ECOE 1302 Spring 2017 2slide

2/13/2017
Introduction to Statistics Course
Spring Semester 2017
Instructor: Prof. Dr. Samir Khaled Safi
Copyright © 2016 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Chapter 3
Numerical Summaries of Data
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MEASURES OF CENTER
Section 3.1
Objectives
1. Compute the mean of a data set
2. Compute the median of a data set
3. Compare the properties of the mean and median
4. Find the mode of a data set
5. Approximate the mean with grouped data
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OBJECTIVE 1
Compute the mean of a data set
Mean of a Data Set

The mean of a data set is a measure of center. If we imagine each
data value to be a weight, then the mean is the point at which the data
set balances.
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Notation - Population Versus Sample

Recall that a population consists of an entire collection of individuals
about which information is sought, and a sample consists of a smaller
group drawn from the population. The method for calculating the mean
is the same for both samples and populations, except for the notation.
Notation
Population Mean: 𝝁
Sample Mean: 𝒙
Computing the Mean

A list of 𝑛 numbers is denoted by 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛
∑𝑥𝑖 represents the sum of these numbers: ∑𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + … + 𝑥𝑛
∑𝑥𝑖
If 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 is a sample, then the sample mean is given by 𝑥 =
𝑛
∑𝑥𝑖
If 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑁 is a population, then the population mean is given by 𝜇 = 𝑁
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Example - Mean
During a semester, a student took five exams. The population of exam
scores is 78, 83, 92, 68, and 85. Find the mean.
Solution:
∑𝑥𝑖 78 + 83 + 92 + 68 + 85 406
The mean is given by 𝜇 = 𝑁
= 5 = 5 = 81.2.
Note that the mean is rounded to one more decimal place than the
original data. This is generally considered good practice.
OBJECTIVE 2
Compute the median of a data set
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Median
The median is another measure of center. The median is a number
that splits the data set in half, so that half the data values are less than
the median and half of the data values are greater than the median.
The procedure for computing the median differs, depending on whether

the number of observations in the data set is even or odd.
If n is odd: If n is even:
The median is the middle The median is the average of

number. the two middle numbers.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Examples - Median
Example:
During a semester, a student took five exams. The population of exam scores
is 78, 83, 92, 68, and 85. Find the median of the exam scores.
Solution:
Arrange the data values in increasing order: 68 78 83 85 92
The median is the middle number, 83.
Example:
Eight patients undergo a new surgical procedure and the number of days spent
in recovery for each is as follows. Find the median number of days in recovery.
20 15 12 27 13 19 13 21
Solution:
Arrange the data values in increasing order: 12 13 13 15 19 20 21 27.
15 + 19
The median is the average of the two middle numbers: = 17.
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Mean and Median on the TI-84 PLUS

The 1-Var Stats command in the TI-84 PLUS Calculator displays a list of the
most common parameters and statistics for a given data set. This command is
accessed by pressing STAT and then highlighting the CALC menu.
The 1-Var Stats command returns the following quantities:
Mean and Median on the TI-84 PLUS

During a semester, a student took five exams. The
population of exam scores is 78, 83, 92, 68, and
85. Find the mean and median using the TI-84
PLUS.
Step 1: Enter the data in L1.
Mean
Step 2: Press STAT and highlight the CALC menu.
Step 3: Select 1-Var Stats and press ENTER.

Enter L1 in the List field and run the
command. Median
Note: If your calculator does not support Stat Wizards,
enter L1 next to the 1-Var Stats command on the home
screen and press enter to run the command.
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OBJECTIVE 3
Compare the properties of the mean and median
Resistant
A statistic is resistant if its value is not affected much by extreme values (large
or small) in the data set. The median is resistant, but the mean is not.
Example:
Five families have annual incomes of $25,000, $31,000, $34,000, $44,000 and
$56,000. One family, whose income is $25,000, wins a million dollar lottery, so
their income increases to $1,025,000.
Before the lottery win, the mean and median are:
Mean = $38,000 Median = $34,000
After the lottery win, the mean and median are:
Mean = $238,000 Median = $44,000
The extreme value of $1,025,000 influences the mean quite a lot; increasing it
from $38,000 to $238,000. In comparison, the median has been influenced
much less increasing from $34,000 to $44,000. That is, the median is resistant.
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Mean, Median, and the Shape of a Data Set

The mean and median measure the center of a
data set in different ways. When a data set is
symmetric, the mean and median are equal.
When a data set is skewed to the right, there

are large values in the right tail. Because the
median is resistant while the mean is not, the
mean is generally more affected by these large
values. Therefore for a data set that is skewed to
the right, the mean is often greater than the
median.
Similarly, when a data set is skewed to the left,

the mean is often less than the median.
OBJECTIVE 4
Find the mode of a data set
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Mode
Another value that is sometimes classified as a measure of center is the mode.
• The mode of a data set is the value that appears most frequently.
• If two or more values are tied for the most frequent, they are all considered
to be modes.
• If the values all have the same frequency, we say that the data set has no
mode.
Example:
Ten students were asked how many siblings they had. The results, arranged in
order, were 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 6. Find the mode of this data set.
Solution:
The value that appears most frequently is 1. Therefore, the mode is 1.
Measure of Center?
The mode is sometimes classified as a measure of center. However, this isn’t
really accurate. The mode can be the largest value in a data set, or the
smallest, or anywhere in between.
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Mode for Qualitative Data

The mean and median can be computed only for quantitative data. The mode,
on the other hand, can be computed for qualitative data as well. For qualitative
data, the mode is the most frequently appearing category.
Example:
Following is a list of the makes of all the cars rented by an automobile rental
company on a particular day. Which make of car is the mode?
Honda Toyota Toyota Honda Ford

Chevrolet Nissan Ford Chevrolet Chevrolet
Honda Dodge Ford Ford Toyota
Chevrolet Toyota Toyota Toyota Nissan
“Toyota” appears most frequently. Therefore, the mode is “Toyota”.
OBJECTIVE 5
Approximate the mean using grouped data
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Approximating the Mean

Sometimes we don’t have access to the raw data in a data set, but we are
given a frequency distribution. In these cases we can approximate the mean
using the following steps.
Step 1: Compute the midpoint of each class. The midpoint of a class is found
by taking the average of the lower class limit and the lower limit of the
next larger class.
Step 2: For each class, multiply the class midpoint by the class frequency.
Step 3: Add the products (Midpoint)x(Frequency) over all classes.
Step 4: Divide the sum obtained in Step 3 by the sum of the frequencies.
Example
The following table presents the number of text messages sent via cell phone
by a sample of 50 high school students. Approximate the mean number of
messages sent.
Number of Text Messages Sent Frequency

0 – 49 10
50 – 99 5
100 – 149 13
150 – 199 11
200 – 249 7
250 – 299 4
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Solution
Step 1: Compute the midpoint of each class.
Number of Text Messages Sent Class Frequency

Midpoint
0 – 49 25 10
50 – 99 75 5
100 – 149 125 13
150 – 199 175 11
200 – 249 225 7
250 – 299 275 4
Solution
Step 2: For each class, multiply the class midpoint by the class frequency.
Number of Text Messages Sent Class Frequency (Midpoint)x

Midpoint (Frequency)
0 – 49 25 10 250
50 – 99 75 5 375
100 – 149 125 13 1625
150 – 199 175 11 1925
200 – 249 225 7 1575
250 – 299 275 4 1100
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Solution
Step 3: Add the products (Midpoint)x(Frequency) over all classes.
Frequency (Midpoint)x
(Frequency)
10 250 Σ(Midpoint ×Frequency)
5 375 = 250 + 375 + 1625 + 1925 + 1575 + 1100
13 1625 = 6850
11 1925
7 1575
4 1100
Solution
Step 4: Divide the sum obtained in Step 3 by the sum of the frequencies.
Frequency (Midpoint)x
(Frequency)
10 250 ∑(Midpoint×Frequency)
Approximate Mean =
∑Frequency
5 375
6850
13 1625 = 50
11 1925 = 137
7 1575
4 1100
50 6850 Sums
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Grouped Data on the TI-84 PLUS

To compute the mean for grouped data in a frequency distribution,
enter the midpoint for each class into L1 and the corresponding
frequencies in L2. Next, select the 1-Var Stats command and enter L1
in the List field and L2 in the FreqList field, if using Stats Wizards.
If you are not using Stats Wizards, you may run the1-Var Stats
command followed by L1, comma, L2.
TI-84 PLUS Example

Class Midpoint Frequency
The output for the last example on
the TI-84 PLUS Calculator is
25 10
presented below.
75 5
125 13
The value of 𝑥 represents the
175 11 approximate mean. In this example
225 7 𝑥 = 137. Therefore the approximate
275 4 mean is 137.
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You Should Know…

• How to compute and interpret the mean of a data set
• The notation for a population mean and sample mean
• How to compute the median
• How to use the TI-84 PLUS calculator to compute the mean and
median
• The definition of resistant and which measure of center is resistant
• How the mean and median are related to the shape of a data set
including
• Skewed to the left
• Skewed to the right
• Approximately symmetric
• How to identify the mode of a data set
• How to approximate the mean for grouped data
MEASURES OF SPREAD
Section 3.2
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Objectives
1. Compute the range of a data set
2. Compute the variance of a population and a sample
3. Compute the standard deviation of a population and a sample
4. Approximate the standard deviation with grouped data
5. Use the Empirical Rule to summarize data that are unimodal and
approximately symmetric
6. Use Chebyshev’s Inequality to describe a data set
7. Compute the coefficient of variation
OBJECTIVE 1
Compute the range of a data set
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The Range
The range of a data set is the difference between the largest value and
the smallest value.
The average monthly temperatures, in degrees Fahrenheit, for San

Francisco are
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
San Francisco 51 54 55 56 58 60 60 61 63 62 58 52
The range of temperatures is: 63 – 51 = 12.
Although the range is easy to compute, it is not often used in practice.

The reason is that the range involves only two values from the data set:
the largest and smallest.
OBJECTIVE 2
Compute the variance of a population and a
sample
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Variance
When a data set has a small amount of spread, like the San Francisco
temperatures, most of the values will be close to the mean. When a
data set has a larger amount of spread, more of the data values will be
far from the mean.
The variance is a measure of how far the values in a data set are from
the mean, on the average.
The variance is computed slightly differently for populations and

samples. The population variance is presented first.
Definition: Population Variance

Let 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑁 denote the values in a population of size 𝑁. Let 𝜇
denote the population mean. The population variance, denoted by 𝜎 2,
is
Population Variance
∑ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇 2
𝜎2 =
𝑁
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Example – Population Variance

Compute the population variance for the San Francisco temperatures.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
San Francisco 51 54 55 56 58 60 60 61 63 62 58 52
Solution:
Step 1: Compute the population mean 𝜇.
∑𝑥𝑖 51+54+55+56+58+60+60+61+63+62+58+52
𝜇= =
𝑁 12
= 57.5
Step 2: For each population value 𝑥𝑖 compute 𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇. These values are
shown in the second row below.
𝑥𝑖 51 54 55 56 58 60 60 61 63 62 58 52
𝒙𝒊 − 𝝁 –6.5 –3.5 –2.5 –1.5 0.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 5.5 4.5 0.5 –5.5
Example – Population Variance

Step 3: Square the deviations to obtain the quantity 𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇 2. These values
are shown in the third row.
𝑥𝑖 51 54 55 56 58 60 60 61 63 62 58 52
𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇 –6.5 –3.5 –2.5 –1.5 0.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 5.5 4.5 0.5 –5.5
𝟐
𝒙𝒊 − 𝝁 42.25 12.25 6.25 2.25 0.25 6.25 6.25 12.25 30.25 20.25 0.25 30.25
Step 4: Sum the squared deviations to obtain the quantity ∑ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇 2.

∑ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇 2 = 42.25 + 12.25 + 6.25 + 2.25 + 0.25 + 6.25 + 6.25
+12.25 + 30.25 + 20.25 + 0.25 + 30.25
= 169
Step 4: Divide the sum obtained in Step 4 by the population size 𝑁 to obtain
the population variance 𝜎 2 .
∑ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇 2 169
𝜎2 = = = 14.083.
𝑁 12
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Sample Variance
When the data values come from a sample rather than a population, the
variance is called the sample variance. The procedure for computing
the sample variance is a bit different from the one used to compute a
population variance. In the formula, the mean 𝜇 is replaced by the
sample mean 𝑥 and the denominator is 𝑛 − 1 instead of 𝑁. The sample
variance is denoted by 𝑠 2 .
Sample Variance
∑ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 2
𝑠2 =
𝑛−1
Why Divide by 𝑛 − 1 ?
When computing the sample variance, we use the sample mean to
compute the deviations. For the population variance we use the
population mean for the deviations.
It turns out that the deviations using the sample mean tend to be a bit
smaller than the deviations using the population mean. If we were to
divide by 𝑛 when computing a sample variance, the value would tend to
be a bit smaller than the population variance.
It can be shown mathematically that the appropriate correction is to

divide the sum of the squared deviations by 𝑛 − 1 rather than 𝑛.
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Example – Sample Variance

A company that manufactures batteries is testing a new type of battery
designed for laptop computers. They measure the lifetimes, in hours, of
six batteries, and the results are 3, 4, 6, 5, 4, 2. Find the sample
variance of the lifetimes.
Solution:
3+4+6+5+4+2
The sample mean is 𝑥 = = 4.
6
The sample variance is given by

∑ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 2
𝑠2 =
𝑛−1
3−4 2+ 4−4 2+ 6−4 2 + 5−4 2 + 4−4 2 + 2−4 2
=
6−1
10
= =2
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OBJECTIVE 3
Compute the standard deviation of a population
and a sample
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Standard Deviation
Because the variance is computed using squared deviations, the units
of the variance are the squared units of the data. For example, in the
Battery Lifetime example, the units of the data are hours, and the units
of variance are squared hours. In most situations, it is better to use a
measure of spread that has the same units as the data.
We do this simply by taking the square root of the variance. This

quantity is called the standard deviation. The standard deviation of a
sample is denoted 𝑠, and the standard deviation of a population is
denoted by 𝜎.
Sample Standard Deviation Population Standard Deviation
𝑠 = 𝑠2 𝜎 = 𝜎2
Example – Standard Deviation

Example:
The population variance of temperatures in San Francisco is 𝜎 2 = 14.083. Find
the population standard deviation.
Solution:
The population standard deviation is 𝜎 = 𝜎 2 = 14.083 = 3.753.
Example:
The variance of the lifetimes for a sample of six batteries 𝑠 2 = 2. Find the
sample standard deviation.
Solution:
The sample standard deviation is 𝑠 = 𝑠 2 = 2 = 1.414.
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Standard Deviation on the TI-84 PLUS

The following steps will compute the standard deviation for both sample
data and population data on the TI-84 PLUS Calculator:
Enter the data into L1 in the data editor.
Run the 1-Var Stats command (the same command

used for means and medians), selecting L1 as the
location of the data.
Standard Deviation and Resistance

Recall that a statistic is resistant if its value is not affected much by extreme
values (large or small) in the data set.
The standard deviation is not resistant.
That is, the standard deviation is affected by extreme values.
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OBJECTIVE 4
Approximate the standard deviation using
grouped data
Approximating the Standard Deviation

Sometimes we don’t have access to the raw data in a data set, but we are given a frequency
distribution. In these cases we can approximate the standard deviation using the following steps.
Step 1: Compute the midpoint of each class and approximate the mean of the frequency
distribution.
Step 2: For each class, subtract the mean from the class midpoint to obtain (Midpoint – Mean).
Step 3: For each class square the difference obtained in Step 2 to obtain (Midpoint – Mean)2,
and multiply by the frequency to obtain
(Midpoint – Mean)2 x (Frequency).
Step 4: Add the products (Midpoint – Mean)2 x (Frequency) over all classes.
Step 5: To compute the population variance, divide the sum obtained in Step 4 by 𝑛. To
compute the sample variance, divide the sum obtained in Step 4 by
𝑛 – 1.
Step 6: Take the square root of the variance obtained in Step 5. The result is the standard
deviation.
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Example
The following table presents the number of text messages sent via cell
phone by a sample of 50 high school students. Approximate the sample
standard deviation number of messages sent.
Number of Text Messages Sent Frequency

0 – 49 10
50 – 99 5
100 – 149 13
150 – 199 11
200 – 249 7
250 – 299 4
Solution
Step 1: Compute the midpoint of each class. Recall from the last
section that the sample mean was computed as 137.
Number of Text Messages Sent Class

Midpoint
0 – 49 25
50 – 99 75
100 – 149 125
150 – 199 175
200 – 249 225
250 – 299 275
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Solution
Step 2: For each class, subtract mean from the class midpoint to
obtain (Midpoint – Mean).
Number of Text Messages Sent Class (Midpoint –

Midpoint Mean)
0 – 49 25 –112
50 – 99 75 –62
100 – 149 125 –12
150 – 199 175 38
200 – 249 225 88
250 – 299 275 138
Solution
Step 3: For each class, square the differences obtained in Step 2 to
obtain (Midpoint – Mean)2, and multiply by the frequency to
obtain (Midpoint – Mean)2 x (Frequency).
Number of Text Messages Sent Frequency (Midpoint – (Midpoint –

Mean) Mean)2 x
(Frequency)
0 – 49 10 –112 125,440
50 – 99 5 –62 19,220
100 – 149 13 –12 1,872
150 – 199 11 38 15,884
200 – 249 7 88 54,208
250 – 299 4 138 76,176
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Solution
Step 4: Add the products (Midpoint – Mean)2 x (Frequency) over all
classes.
(Midpoint – Mean)2 x
(Frequency)
125,440 ∑ Midpoint−Mean 2 × Frequency
19,220 = 125,440 + 19,220 + 1,872 + 15,884 + 54,208 + 76,176
1,872
= 292,800
15,884
54,208
76,176
Solution
Step 5: Since we are computing the sample variance, we divide the
sum obtained in Step 4 by 𝑛 – 1.
∑ Midpoint−Mean 2 × Frequency 292,800

𝑠2 = =
𝑛−1 50 − 1
= 5975.51020
Step 6: Take the square root of the variance to obtain the standard
deviation.
𝑠= 𝑠 2 = 5975.51020 = 77.30142
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Grouped Data on the TI-84 PLUS

