the proximity sensor cannot be located near enough to the
flywheel or the form of the gear teeth is not satisfactory, the proximity sensor is
used as a switching device to control an input voltage in an on/off manner. The
impulses from the switch may then be used to act as a speed-sensing device.
Diesel engine-driven alternators may use the frequency of the current
generated as the speed-sensing device. In this case the alternating current is
passed through a frequency converter, which outputs a direct current having a
voltage proportional to the engine speed in the same manner· as the output
frequency was treated in the case of the small permanent magnet alternator.

The direct current voltage output proportional to engine speed is then

compared with the output from a Zener diode voltage regulator. If there is a
difference between the voltages it is amplified to control an output to a
solenoid-controlled hydraulic actuator or to supply current to a special form of
electric motor and screw. The motor becomes the actuator used to control the
fuel pump setting. The armature of the motor must have a very low moment of
inertia.

1-2-3-MK-4-S-16-01-04-01-01-01 piston + piston rings

a) List and describe the causes of piston-ring failure which may result in gas leakage or
ring breakage. (10M)
b) Should a piston-ring material be harder or softer than the cylinder material in
which it works, explain your answer. (3M)
c) What is the engine makers' solution to increase the life of a piston ring and cylinder
liner? (3M)

Answer:
Source: question and answer on the marine diesel engine by john Lambs page 241, 233,
240

1 Insufficient piston-ring and groove clearance. This may cause the ring to
jam in the groove when the engine comes up to working temperature and
allow blow-past.
2 Insufficient lubrication. Although there may be sufficient cylinder
lubrication to prevent ring scuffing and an excessive rate of ring and liner
wear, a borderline may be reached where there is insufficient lubricant
available to keep the piston rings free in their grooves. A small excess
amount of lubricant over that necessary to lubricate the liner is required so
that additives in the lubricant can clean sludges, varnish and gum formations
out of piston-ring grooves. The rings then work effectively. This is
particularly important in new engines or when a new cylinder liner and
piston are fitted in an old engine.
3 Large amounts of wear in cylinder liners.
4 Excessive diametral clearance betw.een the piston and cylinder.
5 Excessive wear on piston-ring landing face in the piston-ring groove,
particularly if associated with (3) and/or (4). This is often the cause of
piston-ring troubles in cross- and loop-scavenged engines, the gas pressure
built up behind the piston ring causing the ring to bow outwards slightly as it
rides beyond the top edge of the port. It is then supported only by the port
bars, and the pressure behind the ring causes this bowing action.
6 Ring gap too small. This usually leads to ring breakage, but could ultimately
lead to disastrous or very serious consequences.
7 Incorrect preparation of ends of piston ring adjacent to gap, particularly in
loop- and cross-scavenged engines with relatively wide ports. The usual
preparation in this case is to give the ends of the piston ring a near semicircular
profile which is washed into the corner radius of the ring, on the
face making contact with the cylinder. For example, the radius on a piston
ring of 12mm height would start at 5 mm. This 5 mm radius would be
reduced moving around the circumference away from the gap so that at
25 mm away the radius is reduced to 2.5 mm, and at 50mm away it would be
reduced to the point that it merged with the radius at the corners of the ring
section.
S Radius at top and bottom of exhaust and scavenge ports in cylinder liner
inadequate, the ring then receiving a shock when sliding past the port edges.
As the design width of the port increases relative to the cylinder circumference,
the port edge radius becomes increasingly important. Insufficient
radius leads to ring breakage.
9 Wear on the port bars relative to cylinder-liner working surface such that
surface of bar is below the surface of the liner. This condition is checked
with a straight edge held vertically on the port bar, the hollow surface being
checked out with a feeler gauge. This is important after the first few
thousand hours of liner life. The marks and slight surface roughness from
machining have now been worn away, and as the port bar is worn smooth its
ability to hold lubricant on its sur'face is impaired and the wear on the port
bar increases. To rectify the condition the surface of the port bar should be
scratched with the corner tip of a small square file so that a trellis pattern of
scratches is put on the surface of the bar. The unscratched square areas of
port surface between the trellis pattern should have sides 3 to 6 mm
depending on the size of the engine. This problem is found to be more
prevalent on the exhaust port bars. If this pattern of wear develops on an old
liner which has not given trouble previously, it may be indicative of the
cooling space in the exhaust port bar becoming dirty or scaled.

Generally piston-ring materials are made considerably harder than the material
of the liner in which they work. This has the advantage of giving the piston ring
a long working life by reducing the radial wear rate consequent upon reduction
of the amounts of wear debris, which acts as an abrasive. An exception to this is
the case of hardened or chromium-plated cylinder liners.

Piston ring life can be increased, with usually an increase in cylinder liner life,
by fitting the top piston-ring groove with a piston ring which has been
chromium plated on its outer circumference. This increases the hardness of the
surface that makes contact with the working surface of the cylinder, thus
improving anti-friction conditions and consequently increasing piston-ring and
liner life.

1-2-3-MK-5-S-16-01-04-01-06 air compressor

a) Sketch a typical suction valve for an air compressor. (5M)

b) Explain in detail the effects of leaking suction/delivery valves. (6M)
c) Explain why it is necessary to remove oil and water from the air leaving the starting
air compressor. (5M)

Answer:

Source: Reeds VOL 12 Motor Engineering Knowledge page 204, 203, 205
1-2-3-MK-5-S-16-01-04-01-01 fuel pump

Sketch and explain in detail the principle operation of the valve-controlled fuel pump.
(16M)

Answer:
Source: A.J Wharton Diesel Engines page 98, 97

Source: Reeds VOL 12 Motor Engineering Knowledge page 116, 118

advanced to improve combustion of low quality fuel or at low power. The variable
ignition timing linkage allows individual fuel pumps to be adjusted if required; it can
also be linked to the engine governor control to adjust all pumps collectively. A shock
absorber is fitted to the pump chamber. The follower is raised to cut off fuel.
During the part of the cycle when the pump is not injecting high pressure fuel, hot oil
at the circulating pump discharge pressure passes through to circulate the injectors.
Fig. 5.10 illustrates a valve-timed fuel pump as used in large Sulzer RTA engines.
The pump plunger is raised and lowered by a follower on the cam. Spring-loaded
suction and spill valves control oil to and from the pump chamber and each of these can
be opened by lifting it from its seat by a pushrod moved by a lever operated from the
plunger drive. Pivot points of the levers are positioned so that one pushrod moves up as
the plunger rises while the other pushrod moves down.
From the bottom of its stroke the plunger is moved upwards, the spill valve is closed,
but the suction valve is held off its seat by its pushrod. No high pressure oil delivery
takes place until the suction valve is able to seat as its pushrod moves down. From this
point oil pressure is raised and injection continues as the plunger continues its up
stroke. The spill valve pushrod will force it off its seat, releasing the oil pressure and
ending injection. A non-return valve prevents loss of oil from the discharge. The
plunger chamber is recharged during the downward stroke.
The pivots of the levers are eccentric and by rotating these the timing can be altered.
Under normal operation the suction valve timing and start of injection is fixed, while
spill timing is used to control the power.
Variable ignition timing has links which superimpose control on the suction valve
pivot, giving adjustment of the start of injection according to fuel quality.
Circulating oil passes through the pump during the period for which it is not
injecting. The pump follower is lifted clear of the cam to shut off fuel.

Or