The same procedure used to compute the mean for grouped data in a
frequency distribution may be used to compute the standard deviation.
Enter the midpoint for each class into L1 and the corresponding frequencies in
L2. Next, select the 1-Var stats command and enter L1 in the List field and
L2 in the FreqList field, if using Stats Wizards. If you are not using Stats
Wizards, you may run the1-Var Stats command followed by L1, comma, L2.
Example
Class Midpoint Frequency The output for the last example on the TI-84
25 10 PLUS Calculator is presented below.
75 5
125 13 The value of s represents the approximate
175 11 sample standard deviation. In this example
s = 77.30142. Therefore the approximate
225 7
standard deviation is 77.30142.
275 4
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OBJECTIVE 5
Use the Empirical Rule to summarize data that
are unimodal and approximately symmetric
Bell-Shaped Histogram
Many histograms have a single mode near the center of the data, and
are approximately symmetric. Such histograms are often referred to as
bell-shaped.
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The Empirical Rule

When a data set has a bell-shaped histogram, it is often possible to use the standard
deviation to provide an approximate description of the data using a rule known as The
Empirical Rule.
When a population has a histogram that is approximately bell-shaped, then:
• Approximately 68% of the data will be within one standard deviation of the mean.
• Approximately 95% of the data will be within two standard deviations of the mean.
• All, or almost all, of the data will be within three standard deviations of the mean.
Example – The Empirical Rule

Example:
The following table presents the U.S. Census Bureau projection for the percentage of the
population aged 65 and over for each state and the District of Columbia. Use the
Empirical Rule to describe the data.
14.1 14.3 14.4 17.8 12.0 14.9 12.6 13.7 12.8 13.8 13.7 12.4 13.8
14.1 13.3 14.3 16.0 8.1 11.5 14.1 10.2 12.4 13.4 15.6 12.8 13.9
12.3 14.1 15.3 13.0 13.6 10.5 12.4 13.5 13.9 10.7 11.5 14.3 12.7
13.1 12.2 12.4 15.0 12.6 13.6 13.7 15.5 14.6 9.0 12.2 14.0
Solution:
We first note that the histogram is
approximately bell-shaped and we
may use the TI-84 PLUS
calculator, or other technology, to
compute the population mean and
standard deviation. Mean: 𝝁 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟐𝟒𝟗
Standard Deviation: 𝝈 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟖𝟐𝟕
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Example – The Empirical Rule

Solution (continued):
We compute the following: Approximately 68% of the
𝜇 − 𝜎 = 13.249 − 1.6827 = 11.57 data values are between
𝜇 + 𝜎 = 13.249 + 1.6827 = 14.93 these.
Approximately 95% of the

𝜇 − 2𝜎 = 13.249 − 2(1.6827) = 9.88
data values are between
𝜇 + 2𝜎 = 13.249 + 2(1.6827) = 16.61 these.
𝜇 − 3𝜎 = 13.249 − 3(1.6827) = 8.20 Almost all of the data

𝜇 + 3𝜎 = 13.249 + 3(1.6827) = 18.30 values are between these.
OBJECTIVE 6
Use Chebyshev’s Inequality to describe a data
set
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Any Data Set

When a distribution is bell-shaped, we use The Empirical Rule to
approximate the proportion of data within one or two standard
deviations. Another rule called Chebyshev’s Inequality holds for any
data set.
Chebyshev’s Inequality
In any data set, the proportion of the data that is within K standard deviations
of the mean is at least 1 – 1/K2. Specifically, by setting K = 2 or K = 3, we
obtain the following results.
• At least 3/4, or 75%, of the data are within two standard deviations of the
mean.
• At least 8/9, or 89%, of the data are within three standard deviations of
the mean.
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Example – Chebyshev’s Inequality

Example:
As part of a public health study, systolic blood pressure was measured for a large group
of people. The mean was 120 and the standard deviation was 10. What information
does Chebyshev’s Inequality provide about these data?
Solution:
We compute the following:
𝑥 − 2𝑠 = 120 − 2 10 = 100 𝑥 − 3𝑠 = 120 − 3 10 = 90

𝑥 + 2𝑠 = 120 + 2 10 = 140 𝑥 + 3𝑠 = 120 + 3 10 = 150
We conclude:
• At least 3/4 (75%) of the people had systolic blood pressures between 100 and 140.
• At least 8/9 (89%) of the people had systolic blood pressures between 90 and 150.
OBJECTIVE 7
Compute the coefficient of variation
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Coefficient of Variation
The coefficient of variation (CV for short) tells how large the standard
deviation is relative to the mean. It can be used to compare the spreads
of data sets whose values have different units.
The coefficient of variation is found by dividing the standard deviation

by the mean.
𝝈
CV =
𝝁
Example – Coefficient of Variation

Example:
National Weather service records show that over a thirty-year period, the annual
precipitation in Atlanta, Georgia had a mean of 49.8 inches with a standard deviation of
7.6 inches, and the annual temperature had a mean of 62.2 degrees Fahrenheit with a
standard deviation of 1.3 degrees. Compute the coefficient of variation for precipitation
and for temperature. Which has greater spread relative to its mean?
Solution:
We compute the following:
standard deviation for precipitation 7.6
CV for precipitation = = = 0.15
mean precipitation 49.8
standard deviation for temperature 1.3

CV for temperature = = = 0.02
mean temperature 62.2
The CV for precipitation is larger than the CV for temperature. Therefore, precipitation
has a greater spread relative to its mean.
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You Should Know…

• How to compute the range of a data set
• The notation for population variance, population standard deviation,
sample variance, and sample standard deviation
• How to compute the variance and the standard deviation for
populations and samples
• How to use the TI-84 PLUS calculator to compute the variance and
standard deviation for populations and samples
• How to approximate the standard deviation for grouped data
• How to use The Empirical Rule to describe a bell-shaped data set
• How to use Chebyshev’s Inequality to describe any data set
• How to compute and interpret the coefficient of variation
MEASURES OF POSITION
Section 3.3
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Objectives
1. Compute and interpret 𝑧-scores
2. Compute the quartiles of a data set
3. Compute the percentiles of a data set
4. Compute the five-number summary for a data set
5. Understand the effects of outliers
6. Construct boxplots to visualize the five-number summary and
outliers
OBJECTIVE 1
Compute and interpret 𝑧-scores
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𝑍-Score
Who is taller, a man 73 inches tall or a woman 68
inches tall? The obvious answer is that the man is
taller. However, men are taller than women on the
average.
Suppose the question is asked this way: Who is taller

relative to their gender, a man 73 inches tall or a
woman 68 inches tall?
One way to answer this question is with a 𝑧-score.
𝑍-Score
The 𝑧-score of an individual data value tells how many standard
deviations that value is from its population mean.
For example, a value one standard deviation above the mean has a 𝑧-
score of 𝑧 = 1 and a value two standard deviations below the mean has
a 𝑧-score of 𝑧 = –2.
Z-Score
Let 𝑥 be a value from a population with mean 𝜇 and

𝑥−𝜇
standard deviation 𝜎. The z-score for 𝑥 is 𝑧 = .
𝜎
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Example: Z-Score
A National Center for Health Statistics study states that
the mean height for adult men in the U.S. is 𝜇 = 69.4
inches, with a standard deviation of 𝜎 = 3.1 inches. The
mean height for adult women is 𝜇 = 63.8 inches, with a
standard deviation of 𝜎 = 2.8 inches. Who is taller relative
to their gender, a man 73 inches tall, or a woman 68
inches tall?
Taller, relative to
We compute: the population of
𝑥−𝜇 73−69.4 women’s heights.
𝑧Man’s Height = 𝜎
= 3.1
= 1.16
𝑥−𝜇 68−63.8
𝑧Woman’s Height = = = 1.50
𝜎 2.8
𝑍-Scores & The Empirical Rule

Since the 𝑧-score is the number of standard deviations from the mean, we
can easily interpret the 𝑧-score for bell-shaped populations using The
Empirical Rule.
When a population has a histogram that is approximately bell-shaped, then

• Approximately 68% of the data will have 𝑧-scores between –1 and 1.
• Approximately 95% of the data will have 𝑧-scores between –2 and 2.
• All, or almost all of the data will have 𝑧-scores between –3 and 3.
z = –3 z = –2 z = –1 z=1 z=2 z=3

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OBJECTIVE 2
Compute the quartiles of a data set
Quartiles
In a previous section, we learned how to compute the mean and
median of a data set as measures of the center. Sometimes, it is useful
to compute measures of position other than the center to get a more
detailed description of the distribution. Quartiles divide a data set into
four approximately equal pieces.
Quartiles
Every data set has three quartiles:
• The first quartile, denoted 𝑄1 separates the lowest 25% of the data from
the highest 75%.
• The second quartile, denoted 𝑄2 separates the lowest 50% of the data
from the highest 50%. 𝑄2 is the same as the median.
• The third quartile, denoted 𝑄3 separates the lowest 75% of the data from
the highest 25%.
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Computing Quartiles
There are several methods for computing quartiles, all of which give similar
results. The following procedure is one fairly straightforward method:
Step 1: Arrange the data in increasing order.

Step 2: Let 𝑛 be the number of values in the data set. To compute the second
quartile, simply compute the median. For the first or third quartiles,
proceed as follows:
For the first quartile, compute 𝐿 = 0.25𝑛
For the third quartile, compute 𝐿 = 0.75𝑛
Step 3: If 𝐿 is a whole number, the quartile is the average of the number in
position 𝐿 and the number in position 𝐿 + 1.
If 𝐿 is not a whole number, round it up to the next higher whole

number. The quartile is the number in the position corresponding to
the rounded-up value.
Example – Computing Quartiles

The following table presents the annual rainfall, in inches, in Los Angeles during the
month of February from 1969 to 2013. Compute the quartiles for the data.
0.00 0.08 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.20 0.29 0.56 0.67 0.70 0.92 1.22 1.30 1.48
1.64 1.72 1.90 2.37 2.58 2.84 3.06 3.12 3.21 3.29 3.54 3.57 3.71 4.13 4.27
4.37 4.64 4.89 4.94 5.54 6.10 6.61 7.89 7.96 8.03 8.87 8.91 11.02 12.75 13.68
Solution:
The data are already in increasing order. There are 𝑛 = 45 values. For the first quartile
we compute 𝐿 = 0.25 45 = 11.25. Since 11.25 is not a whole number, we round it up to
12. The first quartile is the number in the 12th position, which is 0.92, so
𝑸𝟏 = 1st Quartile = 0.92
For the second quartile, we compute the median using the methods previously
presented. The median is 3.12, so
𝑸𝟐 = 2nd Quartile = 3.12
For the third quartile we compute 𝐿 = 0.75 45 = 33.75. Since 33.75 is not a whole
number, we round it up to 34. The third quartile is the number in the 34th position, which
is 4.94, so
𝑸𝟑 = 3rd Quartile = 4.94
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Quartiles on the TI-84 PLUS

The 1-Var Stats command in the TI-84 PLUS Calculator displays a list of the
most common parameters and statistics for a given data set. This command is
accessed by pressing STAT and then highlighting the CALC menu.
The 1-Var Stats command returns the following quantities:
Quartiles on the TI-84 PLUS

The following table presents the annual rainfall, in inches, in Los
Angeles during the month of February from 1969 to 2013. Compute
the quartiles for the data.
0.00 0.08 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.20 0.29 0.56 0.67 0.70 0.92 1.22 1.30 1.48
1.64 1.72 1.90 2.37 2.58 2.84 3.06 3.12 3.21 3.29 3.54 3.57 3.71 4.13 4.27
4.37 4.64 4.89 4.94 5.54 6.10 6.61 7.89 7.96 8.03 8.87 8.91 11.02 12.75 13.68
Step 2: Press STAT and highlight the CALC menu.
Step 3: Select 1-Var Stats and press ENTER. Enter L1

in the List field and run the command.
The quartile values produced by
Note: If your calculator does not support Stat Wizards, the TI-84 PLUS may differ from
enter L1 next to the 1-Var Stats command on the home results obtained by hand because it
screen and press enter to run the command. uses a slightly different procedure
than the one described in the text.
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Visualizing the Quartiles

Following is a dotplot of the Los Angeles rainfall data with the quartiles
indicated. The quartiles divide the data set into four parts, with
approximately 25% of the data in each part.
25% of 25% of 25% of 25% of
the data the data the data the data
OBJECTIVE 3
Compute the percentiles of a data set
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Percentiles
Quartiles describe the shape of a distribution by dividing it into fourths.
Sometimes it is useful to divide a data set into a greater number of
pieces to get a more detailed description of the distribution. Percentiles
divide a data set into hundredths.
Percentiles
For a number p between 1 and 99, the
pth percentile separates the lowest p%
of the data from the highest (1– p)%.
p% (100 – p)%
pth percentile
Computing Percentiles
The following procedure computes the pth percentile of a data set:
Step 2: Let 𝑛 be the number of values in the data set. For the pth percentile,
𝑝
compute 𝐿 = 100 𝑛.
Step 3: If 𝐿 is a whole number, the pth percentile is the average of the number
in position 𝐿 and the number in position 𝐿 + 1.
If 𝐿 is not a whole number, round it up to the next higher whole number.

The pth percentile is the number in the position corresponding to the
rounded-up value.
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Example – Computing Percentiles

The following table presents the annual rainfall, in inches, in Los Angeles during the month
of February from 1969 to 2013. Compute the 60th percentile for the data.
0.00 0.08 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.20 0.29 0.56 0.67 0.70 0.92 1.22 1.30 1.48
1.64 1.72 1.90 2.37 2.58 2.84 3.06 3.12 3.21 3.29 3.54 3.57 3.71 4.13 4.27
4.37 4.64 4.89 4.94 5.54 6.10 6.61 7.89 7.96 8.03 8.87 8.91 11.02 12.75 13.68
Solution:
The data are already in increasing order. There are 𝑛 = 45 values. For the 60th percentile
60
we compute 𝐿 = 45 = 27 . Since 27 is a whole number, the 60th percentile is the
100
average of the numbers in the 27th and 28th positions. We see that the 60th percentile is
𝟑.𝟓𝟕+𝟑.𝟕𝟏
60th Percentile = = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟒
𝟐
Computing a Percentile from a Given Data Value

Sometimes we are given a value from a data set and wish to compute
the percentile corresponding to that value. Following is the procedure
for doing this:
Step 2: Let 𝑥 be the data value whose percentile is to be computed.

Use the following formula to compute the percentile:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑥 +0.5

Percentile = 100 ∙ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡
Round the result to the nearest whole number. This is the

percentile corresponding to the value 𝑥.
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Example – Percentile of a Given Data Value

The following table presents the annual rainfall in Los Angeles during February from 1969 to
2013. In 1989, the rainfall was 1.90. What percentile does this correspond to?
0.00 0.08 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.20 0.29 0.56 0.67 0.70 0.92 1.22 1.30 1.48
1.64 1.72 1.90 2.37 2.58 2.84 3.06 3.12 3.21 3.29 3.54 3.57 3.71 4.13 4.27
4.37 4.64 4.89 4.94 5.54 6.10 6.61 7.89 7.96 8.03 8.87 8.91 11.02 12.75 13.68
Solution:
The data are already in increasing order. There are 𝑛 = 45 values in the data set. There
are 17 values less than 1.90. Therefore,
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝒙 +𝟎.𝟓 𝟏𝟕+𝟎.𝟓

Percentile = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∙ = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∙ = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟗
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒂 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝟒𝟓
We round the result to 39. The value 1.90 corresponds to the 39th percentile.
OBJECTIVE 4
Compute the five-number summary for a data set
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Five-Number Summary
The five-number summary of a data set consists of the median, the
first quartile, the third quartile, the smallest value, and the largest value.
These values are generally arranged in order.
Five Number Summary
Definition:
The five-number summary of a data set consists of the following quantities:
Minimum First Quartile Median Third Quartile Maximum
Example – Five Number Summary

Recall the Los Angeles annual rainfall data. Compute the five-number summary.
0.00 0.08 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.20 0.29 0.56 0.67 0.70 0.92 1.22 1.30 1.48
1.64 1.72 1.90 2.37 2.58 2.84 3.06 3.12 3.21 3.29 3.54 3.57 3.71 4.13 4.27
4.37 4.64 4.89 4.94 5.54 6.10 6.61 7.89 7.96 8.03 8.87 8.91 11.02 12.75 13.68
Solution:
We previously computed the quartiles:
𝑸𝟏 = 0.92 Med = 𝑸𝟐 = 3.12 𝑸𝟑 = 4.94
The minimum and maximum values are:

Minimum = 0.00 Maximum = 13.68
The five-number summary is given by:

0.00, 0.92, 3.12, 4.94, 13.68
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Example – Five Number Summary

Recall the Los Angeles annual rainfall data. Compute the five-number summary using
the TI-84 PLUS calculator.
0.00 0.08 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.20 0.29 0.56 0.67 0.70 0.92 1.22 1.30 1.48
1.64 1.72 1.90 2.37 2.58 2.84 3.06 3.12 3.21 3.29 3.54 3.57 3.71 4.13 4.27
4.37 4.64 4.89 4.94 5.54 6.10 6.61 7.89 7.96 8.03 8.87 8.91 11.02 12.75 13.68
Solution:
When using the TI-84 PLUS Calculator, the five-number summary is given by the 1-Var
Stats command.
Five-number summary
OBJECTIVE 5
Understand the effects of outliers
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Outliers
An outlier is a value that is considerably larger or considerably smaller than
most of the values in a data set. Some outliers result from errors; for example a
misplaced decimal point may cause a number to be much larger or smaller than
the other values in a data set. Some outliers are correct values, and simply
reflect the fact that the population contains some extreme values.
Example:
The temperature in a downtown location is measured for eight consecutive days
during the summer. The readings, in Fahrenheit, are
81.2 85.6 89.3 91.0 83.2 8.45 79.5 87.8
Which reading is an outlier? Is the outlier an error or is it possible that it is
correct?
Solution:
The outlier is 8.45. It certainly is an error, likely resulting from a misplaced
decimal point. The outlier should be corrected if possible.
Interquartile Range
One method for detecting outliers involves a measure called the
Interquartile Range.
Interquartile Range
Definition:
The interquartile range is found by subtracting the first quartile from the third
quartile.
IQR = 𝑸𝟑 − 𝑸𝟏
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IQR Method for Detecting Outliers

The most frequent method used to detect outliers in a data set is the IQR
Method. The procedure for the IQR Method is:
Step 1: Find the first quartile 𝑄1 , and the third quartile 𝑄3 .
Step 2: Compute the interquartile range: IQR = 𝑄3 − 𝑄1 .
Step 3: Compute the outlier boundaries. These boundaries are the cutoff
points for determining outliers:
Lower Outlier Boundary = 𝑄1 – 1.5(IQR)
Upper Outlier Boundary = 𝑄3 + 1.5(IQR)
Step 4: Any data value that is less than the lower outlier boundary or
greater than the upper outlier boundary is considered to be an
outlier.
Example
The following table presents the number of students absent in a middle school in
northwestern Montana for each school day in January. Identify any outliers.
65 67 71 57 51 49 44 41 59 49 42 56
45 77 44 42 45 46 100 59 53 51
Solution:
We may use the TI-84 PLUS or other technology to compute
the quartiles. The interquartile range is IQR = 𝑄3 − 𝑄1 = 59 – 41 =14.
The outlier boundaries are:

Lower Outlier Boundary = 𝑄1 – 1.5(IQR) = 45 – 1.5(14) = 24
Upper Outlier Boundary = 𝑄3 + 1.5(IQR) = 59 + 1.5(14) = 80
There are no values less than the lower boundary of 24. The value 100 is greater than the
upper boundary. Therefore, the value 100 is an outlier.
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OBJECTIVE 6
Construct boxplots to visualize the five-number
summary and outliers
Boxplot
A boxplot is a graph that presents the five-number summary along with
some additional information about a data set. There are several
different kinds of boxplots. The one we describe here is sometimes
called a modified boxplot.
* *
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Example – Boxplot
The following table presents the number of students absent in a middle school in
northwestern Montana for each school day in January. Construct a boxplot.
65 67 71 57 51 49 44 41 59 49 42 56
45 77 44 42 45 46 100 59 53 51
Solution:
Step 1:
We may use the TI-84 PLUS or other technology to compute
the quartiles. We see that 𝑄1 = 45, Med = 51, and 𝑄3 = 59.
Step 2:
We draw vertical lines at 45, 51, and 59, then horizontal lines to complete the box.
Example – Boxplot
Step 3:
We compute the outlier boundaries:
Lower Outlier Boundary = 𝑄1 – 1.5(IQR) = 24
Upper Outlier Boundary = 𝑄3 + 1.5(IQR) = 80
Step 4:
The largest data value that is less than the upper boundary is 77. We draw a
horizontal line from 59 up to 77.
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Solution
Step 5:
The smallest data value that is greater than the lower boundary is 41. We draw a
horizontal line from 45 down to 41.
Step 6:
The data value 100 lies outside of the outlier boundaries. Therefore, 100 is an outlier. We
plot this point separately.
Boxplots on the TI-84 PLUS

The following steps will create a boxplot for the
student absences data on the TI-84 PLUS.
Step 2: Press 2nd,Y=, then 1 to access the Plot1

menu. Select On and the boxplot type.
Step 3: Press Zoom, 9 to view the plot.
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Determining the Shape of a Data Set from a Boxplot
Boxplots can be used to determine skewness in a data set.
If the median is closer to the first

quartile than to the third quartile,
or the upper whisker is longer than
the lower whisker, the data are
skewed to the right.
If the median is closer to the third

quartile than to the first quartile, or
the lower whisker is longer than the
upper whisker, the data are skewed
to the left.
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If the median is approximately

halfway between the first and
third quartiles, and the two whiskers
are approximately equal in length,
the data are approximately
symmetric
You Should Know…

• How to compute and interpret 𝑧-scores
• How to compute the quartiles of a data set
• How to compute a percentile of a data set
• How to compute the percentile corresponding to a given data value
• How to find the five-number summary for a data set
• How to determine outliers using the IQR method
• How to construct a boxplot and use it to determine skewness
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Chapter 6
Discrete Probability Distributions
RANDOM VARIABLES
Section 6.1
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Objectives
1. Distinguish between discrete and continuous random variables
2. Determine a probability distribution for a discrete random variable
3. Describe the connection between probability distributions and
populations
4. Construct a probability histogram for a discrete random variable
5. Compute the mean of a discrete random variable
6. Compute the variance and standard deviation of a discrete random
variable
OBJECTIVE 1
Distinguish between discrete and continuous
random variables
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Random Variable
If we roll a fair die, the possible outcomes are the
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, and each of these
numbers has probability 1/6. Rolling a die is a
probability experiment whose outcomes are
numbers. The outcome of such an experiment is
called a random variable.
Random Variable
A random variable is a numerical outcome of a probability
experiment.
Discrete and Continuous Random Variables

Discrete random variables are random variables whose possible
values can be listed. Examples include:
• The number that comes up on the roll of a die.
• The number of siblings a randomly chosen person has.
Continuous random variables are random variables that can take on

any value in an interval. Examples include:
• The height of a randomly chosen college student.
• The amount of electricity used to light a randomly chosen
classroom.
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OBJECTIVE 2
Determine a probability distribution for a discrete
random variable
Probability Distribution
Probability Distribution
A probability distribution for a discrete random variable specifies
the probability for each possible value of the random variable.
Properties:
• 0 ≤ 𝑃 𝑥 ≤ 1 for every possible 𝑥
• ∑𝑃 𝑥 = 1
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Example – Probability Distributions

Decide if each of the following is a probability distribution:
𝒙 1 2 3 4
𝑷(𝒙) 0.25 0.65 –0.30 0.11
This is not a probability distribution. 𝑃(3) is not between 0 and 1.
𝒙 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1
𝑷(𝒙) 0.17 0.25 0.31 0.22 0.05
This is a probability distribution. All the probabilities are between 0 and 1, and
they add up to 1.
𝒙 1 10 100 1000
𝑷(𝒙) 1.02 0.31 0.90 0.43
This is not a probability distribution. 𝑃(1) is not between 0 and 1.
Example – Computing Probabilities

Four patients have made appointments to have their blood pressure checked at a clinic.
Let 𝑋 be the number of them that have high blood pressure. The probability distribution of
𝑋 is
𝒙 0 1 2 3 4
𝑷(𝒙) 0.23 0.41 0.27 0.08 0.01
(a) Find 𝑃(2 or 3)

(b) Find 𝑃(More than 1)
(c) Find 𝑃(At least 1)
Solution:
(a) The events “2” and “3” are mutually exclusive, since they cannot both happen. We use
the Addition Rule for Mutually Exclusive events:
𝑃(2 or 3) = 𝑃(2) + 𝑃(3) = 0.27 + 0.08 = 0.35
(b) “More than 1” means “2 or 3 or 4.” We use the Addition Rule for Mutually Exclusive
events: 𝑃(More than 1) = 𝑃(2 or 3 or 4) = 0.27 + 0.08 + 0.01 = 0.36
(c) We use the Rule of Complements: 𝑃(At least one) = 1 – 𝑃(0) = 1 – 0.23 = 0.77
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OBJECTIVE 3
Describe the connection between probability
distributions and populations
Probability Distributions and Populations

Statisticians are interested in studying samples drawn from
populations. Random variables are important because
when an item is drawn from a population, the value
observed is the value of a random variable.
The probability distribution of the random variable tells how

frequently we can expect each of the possible values of the
random variable to turn up in the sample.
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Example
An airport parking facility contains 1000 parking spaces. Of these, 142 are covered long-
term spaces that cost $2.00 per hour, 378 are covered short-term spaces that cost $4.50
per hour, 423 are uncovered long-term spaces that cost $1.50 per hour, and 57 are
uncovered short-term spaces that cost $4.00 per hour. A parking space is selected at
random. Let 𝑋 represent the hourly parking fee for the randomly sampled space. Find
the probability distribution of 𝑋.
Solution:
To find the probability distribution, we must list the possible values of 𝑋 and then find the
probability of each of them. The possible values of 𝑋 are 1.50, 2.00, 4.00, 4.50. We find
their probabilities.
# of spaces costing $1.50 423 The probability distribution is:
𝑃 1.50 = = = 0.423
total # of spaces 1000 𝒙 𝑷(𝒙)
# of spaces costing $2.00 142
𝑃 2.00 = = = 0.142 1.50 0.423
total #of spaces 1000
# of spaces costing $4.00 57 2.00 0.142
𝑃 4.00 = = = 0.057
total # of spaces 1000
# of spaces costing $4.50 378 4.00 0.057
𝑃 4.50 = = = 0.378
total # of spaces 1000 4.50 0.378
OBJECTIVE 4
Construct a probability histogram for a discrete
random variable
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Probability Histograms
In an earlier chapter we learned to summarize the data in a sample with a histogram. We
can represent discrete probability distributions with histograms as well. A histogram that
represents a discrete probability distribution is called a probability histogram.
Example:
The following presents the probability distribution and histogram for the number of boys in
a family of five children, using the assumption that boys and girls are equally likely and
that births are independent events.
𝒙 𝑷(𝒙)
0 0.03125
1 0.15625
2 0.31250
3 0.31250
4 0.15625
5 0.03125
OBJECTIVE 5
Compute the mean of a discrete random variable
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Mean of a Random Variable

Recall that the mean is a measure of center. The mean of a random
variable provides a measure of center for the probability distribution of
a random variable.
Mean of a Random Variable
To find the mean of a discrete random variable, multiply each
possible value by its probability, then add the products:
𝜇𝑋 = ∑[𝑥 ∙ 𝑃 𝑥 ]
Example – Mean of a Random Variable

A computer monitor is composed of a very large number of points of light called
pixels. It is not uncommon for a few of these pixels to be defective. Let 𝑋
represent the number of defective pixels on a randomly chosen monitor. The
probability distribution of 𝑋 is as follows. Find the mean number of defective
pixels.
𝒙 0 1 2 3
𝑷(𝒙) 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.1
Solution:
The mean is 𝜇𝑋 = 0 0.2 + 1 0.5 + 2 0.2 + 3 0.1 = 1.2
If we imagine each rectangle in the

probability histogram to be a weight,
the mean is the point at which the
histogram would balance.
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Expected Value
There are many occasions on which people want to predict how much they are likely to
gain or lose if they make a certain decision or take a certain action. Often, this is done by
computing the mean of a random variable. In such situations, the mean is sometimes
called the “expected value” and is denoted by 𝐸(𝑋). If the expected value is positive, it is
an expected gain, and if it is negative, it is an expected loss.
Example:
A mineral economist estimated that a particular venture had probability 0.4 of a $30 million
loss, probability 0.5 of a $20 million profit, and probability 0.1 of a $40 million profit. Let 𝑋
represent the profit. Find the probability distribution of the profit and the expected value of
the profit. Does this venture represent an expected gain or an expected loss?
Solution:
The probability distribution of 𝑋 is The expected value is
𝐸(𝑋) = (−30)(0.4) + (20)(0.5) + (40)(0.1) = 2.0
𝒙 –30 20 40
𝑷(𝒙) 0.4 0.5 0.1 There is an expected gain of $2 million.
OBJECTIVE 6
Compute the variance and standard deviation of
a discrete random variable
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Variance/Standard Deviation of a Random Variable
The variance and standard deviation provide a measure of spread

for the probability distribution of a random variable.
The variance of a discrete random variable 𝑋 is given by

𝜎𝑋2 = ∑ 𝑥 − 𝜇𝑋 2 ∙ 𝑃 𝑥
or, equivalently (and easier to compute by hand)

𝜎𝑋2 = ∑ 𝑥 2 ∙ 𝑃 𝑥 − 𝜇𝑋2
The standard deviation of a discrete random variable 𝑋 is the

square root of the variance:
𝜎𝑋 = 𝜎𝑋2
Mean/Standard Deviation on the TI-84 PLUS

The mean and standard deviation of a random variable
can be found on the TI-84 PLUS Calculator with the
following steps:
Step 1: Enter the values of the random variable into L1

and the associated probabilities in L2.
Step 2: Press STAT and highlight the CALC menu and

select 1-Var Stats.
Step 3: Enter L1 in the List field and L2 in the FreqList

and run the command.
Note: If your calculator does not support Stat Wizards, enter
L1, comma, L2 next to the 1-Var Stats command on the
home screen and press enter to run the command.
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Mean/Standard Deviation on the TI-84 PLUS

Compute the mean and standard deviation of the following probability
distribution using the TI-84 PLUS.
𝒙 0 1 2 3
𝑷(𝒙) 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.1
Solution:
We first enter values of the random variable and
the associated probabilities into the data editor
and then run the 1-Var Stats command.
We find 𝜇𝑋 = 1.2 and 𝜎𝑋 = 0.872.
You Should Know…

• The difference between discrete and continuous random variables
• How to determine the probability distribution for a discrete random
variable
• How to construct a probability distribution for a population
• How to construct a probability histogram
• How to compute the mean, variance, and standard deviation of a
discrete random variable
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THE BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION

Section 6.2
Objectives
1. Determine whether a random variable is binomial
2. Determine the probability distribution of a binomial random variable
3. Compute binomial probabilities
4. Compute the mean and variance of a binomial random variable
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OBJECTIVE 1
Determine whether a random variable is binomial
Binomial Distribution
Suppose that your favorite fast food chain
is giving away a coupon with every purchase
of a meal. Twenty percent of the coupons entitle
you to a free hamburger, and the rest of them
say “better luck next time.” Ten of you order
lunch at this restaurant.
What is the probability that three of you win a free hamburger? In

general, if we let 𝑋 be the number of people out of ten that win a free
hamburger. What is the probability distribution of 𝑋?
In this section, we will learn that 𝑋 has a distribution called the binomial
distribution, which is one of the most useful probability distributions.
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Binomial Distribution
In the problem just described, each time we examine a coupon, we call it a
“trial,” so there are 10 trials. When a coupon is good for a free hamburger, we
will call it a “success.” The random variable 𝑋 represents the number of
successes in 10 trials.
A random variable that represents the number of successes in a series of

trials has a probability distribution called the binomial distribution. The
conditions are:
• A fixed number of trials are conducted.
• There are two possible outcomes for each trial. One is labeled “success”
and the other is labeled “failure.”
• The probability of success is the same on each trial.
• The trials are independent. This means that the outcome of one trial
does not affect the outcomes of the other trials.
• The random variable 𝑋 represents the number of successes that occur.
Notation: 𝑛 = number of trials, 𝑝 = probability of a success
Example – Binomial Experiment

Decide if each of the following represents a binomial experiment:
• A fair coin is tossed ten times. Let 𝑋 be the number of times the coin lands
heads.
This is a binomial experiment. Each toss of the coin is a trial. There are two
possible outcomes, heads and tails. Since 𝑋 represents the number of heads,
heads counts as a success. The trials are independent, because the outcome
of one coin toss does not affect the other tosses.
• Five basketball players each attempt a free throw. Let 𝑋 be the number of
free throws made.
This is not a binomial experiment. The probability of success (making a shot)
differs from player to player, because they will not all be equally skilled at
making free throws.
• Ten cards are in a box. Five are red and five are green. Three of the cards
are drawn at random. Let 𝑋 be the number of red cards drawn.
This is not a binomial experiment because the trials are not independent.
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OBJECTIVE 2
Determine the probability distribution of a
binomial random variable
The Binomial Probability Distribution

Consider the binomial experiment of tossing 3 times a biased coin that has probability 0.6 of
coming up heads. Let 𝑋 be the number of heads that come up. If we want to compute 𝑃(2),
the probability that exactly 2 of the tosses are heads, there are 3 arrangements of two heads
in three tosses: HHT, HTH, THH. The probability of HHT is 𝑃(HHT) = (0.6)(0.6)(0.4) =
(0.6)2(0.4). Similarly, we find that 𝑃(HTH) = 𝑃(THH) = (0.6)2(0.4).
Now, 𝑃(2) = 𝑃(HHT or HTH or THH) = 3(0.6)2(0.4), by the Addition Rule. Examining this
result, we see the number 3 represents the number of arrangements of two successes
(heads) and one failure (tails). In general, this number will be the number of arrangements of
𝑥 successes in 𝑛 trials, which is 𝑛𝐶𝑥. The number 0.6 is the success probability 𝑝 which has
an exponent of 2, the number of successes 𝑥. The number 0.4 is the failure probability 1 − 𝑝
which has an exponent of 1, which is the number of failures, 𝑛 − 𝑥.
In general, for a binomial random variable 𝑋,
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑛𝐶𝑥 ∙ 𝑝𝑥 ∙ 1 − 𝑝 𝑛−𝑥
The possible values of the random variable 𝑋 are 0, 1, …, 𝑛.

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OBJECTIVE 3
Compute binomial probabilities
(Hand Computation)
Example – Binomial Probabilities

The Pew Research Center reported in June 2013 that
approximately 30% of U.S. adults own a tablet computer
such as an iPad, Samsung Galaxy Tab, or Kindle Fire.
Suppose a simple random sample of 15 people is taken.
Use the binomial probability distribution to find the
following probabilities.
a) Find the probability that exactly four of the sampled people own a tablet
computer.
b) Find the probability that fewer than three of the people own a tablet
computer.
c) Find the probability that more than one person owns a tablet computer.
d) Find the probability that the number of people who own a tablet computer is
between 1 and 4, inclusive.
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Solution:
Note that 𝑛 = 15 and 𝑝 = 0.3.
a) Find the probability that exactly four of the sampled

people own a tablet computer.
We use the binomial probability distribution with 𝑥 = 4:

𝑃 4 = 15𝐶4 ∙ 0.3 4 ∙ 1 − 0.3 15−4
15!
= ∙ 0.3 4 ∙ 0.7 11
4! 15 − 4 !
= 1365 ∙ 0.3 4 ∙ 0.7 11
= 0.219

b) Find the probability that fewer than three of the
The possible numbers of people that are fewer than

three are 0, 1, and 2:
P (0 or 1 or 2) = 15C0∙(0.3)0 ∙(1 – 0.3)15-0 + 15C1∙(0.3)1 ∙(1 – 0.3)15-1

+ 15C2∙(0.3)2 ∙(1 – 0.3)15-2
= 0.0047+0.0305 + 0.0916
= 0.127
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c) Find the probability that more than one person
owns a tablet computer.
We use the Rule of Complements. The complement of

“more than 1” is “1 or fewer” or equivalently, 0 or 1.
The probability of the 0 or 1 is:

P (0 or 1) = 15C0∙(0.3)0 ∙(1 – 0.3)15-0 + 15C1∙(0.3)1 ∙(1 – 0.3)15-1
= 0.0047+0.0305
= 0.035
Now, use the Rule of Complements:

𝑃 More than 1 = 1 − 𝑃 0 or 1
= 1 − 0.035
= 0.965

d) Find the probability that the number of people who
own a tablet computer is between 1 and 4, inclusive.
Between 1 and 4 inclusive means, 1, 2, 3, or 4.
P (1 or 2 or 3 or 4) = C
15 1∙(0.3)
1 ∙(1–0.3)15-1 + C
15 2∙(0.3) ∙(1–0.3)
2 15-2
+ C 3 C
15 3∙(0.3) ∙(1–0.3)
15-3 + 15 4∙(0.3)4 ∙(1–0.3)15-4
= 0.0305 + 0.0916 + 0.1700 + 0.2186
= 0.511
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OBJECTIVE 3
(Tables)
Example – Binomial Table

A binomial table can be used to compute binomial
probabilities.

a) Find the probability that exactly five of the sampled people own a tablet
computer.
b) Find the probability that fewer than four of the people own a tablet
computer.
c) Find the probability that the number of people who own a tablet computer is
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Solution:
a) Find the probability that exactly five of the sampled people own a tablet
computer.
𝑃(5) = 0.206

b) Find the probability that fewer than four of the people own a tablet
computer.
𝑃 Fewer than 4 = 𝑃 0 + 𝑃 1 + 𝑃 2 + 𝑃 3 = 0.005 + 0.031 + 0.092 + 0.170

= 0.298
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c) Find the probability that the number of people who own a tablet computer is
𝑃 Between 6 and 8 inclusive = 𝑃 6 + 𝑃 7 + 𝑃 8 = 0.147 + 0.081 + 0.035

= 0.263
OBJECTIVE 3
(TI-84 PLUS)
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Binomial Probabilities on the TI-84 PLUS

In the TI-84 PLUS Calculator, there are two primary commands
for computing binomial probabilities. These are binompdf and
binomcdf. These commands are on the DISTR (distributions)
menu accessed by pressing 2nd, VARS.
The binompdf command is used when

finding the probability that the binomial
random variable 𝑋 is equal to a specific
value, 𝑥.
The binomcdf command is used when

finding the probability that the binomial
random variable 𝑋 is less than or equal to
a specified value, 𝑥 .
Binomial Probabilities on the TI-84 PLUS

binompdf
To compute the probability that the random variable 𝑋 equals the
value 𝑥 given the parameters 𝑛 and 𝑝, use the binompdf
command with the following format:
binompdf(n,p,x)
binomcdf
To compute the probability that the random variable 𝑋 is less
than or equal to the value 𝑥 given the parameters 𝑛 and 𝑝, use
the binomcdf command with the following format:
binomcdf(n,p,x)
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a) Find the probability that exactly four of the sampled people own a tablet
computer.
b) Find the probability that fewer than three of the people own a tablet
computer.
c) Find the probability that more than one person owns a tablet computer.
d) Find the probability that the number of people who own a tablet computer is

Solution:
a) Find the probability that exactly four of the sampled

Since we are finding the probability that 𝑥 equals 4,

we use the binompdf command with 𝑛 = 15, 𝑝 = 0.3,
and 𝑥 = 4. We find the probability that exactly four
people own a tablet computer is 0.219.
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b) Find the probability that fewer than three of the
The binomcdf command computes the probability that there are less than or
equal to 𝑥 successes. The event “fewer than three” is equivalent to “less than
or equal to two”.
We run the command binomcdf(15, 0.3, 2) to find
that the probability that that fewer than three of the
people own a tablet computer is 0.1268.

c) Find the probability that more than one person
owns a tablet computer.
We use the Rule of Complements. The complement

of “more than 1” is “1 or fewer”. We use the command
binomcdf(15, 0.3, 1) to first find the probability that
1 or fewer people own a tablet computer, and then subtract
this value from 1 to find the probability that more than one
person owns a tablet computer. The result is approximately
0.965.
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d) Find the probability that the number of people who
own a tablet computer is between 1 and 4, inclusive.
Because 𝑃(Between 1 and 4) = 𝑃(4 or less) – 𝑃(0),

we can find the probability using the commands
binomcdf(15, 0.30, 4) – binompdf(15, 0.30, 0). The
result is approximately 0.511.
OBJECTIVE 4
Compute the mean and variance of a binomial
random variable
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Mean, Variance, and Standard Deviation

Let 𝑋 be a binomial random variable with 𝑛 trials and success
probability 𝑝.
Then the mean of 𝑋 is

𝜇𝑥 = 𝑛𝑝
The variance of 𝑋 is
𝜎𝑥2 = 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
The standard deviation of 𝑋 is

𝜎𝑥 = 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
Example
The probability that a new car of a certain model will require repairs during
the warranty period is 0.15. A particular dealership sells 25 such cars. Let
𝑋 be the number that will require repairs during the warranty period.
Find the mean and standard deviation of 𝑋.
Solution:
There are 𝑛 = 25 trials, with success probability 𝑝 = 0.15.
The mean is
𝜇𝑥 = 𝑛𝑝 = 25 0.15
= 3.75
The standard deviation is

𝜎𝑥 = 𝑛𝑝 1 − 𝑝 = 25 ∙ 0.15 1 − 0.15
= 1.785
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You Should Know…

• How to determine whether a random variable is binomial
• The notation for a binomial experiment
• How to determine the probability distribution of a binomial random
variable
• How to compute binomial probabilities
• How to compute the mean and variance of a binomial random
variable
Chapter 7
The Normal Distribution
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THE STANDARD NORMAL CURVE

Section 7.1
Objectives
1. Use a probability density curve to describe a population
2. Use a normal curve to describe a normal population
3. Find areas under the standard normal curve
4. Find 𝑧-scores corresponding to areas under the normal curve
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OBJECTIVE 1
Use a probability density curve to describe a
population
Probability Density Curves

The following figure presents a relative
frequency histogram for the particulate
emissions of a sample of 65 vehicles.
If we had information on the entire

population, containing millions of vehicles,
we could make the rectangles extremely
narrow.
The histogram would then look smooth and

could be approximated by a curve. The
curve used to describe the distribution of this
variable is called the probability density
curve of the random variable.
The probability density curve tells what

proportion of the population falls within a
given interval.
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Area and Probability Density Curves

The area under a probability density curve between any two values 𝑎 and 𝑏 has
two interpretations:
This area is equal to the proportion
of the population with values
between 3 and 4. Alternatively, it
represents the probability that a
randomly selected value from the
population is between 3 and 4.
• It represents the proportion of the population whose values are between 𝑎

and 𝑏.
• It represents the probability that a randomly selected value from the
population will be between 𝑎 and 𝑏.
Properties of Probability Density Curves

The region above a single point has no
width, thus no area. Therefore, if 𝑋 is a
continuous random variable, 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑎)
= 0 for any number 𝑎. This means that
𝑷(𝒂 < 𝑿 < 𝒃) = 𝑷(𝒂 ≤ 𝑿 ≤ 𝒃) for
any numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏.
For any probability density curve, the

area under the entire curve is 1,
because this area represents the entire
population.
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OBJECTIVE 2
Use a normal curve to describe a normal
population
Normal Curves
Probability density curves come in many varieties, depending on the
characteristics of the populations they represent. Many important
statistical procedures can be carried out using only one type of
probability density curve, called a normal curve.
A population that is represented by a normal curve is said to be

normally distributed, or to have a normal distribution.
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Properties of a Normal Curve

The population mean determines the location of the peak. The population
standard deviation measures the spread of the population. Therefore, the
normal curve is wide and flat when the population standard deviation is large,
and tall and narrow when the population standard deviation is small. The
mean and median of a normal distribution are both equal to the mode.
Properties of Normal Distributions

The normal distribution follows the Empirical Rule:
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OBJECTIVE 3
Find areas under the standard normal curve
(Tables)
Standard Normal Curve

A normal distribution can have any mean and any positive standard deviation.
However, the normal distribution with a mean of 0 and standard deviation of
1 is known as the standard normal distribution.
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𝑍-scores
When finding an area under the standard normal curve, we use the letter 𝑧 to
indicate a value on the horizontal axis beneath the curve. We refer to such a
value as a 𝒛-score.
Since the mean of the standard normal distribution is 0:

• The mean has a 𝒛-score of 0.
• Points on the horizontal axis to the left of the mean have negative 𝒛-scores.
• Points to the right of the mean have positive 𝒛-scores.
Using Table A.2 to Find Areas

Table A.2 may be used to find the area to the left of a given 𝑧-score.
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Example 1 – Area Under Standard Normal

Find the area to the left of 𝑧 = 1.26.
Solution:
Step 1: Sketch a normal curve, label the point
𝑧 = 1.26, and shade in the area to the
left of it.
Step 2: Consult Table A.2. To look up 𝑧 = 1.26, find the row containing 1.2
and the column containing 0.06. The value in the intersection of the
row and column is 0.8962. This is the area to the left of 𝑧 = 1.26.

Find the area to the right of 𝑧 = – 0.58.
Solution:
Step 1: Sketch a normal curve, label the point
𝑧 = – 0.58, and shade in the area to
the right of it.
Step 2: Consult Table A.2. To look up 𝑧 = – 0.5 and the column containing
0.08. The value in the intersection of the row and column is 0.2810.
This is the area to the left of 𝑧 = – 0.58.
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Because the total area under the curve is 1 and table A.2 gives the area to the
left of 𝑧, we subtract this area from 1:
Area to the right of 𝑧 = – 0.58

= 1 – area to the left of 𝑧 = – 0.58
= 1 – 0.2810
= 0.7190

Find the area between 𝑧 = –1.45 and 𝑧 = 0.42.
Solution:
Step 1: Sketch a normal curve, label the points 𝑧 = –1.45 and 𝑧 = 0.42, and in
the area between them.
Step 2: Use Table A.2 to find the areas to the left of 𝑧 = –1.45 and to the left of
𝑧 = 0.42. The area to the left of 𝑧 = –1.45 is 0.6628 and the area to
the left of 𝑧 = 0.42 is 0.0735.
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Step 3: Subtract the smaller area from the larger area to find the area
between the two 𝑧-scores:
Area between 𝑧 = –1.45 and 𝑧 = 0.42

= (Area left of 𝑧 = 0.42) – (Area left of 𝑧 = –1.45)
= 0.6628 – 0.0735
= 0.5893
OBJECTIVE 3
Find areas under the standard normal curve
(TI-84 PLUS)
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Standard Normal Curve

A normal distribution can have any mean and any positive standard deviation.
However, the normal distribution with a mean of 0 and standard deviation of
1 is known as the standard normal distribution.
𝑍-scores
When finding an area under the standard normal curve, we use the letter 𝑧 to
indicate a value on the horizontal axis beneath the curve. We refer to such a
value as a 𝒛-score.
Since the mean of the standard normal distribution is 0:

• The mean has a 𝒛-score of 0.
• Points on the horizontal axis to the left of the mean have negative 𝒛-scores.
• Points to the right of the mean have positive 𝒛-scores.
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Finding Areas with the TI-84 PLUS

In the TI-84 PLUS calculator, the normalcdf command is used to find
areas under a normal curve. Four numbers must be used as the input.
The first entry is the lower bound of the area. The second entry is the
upper bound of the area. The last two entries are the mean and
standard deviation.
This command is accessed by pressing 2nd, Vars.

Find the area to the left of 𝑧 = 1.26.
Solution:
Note the there is no lower endpoint, therefore we use -1E99 which
represents negative 1 followed by 99 zeroes.
We select the normalcdf command and enter -1E99 as the lower
endpoint, 1.26 as the upper endpoint, 0 as the mean and 1 as the
standard deviation.
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Find the area to the right of 𝑧 = – 0.58.
Solution:
Note the there is no upper endpoint, therefore we use 1E99 which
represents the large number 1 followed by 99 zeroes.
We select the normalcdf command and enter –0.58 as the lower
endpoint, 1E99 as the upper endpoint, 0 as the mean and 1 as the
standard deviation.

Find the area between 𝑧 = –1.45 and 𝑧 = 0.42.
Solution:
We select the normalcdf command and enter –1.45 as the lower
endpoint, 0.42 as the upper endpoint, 0 as the mean and 1 as the
standard deviation.
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OBJECTIVE 4
Find 𝑧-scores corresponding to areas under the
normal curve
(Tables)
𝑍-scores From Areas

We have been finding areas under the normal curve from given 𝑧-scores.
Many problems require us to go in the reverse direction. That is, if we

are given an area, we need to find the 𝑧-score that corresponds to that
area under the standard normal curve.
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Example 1 – Finding 𝑧-scores

Find the 𝑧-score that has an area of 0.26 to its left.
Solution:
Step 1: Sketch a normal curve and shade
in the given area.
Step 2: Look through the body of Table A.2 to find the area closest to 0.26.
This value is 0.2611, which correspond to the 𝑧-score 𝑧 = –0.64.

Find the 𝑧-score that has an area of 0.68 to its right.
Solution:
Step 1: Sketch a normal curve and shade
in the given area.
Step 2: Determine the area to the left of the 𝑧-score. Since the area to the
right is 0.68, the area to the left is 1 – 0.68 = 0.32.
Step 3: Look through the body of Table A.2 to find the area closest to 0.32.
This value is 0.3192, which corresponds to the 𝑧-score 𝑧 = –0.47.
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Find the 𝑧-scores that bound the middle 95% of the area under the standard
normal curve.
Solution:
Step 1: Sketch a normal curve and shade in the
given area. Label the 𝑧-score on the
left 𝑧1 and the 𝑧-score on the right 𝑧2.
Step 2: Find the area to the left of 𝑧1. Since the area in the middle is 0.95,
the area in the two tails combined is 0.05. Half of that area, which is
0.025, is to the left of 𝑧1.

Step 3: In Table A.2, an area of 0.025 corresponds to 𝑧 = –1.96.

Therefore, 𝑧1 = –1.96.
Step 4: Find the area to the left of 𝑧2 , which

is 0.9750. In Table A.2, an area of
0.9750 corresponds to 𝑧 = 1.96.
This value could also have been
found by symmetry.
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OBJECTIVE 4
Find 𝑧-scores corresponding to areas under the
normal curve
(TI-84 PLUS)
𝑍-scores From Areas

We have been finding areas under the normal curve from given 𝑧-scores.
Many problems require us to go in the reverse direction. That is, if we

are given an area, we need to find the 𝑧-score that corresponds to that
area under the standard normal curve.
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𝑍-scores From Areas on the TI-84 PLUS

The invNorm command in the TI-84 PLUS calculator returns the 𝑧-score
with a given area to its left. This command takes three values as its
input. The first value is the area to the left, the second and third values
are the mean and standard deviation.
This command is accessed by pressing 2nd, Vars.

Find the 𝑧-score that has an area of 0.26 to its left.
Solution:
We select the invNorm command and
enter 0.26 as the area to the left, 0 as
the mean, and 1 as the standard deviation.
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Find the 𝑧-score that has an area of 0.68
to its right.
Solution:
Since the area to the right is 0.68, the area to the left is 1 – 0.68 = 0.32.
We use the invNorm command with 0.32 as the area to the left, 0 as the mean,
and 1 as the standard deviation.

Find the 𝑧-scores that bound the middle 95% of the area under the standard
normal curve.
Solution:
We first sketch a normal curve and shade in the given
area. Label the 𝑧-score on the left 𝑧1 and the 𝑧-score
on the right 𝑧2.
Now, since the area in the middle is 0.95, the area in

the two tails combined is 0.05. Half of that area, which
is 0.025, is to the left of 𝑧1. We use the invNorm
command with 0.025 as the area to the left, 0 as the
mean, and 1 as the standard deviation. We find that
𝑧1 = –1.96. By symmetry, 𝑧2 = 1.96.
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You Should Know…

• How to use a probability density curve to describe a population
• How the shape of a normal curve is affected by the mean and
standard deviation
• How to find areas under a normal curve
• How to find 𝑧-scores corresponding to areas under a normal curve
APPLICATIONS OF
THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
Section 7.2
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Objectives
1. Convert values from a normal distribution to 𝑧-scores
2. Find areas under a normal curve
3. Find the value from a normal distribution corresponding to a given
proportion
OBJECTIVE 1
Convert values from a normal distribution to 𝑧-scores
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Standardization
Recall that the 𝑧-score of a data value
represents the number of standard
deviations that data value is above or
below the mean.
If 𝑥 is a value from a normal distribution

with mean 𝜇 and standard deviation 𝜎,
we can convert 𝑥 to a 𝑧-score by using
a method known as standardization.
𝑥−𝜇
The 𝑧 -score of 𝑥 is 𝑧 = .
𝜎
For example, consider a woman whose

height is 𝑥 = 67 inches from a normal
population with mean 𝜇 = 64 inches and
𝜎 = 3 inches. The 𝑧-score is:
𝑥 − 𝜇 67 − 64
𝑧= = =1
𝜎 3
OBJECTIVE 2
Find areas under a normal curve
(Tables)
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Example 1 – Area Under a Normal Curve

When using tables to compute areas, we first standardize to 𝑧-scores, then
proceed with the methods from the last section.
Example:
A study reported that the length of pregnancy from conception to birth is
approximately normally distributed with mean 𝜇 = 272 days and standard
deviation 𝜎 = 9 days. What proportion of pregnancies last longer than 280 days?
Solution:
𝑥−𝜇 280−272
The 𝑧-score for 280 is 𝑧 = 𝜎 =
9
= 0.89. Using Table A.2, we find the area to
the left of 𝑧 = 0.89 to be 0.8133. The area to
the right is therefore 1 – 0.8133 = 0.1867. We
conclude that the proportion of pregnancies
that last longer than 280 days is 0.1867.

The length of a pregnancy from conception to birth is approximately normally
distributed with mean 𝜇 = 272 days and standard deviation 𝜎 = 9 days. A
pregnancy is considered full-term if it lasts between 252 days and 298 days.
What proportion of pregnancies are full-term?
Solution:
𝑥−𝜇 252−272
The 𝑧-score for 252 is 𝑧 = = = −2.22.
𝜎 9
𝑥−𝜇 298−272
The 𝑧-score for 298 is 𝑧 = 𝜎
= 9
= 2.89.
Using Table A.2, we find that the area to the left of 𝑧 = 2.89 is 0.9981 and the
area to the left of 𝑧 = –2.22 is 0.0132. The area between 𝑧 = − 2.22 and 𝑧 = 2.89
is therefore 0.9981 – 0.0132 = 0.9849.
The proportion of pregnancies that are full-term, between 252 days and 298 days
is 0.9849.
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OBJECTIVE 2
Find areas under a normal curve
(TI-84 PLUS)

A study reported that the length of pregnancy from conception to birth is
approximately normally distributed with mean 𝜇 = 272 days and standard
deviation 𝜎 = 9 days. What proportion of pregnancies last longer than 280
days?
Solution:
We use the normalcdf command with 280 as the lower endpoint, 1E99 as the
upper endpoint, 272 as the mean, and 9 as the standard deviation. We
conclude that the proportion of pregnancies that last longer than 280 days is
0.1870.
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The length of a pregnancy from conception to birth is approximately normally
distributed with mean 𝜇 = 272 days and standard deviation 𝜎 = 9 days. A
pregnancy is considered full-term if it lasts between 252 days and 298 days.
What proportion of pregnancies are full-term?
Solution:
We use the normalcdf command with 252 as the lower endpoint, 298 as the
upper endpoint, 272 as the mean, and 9 as the standard deviation. The
proportion of pregnancies that are full-term, between 252 days and 298 days, is
0.9849.
OBJECTIVE 3
Find the value from a normal distribution
corresponding to a given proportion
(Tables)
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Finding Normal Values from a Given 𝑍-score

Suppose we want to find the value from a normal distribution that has a given
𝑥−𝜇
𝑧-score. To do this, we solve the standardization formula 𝑧 = for 𝑥.
𝜎
The value of 𝒙 that corresponds to a given 𝒛-score is 𝒙 = 𝝁 + 𝒛 ∙ 𝝈
Example:
Heights in a group of men are normally distributed with mean 𝜇 = 69 inches and
standard deviation 𝜎 = 3 inches. Find the height whose 𝑧-score is 0.6. Interpret
the result.
Solution:
We want the height with a 𝑧-score of 0.6. Therefore,
𝑥 = 𝜇 + 𝑧 ∙ 𝜎 = 69 + (0.6)(3) = 70.8
We interpret this by saying that a man 70.8 inches tall has a height 0.6
standard deviations above the mean.
Steps for Finding Normal Values

The following procedure can be used to find the value from a normal distribution
that has a given proportion above or below it using Table A.2:
Step 1: Sketch a normal curve, label the mean, label the value 𝑥 to be found,
and shade in and label the given area.
Step 2: If the given area is on the right, subtract it from 1 to get the area on the
left.
Step 3: Look in the body of Table A.2 to find the area closest to the given area.
Find the 𝑧-score corresponding to that area.
Step 4: Obtain the value from the normal distribution by computing

𝑥 = 𝜇 + 𝑧 ∙ 𝜎.
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Example – Finding Normal Values

Mensa is an organization whose membership is limited to people whose IQ is in the
top 2% of the population. Assume that scores on an IQ test are normally distributed
with mean 𝜇 = 100 and standard deviation 𝜎 = 15. What is the minimum score
needed to qualify for membership in Mensa?
Step 1: The figure shows the value 𝑥 separating the

upper 2% from the lower 98%.
Step 2: The area 0.02 is on the right, so we subtract

from 1 and work with the area 0.98 on the left.
Step 3: The area closest to 0.98 in Table A.2 is 0.9798, which corresponds to a
𝑧-score of 2.05.
Step 4: The IQ score that separates the upper 2% from the lower 98% is
𝑥 = 𝜇 + 𝑧 ∙ 𝜎 = 100 + (2.05)(15) = 130.75
Since IQ scores are generally whole numbers, we will round this to 𝑥 = 131.
OBJECTIVE 3
Find the value from a normal distribution
corresponding to a given proportion
(TI-84 PLUS)
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Example – Finding Normal Values

Mensa is an organization whose membership is limited to people whose IQ is in
the top 2% of the population. Assume that scores on an IQ test are normally
distributed with mean 𝜇 = 100 and standard deviation 𝜎 = 15. What is the
minimum score needed to qualify for membership in Mensa?
Solution:
The shows the value 𝑥 separating the upper 2% from
the lower 98%. The area 0.02 is on the right, so we
subtract from 1 and work with the area 0.98 on the left.
Using the invNorm command with 0.98 as the area

on the left, 100 as the mean, and 15 as the standard
deviation, we find the minimum score to be 130.81.
Since IQ scores are generally whole numbers, we

round this to 𝑥 = 131.
You Should Know…

• How to convert values from a normal distribution to 𝑧-scores
• How to find areas under a normal curve
• How to find the value from a normal population corresponding to a
given proportion
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SAMPLING DISTRIBUTIONS AND

THE CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM
Section 7.3
Objectives
1. Construct the sampling distribution of a sample mean
2. Use the Central Limit Theorem to compute probabilities involving
sample means
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OBJECTIVE 1
Construct the sampling distribution of a sample
mean
Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

In real situations, statistical studies involve sampling several individuals
then computing numerical summaries of the samples. Most often the
sample mean, 𝑥, is computed.
If several samples are drawn from a population, they are likely to have
different values for 𝑥. Because the value of 𝑥 varies each time a
sample is drawn, 𝒙 is a random variable. For each value of the
random variable, 𝑥, we can compute a probability. The probability
distribution of 𝑥 is called the sampling distribution of 𝑥.
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An Example of a Sampling Distribution

Tetrahedral dice are shaped like a pyramid with four faces. Each face corresponds to a
number between 1 and 4. Tossing a tetrahedral die is like sampling a value from the
population 1, 2, 3, 4 . We can easily find the population mean, 𝜇 = 2.5, and the population
standard deviation 𝜎 = 1.118.
If a tetrahedral die is tossed three

times, the sequence of three
numbers observed is a sample of
size 3 drawn with replacement.
The table displays all possible
samples of size 3 and their
sample mean 𝑥.
The mean of all of values of 𝑥

is 𝜇𝑥 = 2.5 and the standard
deviation of all values of 𝑥 is
𝜎𝑥 = 0.6455. Next, we compare
these values to the population
mean (2.5) and population
standard deviation (1.118).
Mean and Standard Deviation of a Sampling Distribution

In the previous table, the mean of the sampling distribution is 𝜇𝑥 = 2.5, which is
the same as the mean of the population, 𝜇 = 2.5. This relation always holds.
The mean of the sampling distribution is denoted by 𝝁𝒙 and equals the

mean of the population:
𝝁𝒙 = 𝝁
The standard deviation of the sampling distribution is 𝜎𝑥 = 0.6455, which is less

than the population standard deviation 𝜎 = 1.118. It is not immediately obvious
1.118
how these two quantities are related. Note, however, that 𝜎𝑥 = 0.6455 = 3
𝜎 𝜎
= 3
. Recall that the sample size is 𝑛 = 3, which suggests that 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑛
.
The standard deviation of the sampling distribution, sometimes called

the standard error, is denoted by 𝝈𝒙 and equals the standard deviation
of the population divided by the square root of the sample size:
𝝈
𝝈𝒙 =
𝒏
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Example – Sampling Distribution

Among students at a certain college, the mean number
of hours of television watched per week is 𝜇 = 10.5, and
the standard deviation is 𝜎 = 3.6. A simple random
sample of 16 students is chosen for a study of viewing
habits. Let 𝑥 be the mean number of hours of TV
watched by the sampled students. Find the mean 𝜇𝑥
and the standard deviation 𝜎𝑥 of 𝑥 .
Solution:
The mean of 𝑥 is:
𝜇𝑥 = 𝜇 = 10.5
The sample size is 𝑛 = 16. Therefore, the standard deviation of 𝑥 is:

𝜎 3.6
𝜎𝑥 = = = 0.9
𝑛 16
Sampling Distribution for Sample of Size 3

Consider again the tetrahedral die example. The sampling distribution for 𝑥 can be
determined from the table of all possible values of 𝑥 for a sample of size 3. The probability
1
that the sample mean is 1.00 is , or 0.015625, because out of the 64 possible samples, only
64
3
1 has a sample mean equal to 1.00. Similarly, the probability that 𝑥 =1.33 is , or 0.046875,
64
because there are 3 samples whose sample mean is 1.33. The probability distribution is:
𝑥 𝑃(𝑥)
1.00 0.015625
1.33 0.046875
1.67 0.093750
2.00 0.156250
2.33 0.187500
2.67 0.187500
3.00 0.156250
3.33 0.093750
3.67 0.046875
4.00 0.015625
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Probability Histogram for a Sampling Distribution

In the tetrahedral die example, the population
is 1, 2, 3, 4 . When a die is rolled, each number has the
1
same chance of appearing, or 0.25.
4
The probability histogram for the sampling distribution of

𝑥 with sample size 3 is obtained from the sampling
distribution on the previous slide.
The probability histogram for the sampling distribution

looks a lot like the normal curve, whereas the probability
histogram for the population does not.
Remarkably, it is true that, for any population, if the sample size is large enough, the sample
mean 𝑥 will be approximately normally distributed. For a symmetric population like the
tetrahedral die population, the sample mean is approximately normally distributed even for a
small sample size like 𝑛 = 3.
Sampling Distribution of a Skewed Population

If a population is skewed, a larger
sample size is necessary for the
sampling distribution of 𝑥 to be
approximately normal. Consider the
following probability distribution.
Below are the probability histograms for the sampling distribution of 𝑥 for samples of size
3, 10, and 30. Note that the shapes of the distributions begin to approximate a normal
curve as the sample size increases.
The size of the sample needed to obtain approximate normality depends mostly on the
skewness of the population. In practice, a sample of size 𝑛 > 30 is large enough.
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The Central Limit Theorem

The remarkable fact that the sampling distribution of 𝑥 is approximately normal
for a large sample from any distribution is part of one of the most used
theorems in Statistics, the Central Limit Theorem.
The Central Limit Theorem
Let 𝑥 be the mean of a large (𝑛 > 30) simple random sample from a population
with mean 𝜇 and standard deviation 𝜎. Then 𝑥 has an approximately normal
𝜎
distribution, with mean 𝜇𝑥 = 𝜇 and standard deviation 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑛 .
The Central Limit Theorem applies for all populations. However, for symmetric
populations, a smaller sample size may suffice. If the population itself is
normal, the sample mean 𝒙 will be normal for any sample size.
Examples – The Central Limit Theorem

Example 1:
A sample of size 45 will be drawn from a population with mean 𝜇 = 15 and standard deviation
𝜎 = 3.5. Is it appropriate to use the normal distribution to find probabilities for 𝑥?
Solution:
Yes, by The Central Limit Theorem, since 𝑛 > 30, 𝑥 has an approximately normal distribution.
Example 2:
A sample of size 8 will be drawn from a normal population with mean 𝜇 = –60 and standard
deviation 𝜎 = 5. Is it appropriate to use the normal distribution to find probabilities for 𝑥?
Solution:
Yes, since the population itself is approximately normal, 𝑥 has an approximately normal
distribution.
Example 3:
A sample of size 24 will be drawn from a population with mean 𝜇 = 35 and standard deviation
𝜎 = 1.2. Is it appropriate to use the normal distribution to find probabilities for 𝑥?
Solution:
No, since the population is not known to be normal and 𝑛 is not greater than 30, we cannot be
certain that 𝑥 has an approximately normal distribution.
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OBJECTIVE 2
Use the Central Limit Theorem to compute
probabilities involving sample means
Example 1 – Using the Central Limit Theorem

Based on data from the U.S. Census, the mean age of college students in 2011
was 𝜇 = 25 years, with a standard deviation of 𝜎 = 9.5 years. A simple random
sample of 125 students is drawn. What is the probability that the sample mean
age of the students is greater than 26 years?
Solution:
The sample size is 125, which is greater than 30.
Therefore, we may use the normal curve.
We compute 𝜇𝑥 and 𝜎𝑥
𝜎 9.5
𝜇𝑥 = 𝜇 = 25 and 𝜎𝑥 = = = 0.85
𝑛 125
Find the area under the normal curve.
The probability that the sample mean age of the students is greater than 26
years is approximately 0.1197.
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Hereford cattle are one of the most popular breeds of cattle. Based on data
from the Hereford Cattle Society, the mean weight of a one-year-old Hereford
bull is 1135 pounds, with a standard deviation of 97 pounds. Would it be
unusual for the mean weight of 100 head of cattle to be less than 1100
pounds?
Solution:
The sample size is 100, which is greater than 30.
Therefore, we may use the normal curve.
We compute 𝜇𝑥 and 𝜎𝑥
𝜎 97
𝜇𝑥 = 𝜇 = 1135 and 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑛
= 100
= 9.7
This probability is less than 0.05, so it would be unusual for the sample mean to
be less than 1100.
You Should Know…

• How to construct the sampling distribution of a sample mean
• How to find the mean and standard deviation of a sampling
distribution of 𝑥
• The Central Limit Theorem
• How to use the Central Limit Theorem to compute probabilities
involving sample means
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THE CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM

FOR PROPORTIONS
Section 7.4
Objectives
1. Construct the sampling distribution for a sample proportion
2. Use the Central Limit Theorem to compute probabilities for sample
proportions
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OBJECTIVE 1
Construct the sampling distribution for a sample
proportion
Sample and Population Proportion

In a population, the proportion who have a certain characteristic is called the
population proportion. The population proportion is denoted by 𝑝.
In a simple random sample of 𝑛 individuals, let 𝑥 be the number in the sample

𝑥
who have the characteristic. The sample proportion is 𝑝 = 𝑛.
Example:
A computer retailer wants to estimate the proportion of people in her city who
own laptop computers. She cannot survey everyone in the city, so she draws a
sample of 100 people and surveys them. It turns out that 35 out of the 100
people in the sample own laptops.
35
• The sample proportion is 𝑝 = .
100
• The proportion of people in the entire city who own laptops is the population
proportion, 𝑝.
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Sampling Distribution of 𝑝
If several samples are drawn from a population, they are likely to have
different values for 𝑝. Because the value of 𝑝 varies each time a sample
is drawn, 𝒑 is a random variable, and it has a probability distribution.
The probability distribution of 𝑝 is called the sampling distribution of 𝑝.
An Example of a Sampling Distribution

Consider tossing a fair coin five times. This produces a sample of size 𝑛 = 5, where each
item in the sample is either a head or a tail. The proportion of times the coin lands on heads
is the sample proportion 𝑝. The probability that it lands heads each time is 0.5. Therefore,
the population proportion of heads is 𝑝 = 0.5. All 32 possible samples are presented below.
Sample 𝑝 Sample 𝑝 Sample 𝑝

The table displays all possible
samples of size 5 and their sample TTTTT 0.0 THTHH 0.6 HTHHT 0.6
proportion 𝑝. TTTTH 0.2 THHTT 0.4 HTHHH 0.8
TTTHT 0.2 THHTH 0.6 HHTTT 0.4
The mean of all of values of 𝑝 is TTTHH 0.4 THHHT 0.6 HHTTH 0.6
𝜇𝑝 = 0.5 and the standard deviation TTHTT 0.2 THHHH 0.8 HHTHT 0.6
of all values of 𝑝 is 𝜎𝑝 = 0.2236. TTHTH 0.4 HTTTT 0.2 HHTHH 0.8
Next, we compare these values to TTHHT 0.4 HTTTH 0.4 HHHTT 0.6
the population proportion (0.5) and TTHHH 0.6 HTTHT 0.4 HHHTH 0.8
the sample size (5). THTTT 0.2 HTTHH 0.6 HHHHT 0.8
THTTH 0.4 HTHTT 0.4 HHHHH 1.0
THTHT 0.4 HTHTH 0.6
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Mean and Standard Deviation of a Sampling Distribution

In the previous table, the mean of the sampling distribution is 𝜇𝑝 = 0.5, which is
the same as the population proportion, 𝑝 = 0.5. This relation always holds.
The mean of the sampling distribution of 𝒑 is denoted by 𝝁𝒑 and equals

the population proportion:
𝝁𝒑 = 𝒑
The standard deviation of the sampling distribution is 𝜎𝑝 = 0.2236. It is not

immediately obvious how this is related to the population proportion 𝑝 and the
0.5 1−0.5 𝑝 1−𝑝
sample size 𝑛. Note, however, that 𝜎𝑝 = 0.2236 = 5
= 𝑛
The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of 𝒑 is denoted by

𝝈𝒑, is:
𝒑 𝟏−𝒑
𝝈𝒑 =
𝒏
Example – Sampling Distribution

The soft-drink cups at a certain fast-food restaurant have tickets attached to
them. Customers peel off the tickets to see whether they win a prize. The
proportion of tickets that are winners is 𝑝 = 0.25. A total of 𝑛 = 70 people
purchase soft drinks between noon and 1:00 PM on a certain day. Let 𝑝 be the
proportion that win a prize. Find the mean and standard deviation of 𝑝.
Solution:
The population proportion is 𝑝 = 0.25 and the sample size is 𝑛 = 70.
The mean of 𝑝 is:

𝜇𝑝 = 𝑝 = 0.25
The standard deviation of 𝑝 is:
𝑝 1−𝑝 0.25 1−0.25
𝜎𝑝 = = = 0.0518.
𝑛 70
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Probability Histogram for a Sampling Distribution of 𝑝

The probability histogram for the sampling distribution
of 𝑝 for the proportion of heads in five tosses of a fair
coin is presented. We can see that the distribution is
reasonably well approximated by a normal curve.
The experiment is conducted again but with 50 tosses

of a fair coin. As we increased the number of tosses,
the sampling distribution of 𝑝 is more closely
approximated by a normal curve.
When 𝑝 = 0.5, the sampling distribution of 𝑝 is somewhat close to normal even for
a small sample size like 𝑛 = 5. When 𝑝 is close to 0 or close to 1, a larger sample
size is needed before the distribution of 𝑝 is close to normal.
A common rule of thumb is that the distribution may be approximated with a

normal curve whenever 𝒏𝒑 and 𝒏(𝟏 − 𝒑) are both at least 10.
The Central Limit Theorem for Proportions

The Central Limit Theorem for Proportions
Let 𝒑 be the sample proportion for a sample of size 𝒏 from a population

with population proportion 𝒑. If 𝒏𝒑 ≥ 𝟏𝟎 and 𝒏 𝟏 − 𝒑 ≥ 𝟏𝟎, then the
distribution of 𝒑 is approximately normal, with mean 𝝁𝒑 = 𝒑 and
𝒑 𝟏−𝒑
standard deviation 𝝈𝒑 = 𝒏
.
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Examples – The Central Limit Theorem

Example 1:
A sample of size 20 is drawn from a population with population proportion 𝑝 = 0.7.
Is it appropriate to use the normal distribution to find probabilities for 𝑝?
Solution:
No. 𝑛𝑝 = 20 0.7 = 14 and 𝑛 1 − 𝑝 = 20 0.3 = 6. Since 𝑛(1 − 𝑝) is not at least
10, we cannot be certain that the distribution of 𝑝 is approximately normal.
Example 2:
A sample of size 55 is drawn from a population with population proportion 𝑝 = 0.8.
Is it appropriate to use the normal distribution to find probabilities for 𝑝?
Solution:
Yes, since 𝑛𝑝 = 55 0.8 = 44 and 𝑛 1 − 𝑝 = 55 0.2 = 11 are both at least 10,
the distribution of 𝑝 is approximately normal.
OBJECTIVE 2
Use the Central Limit Theorem to compute
probabilities for sample proportions
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According to a Harris poll taken in September 2013, chocolate is the favorite ice
cream flavor for 27% of Americans. If a sample of 100 Americans is taken, what is
the probability that the sample proportion of those who prefer chocolate is greater
than 0.30?
Solution:
We first check the assumptions. 𝑛𝑝 = 100(0.27)
= 27 ≥ 10 and 𝑛 1 − 𝑝 = 100 1 − 0.27 = 73 ≥ 10.
We may use the normal curve.
We compute 𝜇𝑝 and 𝜎𝑝
𝑝 1−𝑝 0.27 1−0.27
𝜇𝑝 = 𝑝 = 0.27 and 𝜎𝑝 = = = 0.044396
𝑛 100
The probability that the sample proportion of those who prefer chocolate is greater
than 0.30 is 0.2496. [Answer using tables is 0.2483]

In the 2012 U.S. presidential election, 51% of voters voted for Barack Obama. If a
sample of 75 voters were polled, would it be unusual if less than 40% of them had
voted for Barack Obama?
Solution:
We first check the assumptions. 𝑛𝑝 = 75(0.51)
= 38.25 ≥ 10 and 𝑛 1 − 𝑝 = 75 1 − 0.51 = 36.75
≥ 10. We may use the normal curve.
We compute 𝜇𝑝 and 𝜎𝑝
𝑝 1−𝑝 0.51 1−0.51
𝜇𝑝 = 𝑝 = 0.51 and 𝜎𝑝 = = = 0.057723
𝑛 75
The probability that the sample proportion of those who voted for Barack Obama is
less than 0.40 is 0.0283. It would be unusual for the sample proportion to be less
than 0.40. [Answer using tables is 0.0281]
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You Should Know…

• The notation for sample and population proportions
• How to construct the sampling distribution for a sample proportion
• How to find the mean and standard deviation of the sampling
distribution of 𝑝
• How to use the Central Limit Theorem for Proportions to compute
probabilities for sample proportions
THE NORMAL APPROXIMATION TO

THE BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
Section 7.5
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Objectives
1. Use the normal curve to approximate binomial probabilities
OBJECTIVE 1
Use the normal curve to approximate binomial
probabilities
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Binomial Random Variable

A binomial random variable represents the number of successes in a
series of independent trials. The sample proportion is found by dividing
the number of successes by the number of trials. Since the sample
proportion is approximately normally distributed whenever 𝑛𝑝 ≥ 10
and 𝑛(1 − 𝑝) ≥ 10, the number of successes is also approximately
normally distributed under these conditions. Therefore, the normal
curve can also be used to compute approximate probabilities for the
binomial distribution.
Recall that if 𝑋 is a binomial random variable with 𝑛 trials and success

probability 𝑝. Then
• The mean of 𝑋 is 𝜇𝑥 = 𝑛𝑝
• The variance of 𝑋 is 𝜎𝑥2 = 𝑛𝑝 1 − 𝑝
• The standard deviation of 𝑋 is 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
Normal Approximation
Binomial probabilities can be computed exactly using the techniques
described earlier. If the number of trials is large, using these methods by hand
is extremely difficult because many terms have to be calculated and added
together. If the following conditions are met, binomial probabilities can be
approximated using a normal distribution.
Let 𝑋 be a binomial random variable with 𝑛 trials and success probability 𝑝.

If 𝑛𝑝 ≥ 10 and 𝑛(1 − 𝑝) ≥ 10, then 𝑋 is approximately normal with mean
𝜇𝑥 = 𝑛𝑝 and standard deviation 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝).
The binomial distribution is discrete, whereas the normal distribution is

continuous. The continuity correction is an adjustment, made when
approximating a discrete distribution with a continuous one, which can improve
the accuracy of the approximation.
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Continuity Correction
Suppose a fair coin is tossed 100 times, let 𝑋 represent the number of heads
that result. Then 𝑋 has a binomial distribution with 𝑛 = 100 trials and success
probability 𝑝 = 0.5. If we wanted to compute the probability 𝑋 is between 45
and 55 [ i.e. 𝑃(45 < 𝑋 < 55) ], the probability will differ depending on whether
the endpoints 45 and 55 are included.
To compute 𝑃(45 < 𝑋 < 55), the areas of the

rectangles corresponding to 45 and to 55
should be excluded. To approximate this
probability with the normal curve, compute the
area under the curve between 45.5 and 54.5.
To compute 𝑃(45 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 55), the areas of the

rectangles corresponding to 45 and to 55
should be included. To approximate this
probability with the normal curve, compute the
area under the curve between 44.5 and 55.5.
Example – Normal Approximation

Let 𝑋 be the number of heads that appear when a fair coin is tossed 100 times. Use the
normal curve to find 𝑃(45 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 55).
Solution:
The number of trials is 𝑛 = 100. Since the coin is fair, the success probability is 𝑝 = 0.5.
Therefore, 𝑛𝑝 = (100)(0.5) = 50 ≥ 10 and 𝑛(1 − 𝑝) = (100)(1 − 0.5) = 50 ≥ 10.
We may use the normal approximation.
We compute the mean and standard deviation of 𝑋:

𝜇𝑥 = 𝑛𝑝 = 100 0.5 = 50
𝜎𝑥 = 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝) = (100)(0.5)(1 − 0.5) = 5
Because the probability is 𝑃(45 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 55), we want to include

both 45 and 55. Therefore, we set the left endpoint to 44.5
and the right endpoint to 55.5.
We use tables or technology to find that the probability is 0.7287.
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Example – Continuity Correction

A fair coin is tossed 100 times. Let 𝑋 be the number of heads that
appear.
To approximate 𝑃(𝑋 ≤ 55), we would find the

area to the left of 55.5.
To approximate 𝑃(𝑋 ≥ 55), we would find the

area to the right of 54.5.
To approximate 𝑃(𝑋 = 55), we would find the

area between 54.5 and 55.5.
Areas to Use When the Continuity Correction is Applied
𝑷(𝒂 ≤ 𝑿 ≤ 𝒃) 𝑷(𝑿 ≤ 𝒃)
𝑎 − 0.5 𝑏 + 0.5 𝑏 + 0.5

Find the area between 𝑎 − 0.5 and 𝑏 + 0.5 Find the area to the left of 𝑏 + 0.5
𝑷(𝑿 ≥ 𝒂) 𝑷(𝑿 = 𝒂)
𝑎 − 0.5 𝑎 − 0.5 𝑎 + 0.5

Find the area to the right of 𝑎 − 0.5 Find the area between 𝑎 − 0.5 and 𝑎 + 0.5
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Example – Normal Approximation

The Statistical Abstract of the United States reported that 66% of students who graduated
from high school in 2012 enrolled in college. One hundred high school graduates are
sampled. Let 𝑋 be the number who enrolled in college. Find 𝑃(𝑋 ≤ 75).
Solution:
The number of trials is 𝑛 = 100 and the success probability is 𝑝 = 0.66. Therefore, 𝑛𝑝
= (100)(0.66) = 66 ≥ 10 and 𝑛 1 − 𝑝 = (100)(1 − 0.66) = 34 ≥ 10. We may use the
normal approximation.
We compute the mean and standard deviation of 𝑋:

𝜇𝑥 = 𝑛𝑝 = 100 0.66 = 66
𝜎𝑥 = 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝) = (100)(0.66)(1 − 0.66) = 4.73709
Because the probability is 𝑃(𝑋 ≤ 75), we compute the area

to the left of 75.5.
We use technology to find that the probability is 0.9775.

[The answer using a table is 0.9778]
You Should Know…

• How to apply the continuity correction
• How to use the normal curve to approximate binomial probabilities
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ASSESSING NORMALITY
Section 7.6
Objectives
1. Use dotplots to assess normality
2. Use boxplots to assess normality
3. Use histograms to assess normality
4. Use stem-and-leaf plots to assess normality
5. Use normal quantile plots to assess normality
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OBJECTIVE 1
Use dotplots to assess normality
Assessing Normality
Many statistical procedures require that we draw a sample from a
population whose distribution is approximately normal. Often we don’t
know whether the population is approximately normal when we draw
the sample. So the only way we have to assess whether the population
is approximately normal is to examine the sample.
There are three important ideas to remember when assessing

normality:
1. We are not trying to determine whether the population is exactly
normal.
2. Assessing normality is more important for small samples than
for large samples.
3. Hard and fast rules do not work well.
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Assessing Normality
We will reject the assumption that a population is approximately normal
if a sample has any of the following features:
1. The sample contains an outlier.
2. The sample exhibits a large degree of skewness.
3. The sample has more than one distinct mode.
If the sample has none of the preceding features, we will treat the
population as being approximately normal.
We often use plots to help assess normality.
Example
The accuracy of an oven thermostat is being tested. The oven is set to 360
degrees (F), and the temperature when the thermostat turns off is recorded. A
sample of size 7 yields the following results:
358 363 361 355 367 352 368
Is it reasonable to treat this as a sample from an approximately normal
population? Explain.
Solution:
The dotplot does not reveal any outliers.
The plot does not exhibit a large degree of skewness, and there is no evidence
that the population has more than one mode. Therefore, we can treat this as a
sample from an approximately normal population.
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Example
At a recent health fair, several hundred people had their pulse rates measured.
A simple random sample of six records was drawn, and the pulse rates, in
beats per minute, were
68 71 79 98 67 75
Solution:
Using the dotplot, it is clear that the value 98 is an outlier. Therefore, we
should not treat this as a sample from an approximately normal population.
OBJECTIVE 2
Use boxplots to assess normality
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Example
An insurance adjuster obtains a sample of 20 estimates, in hundreds of dollars,
for repairs to cars damaged in collisions. Following are the data.
12.1 15.7 14.2 4.6 8.2 11.6 12.9 11.2 14.9 13.7
6.6 7. 2 12.6 9.0 11.9 7.8 9.0 16.2 16.5 12.1
Solution:
A boxplot reveals that there are no outliers. Although the median is not exactly
halfway between the quartiles, the skewness is not great. Therefore, we may
treat this as a sample from an approximately normal population.
Example
A recycler determines the amount of recycled newspaper, in cubic feet, collected each
week. Following are the results for a sample of 18 weeks.
2129 2853 2530 2054 2075 2011 2162 2285 2668
3194 4834 2469 2380 2567 4117 2337 3179 3157
Is it reasonable to treat this as a sample from an approximately normal population?
Explain.
Solution:
A boxplot reveals that the value 4834 is an outlier. In addition, the upper whisker is much
longer than the lower one, which indicates fairly strong skewness. Therefore, we should not
treat this as a sample from an approximately normal population.
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OBJECTIVE 3
Use histograms to assess normality
Example
Diameters were measured, in millimeters, for a simple random sample of 20
grade A eggs from a certain farm. The results were
59 60 60 56 59 56 62 58 60 59
61 59 61 61 63 60 56 58 63 58
Solution:
The relative histogram does not reveal
any outliers, nor does it exhibit a large
degree of skewness. There is no evidence
that the population has more than one mode.
Therefore, we can treat this as a sample from
an approximately normal population.
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Example
A shoe manufacturer is testing a new type of leather sole. A simple random
sample of 22 people wore shoes with the new sole for a period of four months.
The amount of wear on the right shoe was measured for each person. The
results, in thousandths of an inch, were
24.1 2.2 11.8 2.7 4.1 13.9 33.6 2.4 36.2 16.8 5.4
4.6 4.5 4.1 6.1 6.3 22.6 29.1 12.2 4.6 15.8 7.7
Solution:
The relative frequency histogram reveals
that the sample is strongly skewed to the
right. We should not treat this as a sample
from an approximately normal population.
OBJECTIVE 4
Use stem-and-leaf plots to assess normality
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Example
A psychologist measures the time it takes for each of 20 rats to run a maze.
The times, in seconds, are
54 48 49 54 63 54 66
32 45 52 41 37 56 56
52 53 41 45 48 43
Construct a stem-and-leaf plot for these data. Is it reasonable to treat this as a
random sample from an approximately normal population?
Solution:
The stem-and-leaf plot reveals no outliers, strong skewness,
or multimodality. We may treat this as a sample from an
approximately normal population.
OBJECTIVE 5
Use normal quantile plots to assess normality
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Normal Quantile Plots

Normal quantile plots are somewhat more complex than dotplots, histograms, and stem-
and-leaf plots. The following example illustrates how to construct a normal quantile plot.
A simple random sample of size 𝑛 = 5 is drawn, and we want to determine whether the
population it came from is approximately normal. The five sample values, in increasing
order, are 3.0 3.3 4.8 5.9 7.8.
Step 1: Let 𝑛 be the number of values in the data set. Spread the 𝑛 values evenly over
1
the interval from 0 to 1. This is done by assigning the value to the first sample
2𝑛
3
value, to the second, and so forth. The last sample value will be assigned the
2𝑛
2𝑛−1
value . These values, denoted 𝑎𝑖 , represent areas under the normal curve.
2𝑛
For 𝑛 = 5, the values are 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9.
𝑖 1 2 3 4 5
𝑥𝑖 3.0 3.3 4.8 5.9 7.8
𝑎𝑖 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
Normal Quantile Plots

Step 2: The values assigned in Step 1 represent left-tail areas under the normal curve.
We now find the 𝑧-scores corresponding to each of these areas. The results are
shown in the following table.
𝑖 1 2 3 4 5
𝑥𝑖 3.0 3.3 4.8 5.9 7.8
𝑎𝑖 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
𝑧𝑖 –1.28 –0.52 0.00 0.52 1.28
Step 3: Plot the points (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑧𝑖 ). If the points approximately

follow a straight line, then the population may be
treated as being approximately normal. If the
points deviate substantially from a straight line,
the population should not be treated as normal.
In this example, the points do approximately
follow a straight line, so we may treat this
population as approximately normal.
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TI-84 PLUS Procedure for Quantile Plots

The steps for constructing a normal quantile plot on the TI-84 PLUS Calculator
are:
Step 1: Enter the data into L1 in the data editor.
Step 2: Press 2nd, Y= to access the STAT PLOTS menu

and select Plot1 by pressing 1.
Step 3: Select On and the normal quantile plot icon.
Step 4: For Data List, select L1, and for Data Axis,
choose the X option.
Step 5: Press ZOOM and then 9: ZoomStat.
Example – Normal Quantile Plots

A placement exam is given to each entering freshman at a large university. A
simple random sample of 20 exam scores is drawn, with the following results.
61 60 60 68 63 63 94
66 65 98 61 71 74 63
66 61 61 65 72 85
Construct a normal probability plot using technology. Is the distribution of exam
scores approximately normal?
Solution:
The points on a quantile plot do not
closely follow a straight line. The
distribution is not approximately normal.
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You Should Know…

• The conditions for rejecting the assumption that a population is
approximately normal
• How to use dotplots to assess normality
• How to use boxplots to assess normality
• How to use histograms to assess normality
• How to use stem-and-leaf plots to assess normality
• How to use quantile plots to assess normality
Chapter 8
Confidence Intervals
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CONFIDENCE INTERVALS FOR A

POPULATION MEAN, 𝜎 KNOWN
Section 8.1
Objectives
1. Construct and interpret confidence intervals for a population mean
when the population standard deviation is known
2. Find critical values for confidence intervals
3. Describe the relationship between the confidence level and the
margin of error
4. Find the sample size necessary to obtain a confidence interval of a
given width
5. Distinguish between confidence and probability
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OBJECTIVE 1
Construct and interpret confidence intervals for a
population mean when the population standard
deviation is known
Point Estimate and Margin of Error

A simple random sample of 100 fourth-graders is selected to
take part in a new experimental approach to teach reading.
At the end of the program, the students are given a
standardized reading test. On the basis of past results, it is
known that scores on this test have a population standard
deviation of 𝜎 = 15.
The sample mean score for the 100 students was 𝑥 = 67.30. The administrators want to
estimate what the mean score would be if the entire population of fourth-graders in the
district had enrolled in the program. The best estimate for the population mean is the
sample mean, 𝑥 = 67.30. The sample mean is a point estimate, because it is a single
number.
It is very unlikely that 𝑥 = 67.30 is exactly equal to the population mean, 𝜇, of all fourth-
graders. Therefore, in order for the estimate to be useful, we must describe how close it
is likely to be. For example, if we think that it could be off by 10 points, we would estimate
𝜇 with the interval 57.30 < 𝜇 < 77.30, which could be written 67.30 ± 10. The plus-or-
minus number is called the margin of error.
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95% Confidence Interval

We need to determine how large to make the margin of error so that the Remember:
interval is likely to contain the population mean. To do this, we use the 𝑥 = 67.30
sampling distribution of 𝑥 . Because the sample size is large (𝑛 > 30), 𝜎 = 15
the Central Limit Theorem tells us that the sampling distribution of 𝑥 is 𝑛 = 100
𝜎
approximately normal with mean 𝜇 and standard error .
𝑛
𝝈 𝟏𝟓
For the teaching reading example, the standard error is = = 𝟏. 𝟓.
𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟎
We now construct a 95% confidence interval for 𝜇. Begin with

a normal curve and find the 𝑧-scores that bound the middle
95% of the area under the curve. The 𝑧-scores are 1.96 and
–1.96. The value 1.96 is called the critical value. To obtain
the margin of error, multiply the critical value by the standard error.
Margin of error = (Critical value)∙(Standard error) = (1.96)∙(1.5) = 2.94
A 95% confidence interval for 𝜇 is therefore
𝑥 − 2.94 < 𝜇 < 𝑥 + 2.94 We are 95% confident that the population
67.30 − 2.94 < 𝜇 < 67.30 + 2.94 mean is between 64.36 and 70.24.
64.36 < 𝜇 < 70.24
Confidence Level
Based on the sample of 100 fourth-graders
using the new approach to teaching reading, a
95% confidence interval for the mean score
was constructed.
95% is the confidence level for the confidence

interval. The confidence level measures the
success rate of the method used to construct
the confidence interval.
If we were to draw many samples and use each

one to construct a confidence interval, then in
the long run, the percentage of confidence
intervals that cover the true value of 𝜇 would be 95% of confidence
intervals would cover the
equal to the confidence interval. true value of the mean
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Terminology
A point estimate is a single number that is used to estimate the value
of an unknown parameter.
A confidence interval is an interval that is used to estimate the value

of a parameter.
The confidence level is a percentage between 0% and 100% that

measures the success rate of the method used to construct the
confidence interval.
The margin of error is computed by multiplying the critical value by the

standard error.
OBJECTIVE 2
Find critical values for confidence intervals
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Finding the Critical Value

Although 95% is the most commonly used confidence level, sometimes we will
want to construct a confidence interval with a different level. We can construct a
confidence interval with any confidence level between 0% and 100% by finding
the appropriate critical value for that level. The critical values for several common
confidence levels are given in the bottom row of Table A.3.
Example – Confidence Interval

𝜎
A large sample has mean 𝑥 = 7.1 and standard error = 2.3. Construct a 90%
𝑛
confidence interval for the population mean 𝜇.
Solution:
From the bottom row of Table A.3, we see
that the critical value for a 90% confidence
interval is 1.645, so the margin of error is
Margin of error = (Critical value)∙(Standard error) = (1.645) ∙ (2.3) = 3.8
A 90% confidence interval for 𝜇 is

𝑥 − 3.8 < 𝜇 < 𝑥 + 3.8
7.1 − 3.8 < 𝜇 < 7.1 + 3.8
3.3 < 𝜇 < 10.9
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𝑧𝛼 Notation
Sometimes, we may need to find a critical value for a confidence level not given
in Table A.3. To do this, it is useful to learn a notation for a 𝑧-score with a given
area to its right.
𝒛𝜶 Notation
• The notation 𝑧𝛼 refers to the 𝑧-score with an area of 𝛼 to its right.
• The notation 𝑧𝛼/2 refers to the 𝑧-score with an area of 𝛼/2 to its right.
If 1 − 𝛼 is the confidence level, then the critical

value is 𝑧𝛼/2 because the area under the standard
normal curve between −𝑧𝛼/2 and 𝑧𝛼/2 is 1 − 𝛼.
These 𝑧-scores can be found using Table A.2 or
technology.
Example – Critical Value

Find the critical value 𝑧𝛼/2 for a 92% confidence interval.
Solution:
The confidence level is 92%, so 1 − 𝛼 = 0.92.
It follows that 𝛼 = 0.08, or 𝛼 2 = 0.04. The
critical value is 𝑧0.04. Since the area to the
right of 𝑧0.04 is 0.04, the area to the left is
1 – 0.04 = 0.96.
Using Table A.2 or technology, we find the critical value to be 1.75.
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Assumptions
The method described for confidence interval requires us to assume that the
population standard deviation 𝜎 is known. In practice, 𝜎 is not known. We make
this assumption because it allows us to use the familiar normal distribution. We
will learn how to construct confidence intervals when 𝜎 is unknown in the next
section.
Other assumptions for the method described here for constructing confidence
intervals are:
Assumptions:
1. We have a simple random sample.
2. The sample size is large (𝑛 > 30), or the population is approximately

normal.
Example – Construct Confidence Interval

A machine that fills cereal boxes is supposed to put 20 ounces of cereal in each box. A
simple random sample of 6 boxes is found to contain a sample mean of 20.25 ounces of
cereal. It is known from past experience that the fill weights are normally distributed with
a standard deviation of 0.2 ounce. Construct a 90% confidence interval for the mean fill
weight.
Solution:
We first check the assumptions. The sample is a simple random sample and the
population is known to be normal. The assumptions are met.
The point estimate is the sample mean 𝑥 = 20.25.

The desired confidence level is 90%. By Table A.3, we find the critical value to be 𝑧𝛼/2
𝜎 0.2 𝜎
= 1.645. The standard error is = = 0.08165, so the margin of error is 𝑧𝛼/2 ∙
𝑛 6 𝑛
= 1.645 ∙ 0.08165 = 0.1343.
The 90% confidence interval is:
𝑥 − 0.1343 < 𝜇 < 𝑥 + 0.1343 We are 90% confident that the
20.25 − 0.1343 < 𝜇 < 20.25 + 0.1343 mean weight 𝜇 is between
20.12 < 𝜇 < 20.38 20.12 and 20.38.
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Confidence Intervals on the TI-84 PLUS

The Zinterval command constructs confidence
intervals when the population standard deviation 𝜎
is known. This command is accessed by pressing
STAT and highlighting the TESTS menu.
If the summary statistics are given the Stats

option should be selected for the input option.
If the raw sample data are given, the Data option

should be selected.
Example – Construct Confidence Interval (TI-84 PLUS)
A machine that fills cereal boxes is supposed to put 20 ounces of cereal in each box. A
simple random sample of 6 boxes is found to contain a sample mean of 20.25 ounces of
cereal. It is known from past experience that the fill weights are normally distributed with
a standard deviation of 0.2 ounce. Construct a 90% confidence interval for the mean fill
weight.
Solution:
We press STAT and highlight the TESTS menu and select
Zinterval.
Select Stats as the input option and enter 0.2 for the 𝜎 field,
20.25 for the 𝑥 field, 6 for the 𝑛 field, and 0.9 for the C-Level
field.
Select Calculate.
The confidence interval is (20.12, 20.38). We are 90%

confident that the mean weight 𝜇 is between 20.12 and 20.38.
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OBJECTIVE 3
Describe the relationship between the confidence
level and the margin of error
Confidence Versus Margin of Error

If we want to be more confident that our interval contains the true value, we must increase
the critical value, which increases the margin of error. There is a trade-off. We would rather
have a higher level of confidence than a lower level, but we would also rather have a smaller
margin of error than a larger one.
70% Confidence Level 95% Confidence Level 99.7% Confidence Level

Although the Margin of This represents a good They almost always
Error is smaller, they cover compromise between succeed in covering the
the population mean only reliability and margin of population mean, but their
70% of the time. error for many purposes. margin of error is large.
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Measuring the Success Rate of the Method

The diagram presents 100 different 95% confidence
intervals. When we construct a confidence interval with
level 95%, we are getting a look at one of these
confidence intervals.
We don’t get to see any of the other confidence intervals,

nor do we get to see the vertical line that indicates where
the true value 𝜇 is. We cannot be sure whether we got
one of the confidence intervals that covers 𝜇, or whether
we were unlucky enough to get one of the unsuccessful
ones.
What we do know is that our confidence interval was

constructed by a method that succeeds 95% of the time.
The confidence level describes the success rate of the 95% of confidence
intervals would cover the
method used to construct a confidence interval, not the true value of the mean
success of any particular interval.
OBJECTIVE 4
Find the sample size necessary to obtain a
confidence interval of a given width
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Sample Size
We can make the margin of error smaller if we are willing to reduce our
level of confidence, but we can also reduce the margin of error by
increasing the sample size.
𝜎
If we let 𝑚 represent the margin of error, then 𝑚 = 𝑧𝛼 2 · 𝑛
.
𝑧 ∙𝜎 2
Using algebra, we may rewrite this formula as 𝑛 = 𝛼𝑚2 which
represents the minimum sample size needed to achieve the desired
margin of error 𝑚.
If the value of 𝑛 given by the formula is not a whole number, round it up

to the nearest whole number. By rounding up we can be sure that the
margin of error is no greater than the desired value 𝑚.
Example
Scientists want to estimate the mean weight of mice after they have
been fed a special diet. From previous studies, it is known that the
weight is normally distributed with standard deviation 3 grams. How
many mice must be weighed so that a 95% confidence interval will have
a margin of error of 0.5 grams?
Solution:
Since we want a 95% confidence interval, we use 𝑧𝛼 2 = 1.96. We also
know 𝜎 = 3 and 𝑚 = 0.5. Therefore:
𝑧𝛼 2 ∙𝜎 2 1.96 ∙ 3 2
𝑛= 𝑚
= 0.5
= 138.30; round up to 139
We must weigh 139 mice in order to obtain a 95% confidence interval

with a margin of error of 0.5 grams
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OBJECTIVE 5
Distinguish between confidence and probability
Interpreting a Confidence Level

Suppose that a 90% confidence interval for the mean weight of cereal boxes
was computed to be 20.12 < 𝜇 < 20.38. It is tempting to say that the
probability is 90% that 𝜇 is between 20.12 and 20.38.
The term “probability” refers to random events, which can come out differently
when experiments are repeated. The numbers 20.12 and 20.38 are fixed, not
random. The population mean is also fixed, even if we do not know precisely
what value it is. The population mean weight is either between 20.12 and
20.38 or it is not. Therefore we say that we have 90% confidence that the
population mean is in this interval.
On the other hand, let’s say that we are discussing a method used to construct
a 90% confidence interval. The method will succeed in covering the population
mean 90% of the time, and fail the other 10% of the time. Therefore it is
correct to say that a method for constructing a 90% confidence interval has
probability 90% of covering the population mean.
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You Should Know…

• How to construct and interpret confidence intervals for a population
mean when the population standard deviation is known
• How to find critical values for confidence intervals
• How to describe the relationship between the confidence level and
the margin of error
• How to find the sample size necessary to obtain a confidence
interval of a given width
• The difference between confidence and probability

POPULATION MEAN, 𝜎 UNKNOWN
Section 8.2
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Objectives
1. Describe the properties of the Student’s 𝑡 distribution
2. Construct confidence intervals for a population mean when the
population standard deviation is unknown
OBJECTIVE 1
Describe the properties of the Student’s 𝑡
distribution
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Student’s 𝑡 Distribution
When constructing a confidence interval where we know the population standard deviation
𝜎
𝜎, the confidence interval is 𝑥 ± 𝑧𝛼/2 ∙ . The critical value is 𝑧𝛼/2 because the quantity
𝑛
𝑥 −𝜇
has a normal distribution.
𝜎 𝑛
It is rare that we would know the value of 𝜎 while needing to estimate the value of 𝜇. In
practice, it is more common that 𝜎 is unknown. When we don’t know the value of 𝜎, we
may replace it with the sample standard deviation 𝑠. However, we cannot then use 𝑧𝛼 2
𝑥 −𝜇
as the critical value, because the quantity does not have a normal distribution. The
𝑠 𝑛
distribution of this quantity is called the Student’s 𝒕 distribution.
There are actually many different Student’s 𝑡

distributions and they are distinguished by a
quantity called the degrees of freedom. When The number of degrees of
using the Student’s 𝑡 distribution to construct a freedom = 𝑛 − 1
confidence interval for a population mean, the
number of degrees of freedom is 1 less than
the sample size.
Student’s 𝑡 Distribution
Student’s 𝑡 distributions are symmetric and unimodal, just like the normal distribution.
However, they are more spread out. The reason is that 𝑠 is, on the average, a bit smaller
than 𝜎. Also, since 𝑠 is random, whereas 𝜎 is constant, replacing 𝜎 with 𝑠 increases the
spread. When the number of degrees of freedom is small, the tendency to be more spread
out is more pronounced. When the number of degrees of freedom is large, 𝑠 tends to be
close to 𝜎, so the 𝑡 distribution is very close to the normal distribution.
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The Critical Value 𝑡𝛼 2

To find the critical value for a confidence
interval, let 1 − 𝛼 be the confidence level.
The critical value is then 𝑡𝛼 2, because
the area under the Student’s t distribution
between −𝑡𝛼 2 and 𝑡𝛼 2 is 1 − 𝛼 .
The critical value 𝑡𝛼 2 can be found in Table A.3, in the row corresponding
to the number of degrees of freedom and the column corresponding to
the desired confidence level or by technology.
Example
A simple random sample of size 10 is drawn from a normal population. Find
the critical value 𝑡𝛼 2 for a 95% confidence interval.
Solution:
The sample size is 𝑛 = 10, so the number of degrees of freedom is 𝑛 – 1 = 9.
We consult Table A.3, looking in the row corresponding to 9 degrees of
freedom, and in the column with confidence level 95%. The critical value is
𝑡𝛼 2 = 2.262.
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Degrees of Freedom Not in the Table

If the desired number of degrees of freedom isn’t listed in Table A.3,
then
• If the desired number is less than 200, use the next smaller number
that is in the table.
• If the desired number is greater than 200, use the 𝑧-value found in
the last row of Table A.3, or use Table A.2.
Assumptions
The assumptions for constructing a confidence interval for 𝜇 when 𝜎 is unknown
are:
Assumptions:

normal.
When the sample size is small (𝑛 ≤ 30), we must check to determine whether the
sample comes from a population that is approximately normal. A simple method
is to draw a dotplots or boxplot of the sample. If there are no outliers, and if the
sample is not strongly skewed, then it is reasonable to assume the population is
approximately normal and it is appropriate to construct a confidence interval using
the Student’s 𝑡 distribution.
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OBJECTIVE 2
Construct confidence intervals for a population
mean when the population standard deviation is
unknown
(Tables)
Confidence Interval When 𝜎 is Unknown

If the assumptions are satisfied, the confidence interval for 𝜇 when 𝜎 is
unknown is found using the following steps:
Step 1: Compute the sample mean 𝑥 and sample standard deviation,
𝑠, if they are not given.
Step 2: Find the number of degrees of freedom 𝑛 – 1 and the critical

value 𝑡𝛼 2.
Step 3: Compute the standard error 𝑠 𝑛 and multiply it by the critical
𝑠
value to obtain the margin of error 𝑡𝛼 2 ∙ .
𝑛
𝑠
Step 4: Construct the confidence interval: 𝑥 ± 𝑡𝛼 2 ∙ 𝑛
.
Step 5: Interpret the result.
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Example 1 – Confidence Interval

A food chemist analyzed the calorie content for a popular type of chocolate cookie.
Following are the numbers of calories in a sample of eight cookies.
113, 114, 111, 116, 115, 120, 118, 116
Find a 98% confidence interval for the mean number of calories in this type of cookie.
Solution:
We check the assumptions. We have a simple random sample. Because the sample
size is small, the population must be approximately normal. A dotplot indicates that there
is no evidence of strong skewness and no outliers, therefore we may proceed.
Now, we find the sample mean and sample standard deviation. We have 𝑥 = 115.375
and 𝑠 = 2.8253.

Solution (continued): Remember:
The number of degrees of freedom is 𝑛 − 1 = 8 − 1 = 7. Using 𝑥 = 115.375
Table A.3, we find that the critical value corresponding to a level 𝜎 = 2.8253
of 98% is 𝑡𝛼/2 = 2.998. 𝑛=8
𝑠 2.853
The margin of error is: 𝑡𝛼/2 ∙ = 2.998 ∙ = 2.9947.
𝑛 8
𝑠
The 98% confidence interval is : 𝑥 ± 𝑡𝛼 2 ∙ = 115.375 ± 2.9947 or 112.4 < 𝜇 < 118.4.
𝑛
We are 98% confident that the mean number of calories per cookie is between 112.4 and
118.4.
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A sample of 123 people aged 18–22 reported the number of hours they spent on the
Internet in an average week. The sample mean was 8.20 hours, with a sample standard
deviation of 9.84 hours. Assume this is a simple random sample from the population of
people aged 18–22 in the U.S. Construct a 95% confidence interval for 𝜇, the population
mean number of hours per week spent on the Internet by people aged 18–22 in the U.S.
Solution:
We have a simple random sample and the sample size is large. We may proceed. Note
that 𝑥 = 8.20 and 𝑠 = 9.84.
The number of degrees of freedom is

𝑛 − 1 = 123 − 1 = 122. Since this value
does not appear in the table, we will use
the next smaller value in the table which
is 100. The critical value corresponding
to a level of 95% is 𝑡𝛼 2 = 1.984.

We compute the margin of error: 𝑥 = 8.20
𝑠 9.84 𝜎 = 9.84
𝑡𝛼/2 ∙ = 1.984 ∙ = 1.7603
𝑛 123 𝑛 = 123
𝑡𝛼/2 = 1.984
𝑠
The 96% confidence interval is : 𝑥 ± 𝑡𝛼 2 ∙ = 8.20 ± 1.7603 or 6.44 < 𝜇 < 9.96.
𝑛
We are 95% confident that the mean number of hours per week spent on the Internet by
people 18 – 22 years old is between 6.44 and 9.96.
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OBJECTIVE 2
Construct confidence intervals for a population
mean when the population standard deviation is
unknown
(TI-84 PLUS)

The Tinterval command constructs confidence
intervals when the population standard deviation 𝜎
is unknown. This command is accessed by
pressing STAT and highlighting the TESTS menu.


should be selected.
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A food chemist analyzed the calorie content for a popular type of chocolate cookie. Following
are the numbers of calories in a sample of eight cookies.
113, 114, 111, 116, 115, 120, 118, 116
Find a 98% confidence interval for the mean number of calories in this type of cookie.
Solution:
We check the assumptions. We have a simple random sample. Because the sample size is
small, the population must be approximately normal. A dotplot indicates that there is no
evidence of strong skewness and no outliers, therefore we may proceed.
We enter the data into list L1 in the data editor. Then we press STAT
and highlight the TESTS menu and select Tinterval.
Select Data as the input method and enter L1 in the List field, 1 in the
Freq field, and 0.98 for the C-Level field. Select Calculate.
The confidence interval is (112.4, 118.4). We are 98% confident that

the mean number of calories per cookie is between 112.4 and 118.4.

A sample of 123 people aged 18–22 reported the number of hours they spent on the Internet
in an average week. The sample mean was 8.20 hours, with a sample standard deviation of
9.84 hours. Assume this is a simple random sample from the population of people aged 18–
22 in the U.S. Construct a 95% confidence interval for 𝜇, the population mean number of
hours per week spent on the Internet by people aged 18–22 in the U.S.
Solution:
We press STAT and highlight the TESTS menu and select Tinterval.
Select Stats as the input method and enter 8.2 for the 𝑥 field, 9.84
for the 𝑠 field, 123 for the 𝑛 field, and 0.95 for the C-Level field.
Select Calculate.
The confidence interval is (6.4436, 9.9564).
We are 95% confident that the mean number of hours per week spent
on the Internet by people 18 – 22 years old is between 6.44 and 9.96.
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You Should Know…

• The properties of the Student’s 𝑡 distribution
• Why we must determine whether the sample comes from a
population that is approximately normal when the sample size is
small (𝑛 ≤ 30)
mean when the population standard deviation is unknown

POPULATION PROPORTION
Section 8.3
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Objectives
1. Construct a confidence interval for a population proportion
2. Find the sample size necessary to obtain a confidence interval of a
given width
3. Describe a method for constructing confidence intervals with small
samples
OBJECTIVE 1
Construct a confidence interval for a population
proportion
(Tables)
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Guitar Hero
The music organization Little Kids Rock
surveyed 517 music teachers, and 403 of them
said that video games like Guitar Hero and
Rock Band, in which players try to play music in
time with a video image, have a positive effect
on music education.
Assuming these teachers to be a random

sample of U.S. music teachers, we would like to
construct a confidence interval for the
proportion of music teachers who believe that
music video games have a positive effect on
music classrooms.
Notation
We use the following notation:
• 𝑝 is the population proportion of individuals who are in a specified
category.
• 𝑥 is the number of individuals in the sample who are in the
specified category.
• 𝑛 is the sample size.
• 𝑝 is the sample proportion of individuals who are in the specified
𝑥
category. 𝑝 is defined as 𝑝 = 𝑛 .
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Confidence Interval
To construct a confidence interval, we need a point estimate. The point estimate for the
population proportion 𝑝 is:
𝒙
Point estimate = 𝒑 =
𝒏
We also need the standard error of 𝑝. By the Central Limit Theorem for Proportions, we
have:
𝒑(𝟏−𝒑)
Standard error of 𝒑 =
𝒏
To compute the margin of error, we multiply the standard error by the critical value:
𝒑(𝟏−𝒑)
Margin of error = 𝒛𝜶/𝟐 ∙
𝒏
The confidence interval is:

Point estimate ± Margin of error
𝒑(𝟏−𝒑)
𝒑 ± 𝒛𝜶 𝟐 ∙
𝒏
or
𝒑 𝟏−𝒑 𝒑 𝟏−𝒑
𝒑 −𝒛𝜶 𝟐 ∙ < 𝒑 < 𝒑 + 𝒛𝜶 𝟐 ∙
𝒏 𝒏
Assumptions
The method for constructing a confidence interval for a population proportion
requires that the sampling distribution be approximately normal. The following
assumptions ensure this:
Assumptions:
2. The population is at least 20 times as large as the sample.
3. The items in the population are divided into two categories.
4. The sample must contain at least 10 individuals in each category.
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In a survey of 517 music teachers, 403 said that the video
games Guitar Hero and Rock Band have a positive effect
on music education. Construct a 95% confidence interval
for the proportion of music teachers who believe that these
video games have a positive effect.
Solution:
We begin by checking the assumptions. We have a simple
random sample. It is reasonable to believe that the
population of music teachers is at least 20 times as large as
the sample. The items in the population can be divided into
two categories. There are 403 teachers who believe that
the games have a positive effect, and 517 − 403 = 114 who
do not, so there are 10 or more items in each category. The
assumptions are met.
𝑥 403
Note that 𝑛 = 517 and 𝑥 = 403, so 𝑝 = = = 0.779497.
𝑛 517

According to Table A.3, the critical value corresponding to a 𝑝 = 0.779497
level of 95% is 𝑧𝛼/2 = 1.96. 𝑛 = 517
𝑝 1−𝑝 0.779497 1−0.0779497

The margin of error is: 𝑧𝛼 2 ∙ = 1.96 ∙ = 0.035738.
𝑛 517

𝑝 1−𝑝
𝑝 ± 𝑧𝛼 2 ∙ = 0.779497 ± 0.035738 or 0.744 < 𝑝 < 0.815
𝑛
We are 95% confident that the proportion of music teachers who believe that the video
games have a positive effect is between 0.744 and 0.815.
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OBJECTIVE 1
Construct a confidence interval for a population
proportion
(TI-84 PLUS)
Guitar Hero
The music organization Little Kids Rock
surveyed 517 music teachers, and 403 of them
said that video games like Guitar Hero and
Rock Band, in which 442 players try to play
music in time with a video image, have a
positive effect on music education.
Assuming these teachers to be a random

sample of U.S. music teachers, we would like to
construct a confidence interval for the
proportion of music teachers who believe that
music video games have a positive effect on
music classrooms.
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Notation
category.
specified category.
𝑥
Confidence Interval
To construct a confidence interval, we need a point estimate. The point estimate for the
population proportion 𝑝 is:
𝒙
Point estimate = 𝒑 =
𝒏
We also need the standard error of 𝑝. By the Central Limit Theorem for Proportions, we
have:
𝒑(𝟏−𝒑)
Standard error of 𝒑 =
𝒏
To compute the margin of error, we multiply the standard error by the critical value:
𝒑(𝟏−𝒑)
Margin of error = 𝒛𝜶/𝟐 ∙
𝒏
The confidence interval is:

Point estimate ± Margin of error
𝒑(𝟏−𝒑)
𝒑 ± 𝒛𝜶 𝟐 ∙
𝒏
or
𝒑 𝟏−𝒑 𝒑 𝟏−𝒑
𝒑 −𝒛𝜶 𝟐 ∙ < 𝒑 < 𝒑 + 𝒛𝜶 𝟐 ∙
𝒏 𝒏
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Assumptions
The method for constructing a confidence interval for a population proportion
Assumptions:
4. The sample must contain at least 10 individuals in each category.
The 1-PropZInt command constructs confidence

intervals for the population proportion. This
command is accessed by pressing STAT and
highlighting the TESTS menu.
Enter the values of 𝑥, 𝑛, and the confidence

level.
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In a survey of 517 music teachers, 403 said that the video
games Guitar Hero and Rock Band have a positive effect
on music education. Construct a 95% confidence interval
for the proportion of music teachers who believe that these
video games have a positive effect.
Solution:
We begin by checking the assumptions. We have a simple
random sample. It is reasonable to believe that the
population of music teachers is at least 20 times as large as
the sample. The items in the population can be divided into
two categories. There are 403 teachers who believe that
the games have a positive effect, and 517 − 403 = 114 who
do not, so there are 10 or more items in each category. The
assumptions are met.
Note that 𝑛 = 517 and 𝑥 = 403.

We press STAT and highlight the TESTS menu and

select 1-PropZInt.
Enter 403 in the 𝑥 field, 517 in the 𝑛 field, and 0.95

in the C-level field.
Select Calculate.
We are 95% confident that the proportion of music teachers who believe that the video
games have a positive effect is between 0.744 and 0.815.
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OBJECTIVE 2
Find the sample size necessary to obtain a
confidence interval of a given width
Reducing the Margin of Error

If we wish to make the margin of error of a confidence interval smaller while keeping the
confidence level the same, we can do this by making the sample size larger.
𝑝(1−𝑝)
Let 𝑚 represent the margin of error: 𝑚 = 𝑧𝛼 2 ∙ . By rewriting this formula and
𝑛
𝒛𝜶 𝟐 𝟐
solving for 𝑛, we have 𝒏 = 𝒑(𝟏 − 𝒑) . This is the minimum sample size needed to
𝒎
attain a margin of error of size 𝑚. If the value of 𝑛 is not a whole number, round up to the
nearest whole number.
In order to use this formula, we need a value for 𝑚 and 𝑝. We can set the value of 𝑚, but
we don’t know ahead of time what 𝑝 is going to be.
There are two ways to determine a value for 𝑝.

1. Use a value that is available from a previously drawn sample.
2. To assume that 𝑝 = 0.5, which makes the margin of error as large as possible for
𝑧𝛼 2 2
any sample size. In this case, the formula simplifies to 𝑛 = 0.25 .
𝑚
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Example 1 – Finding the Sample Size

In a survey of 517 music teachers, 403 said that the video games Guitar Hero
and Rock Band have a positive effect on music education. Estimate the sample
size needed so that a 95% confidence interval will have a margin of error of 0.03.
Solution:
From the bottom row of Table A.3, or by
technology, we see that the critical value for
a 95% confidence interval is 1.96.
𝑥 403
We compute 𝑝 = 𝑛 = 517 = 0.779497. The desired margin of error is 𝑚 = 0.03.
The necessary sample size is
𝑧𝛼 2 2
𝑛 = 𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
𝑚
1.96 2
= (0.779497)(1 − 0.779497) = 733.67
0.03
We round up to 734.
Example 2 – Finding the Sample Size

We plan to sample music teachers in order to construct a 95% confidence interval
for the proportion who believe that listening to hip-hop music has a positive effect
on music education. We have no value of 𝑝 available. Estimate the sample size
needed so that a 95% confidence interval will have a margin of error of 0.03.
Solution:
From the bottom row of Table A.3, or by
technology, we see that the critical value for
a 95% confidence interval is 1.96.
𝑧𝛼 2 2
Since we have no estimate of 𝑝, use the formula 𝑛 = 0.25 . The desired
𝑚
margin of error is 𝑚 = 0.03. The necessary sample size is
𝑧𝛼 2 2 1.96 2
𝑛 = 0.25 𝑚
= 0.25 0.03
= 1067.1
We round up to 1068.
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OBJECTIVE 3
Describe a method for constructing confidence
intervals with small samples
Adjusted Sample Proportion 𝑝

The method presented for constructing a confidence interval for a
proportion requires that we have at least 10 individuals in each
category. When this condition is not met, we can still construct a
confidence interval by adjusting the sample proportion a bit.
We increase the number of individuals in each category by 2, so that

the sample size increases by 4. Thus, instead of using the sample
𝑥
proportion 𝑝 = 𝑛, we use the adjusted sample proportion, 𝑝.
Adjusted sample proportion

𝒙+𝟐
𝒑=
𝒏+𝟒
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Standard error and Critical values

When using the small sample method, the standard error and critical value are
calculated in the same way as in the traditional method, except that we use the
adjusted sample proportion 𝑝 in place of 𝑝, and 𝑛 + 4 in place of 𝑛. The standard
𝑝(1−𝑝)
error becomes .
𝑛+4
Example:
In a random sample of 10 businesses in a certain city, 6 of them had more than 15
employees. Use the small-sample method to construct a 95% confidence interval
for the proportion of businesses in this city that have more than 15 employees.
Solution:
𝑥+2 6+2
The adjusted sample proportion is 𝑝 = = = 0.5714. The critical value is
𝑛+4 10+4
𝑧𝛼 2 = 1.96.
𝑝(1−𝑝) 𝑝(1−𝑝)
The confidence interval is 𝑝 – 𝑧𝛼 2 < 𝑝 < 𝑝 + 𝑧𝛼 2
𝑛+4 𝑛+4
0.5714 (1 − 0.5714) 0.5714 (1 − 0.5714)

0.5714 − 1.96 < 𝑝 < 0.5714 + 1.96
10 + 4 10 + 4
0.312 < 𝑝 < 0.831
Small-Sample Method: TI-84 PLUS

Because the only difference between the small-sample method and the
traditional method is the use of 𝑝 rather than 𝑝 , a software package or
calculator such as TI-84 PLUS can be made to produce a confidence
interval using the small-sample method. Simply input 𝑥 + 2 for the
number of individuals in the category of interest, and 𝑛 + 4 for the
sample size.
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Example (TI-84 PLUS)

In a random sample of 10 businesses in a certain city, 6 of them had
more than 15 employees. Use the small-sample method to construct a
95% confidence interval for the proportion of businesses in this city that
have more than 15 employees.
Solution:
select 1-PropZInt.
Enter 8 (which is 6+2) in the 𝑥 field, 14 (which is 10+4)

in the 𝑛 field, and 0.95 in the C-level field.
Select Calculate.
Advantages of the Small-Sample Method

The small-sample method can be used for any sample
size, and recent research has shown that it has two
advantages over the traditional method;
1. The margin of error is smaller, because we divide by
𝑛 + 4 rather than 𝑛.
2. The actual probability that the small-sample
confidence interval covers the true proportion is
almost always at least as great as, or greater than,
that of the traditional method.
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You Should Know…

proportion
• How to find the sample size necessary to obtain a given confidence
interval for a population proportion of a given width where:
• An estimate of 𝑝 exists
• No estimate of 𝑝 exists
• How to construct confidence intervals for a population proportion
with small samples
DETERMINING WHICH METHOD

TO USE
Section 8.5
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Objectives
1. Determine which method to use when constructing a confidence
interval
OBJECTIVE 1
Determine which method to use when
constructing a confidence interval
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Determine Which Method to Use

One of the challenges in constructing a confidence interval is to
determine which method to use. The first step is to determine which
type of parameter we are estimating.
There are three types of parameters for which we have learned to

construct confidence intervals:
• Population mean 𝜇
• Population proportion 𝑝
• Population standard deviation 𝜎 or variance 𝜎 2
Estimating the Population Mean 𝜇

If you are estimating the population mean 𝝁, there are two methods for
constructing a confidence interval: the 𝒛-method and the 𝒕 method. To
determine which method to use, we must determine whether the population
standard deviation is known, whether the population is approximately normal,
and whether the sample size is large (𝑛 > 30). The diagram below can help
you with the correct choice.
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You Should Know…

• How to determine which method to use when constructing a
confidence interval
Chapter 9
Hypothesis Testing
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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Section 9.1
Objectives
1. Define the null and alternate hypotheses
2. State conclusions to hypothesis tests
3. Distinguish between Type I and Type II errors
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OBJECTIVE 1
Define the null and alternate hypotheses
Null and Alternate Hypotheses

A study published in the Journal of the Air and Waste Management
Association reported that the mean amount of particulate matter (PM)
produced by cars and light trucks in an urban setting is 35 milligrams of
PM per mile of travel. Suppose that a new engine design is proposed
that is intended to reduce the amount of PM in the air. There are two
possible outcomes that could happen with the new engine design:
either the new design will reduce the level of PM, or it will not.
These possibilities are called hypotheses. One of the hypotheses is

called the null hypothesis and the other is called the alternate
hypothesis.
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Definition and Notation

The null hypothesis about a parameter states that the parameter is
equal to a specific value, 𝜇0. The null hypothesis is denoted 𝐻0.
The alternate hypothesis about a parameter states that the parameter
differs from the value specified by the null hypothesis, 𝜇0. The alternate
hypothesis is denoted 𝐻1. There are three possible alternate
hypotheses:
1. Left-tailed: States that the parameter is less than the value
specified by the null hypothesis, for example, 𝐻1: 𝜇 < 𝜇0
2. Right-tailed: States that the parameter is greater than value
specified by the null hypothesis, for example, 𝐻1: 𝜇 > 𝜇0
3. Two-tailed: States that the parameter is not equal to the value
specified by the null hypothesis, for example, 𝐻1: 𝜇 ≠ 𝜇0
Left-tailed and right-tailed hypotheses are called one-tailed
hypotheses.
Example 1 – Type of Test

Boxes of a certain kind of cereal are labeled as containing 20 ounces.
An inspector thinks that the mean weight may be less than this. State
the appropriate null and alternate hypotheses.
Solution:
The null hypothesis says that there is no difference, so 𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 20.
The inspector thinks that the mean weight may be less than 20, so
𝐻1: 𝜇 < 20.
This would be an example of a left-tailed test, because 𝐻1 : 𝜇 < 20.
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Last year, the mean monthly rent for an apartment in a certain city was
$800. A real estate agent believes that the mean rent is higher this
year. State the appropriate null and alternate hypotheses.
Solution:
The null hypothesis says that there is no change, so the null hypothesis
is 𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 800. The real estate agent wants to know whether the mean
is higher, so the alternate hypothesis is 𝐻1 : 𝜇 > 800.

Scores on a standardized test have a mean of 70. Some modifications
are made to the test, and an educator believes that the mean may have
changed. State the appropriate null and alternate hypotheses.
Solution:
The null hypothesis says that there is no change, so the null hypothesis
is 𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 70. The educator wants to know whether the mean has
changed, without specifying whether it has increased or decreased.
Therefore, the alternate hypothesis is 𝐻1 : 𝜇 ≠ 70.
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A Hypothesis Test is Like a Trial

The purpose of a hypothesis test is to determine how likely it is that the null hypothesis
is true.
The idea behind a hypothesis test is similar to a criminal trial. At Assume the Null
the beginning of a trial, the defendant is assumed to be innocent. Hypothesis is
Then the evidence is presented. If the evidence strongly indicates True
that the defendant is guilty, we abandon the assumption of
innocence and conclude the defendant is guilty. In a hypothesis
test, the null hypothesis is like the defendant in a criminal trial.
At the start of a hypothesis test, we assume that the null

Look at Evidence
hypothesis is true.
Then we look at the evidence, which comes from data that have
been collected.
If the data strongly indicate that the null hypothesis is false, we Decide Whether
abandon our assumption that it is true and believe the alternate to Reject the Null
hypothesis instead. This is referred to as rejecting the null Hypothesis
hypothesis.
OBJECTIVE 2
State conclusions to hypothesis tests
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Stating Conclusions
We may either reject the null hypothesis or fail to reject the null
hypothesis.
Null Hypothesis
Fail to H0: Null Hypothesis “might”
Reject H0 Accept thebe true
Alternate
Reject H0 H1: Alternate Hypothesis Hypothesis
If the null hypothesis is rejected, the conclusion is straightforward: We

conclude that the alternate hypothesis, 𝐻1, is true.
If the null hypothesis is not rejected, we are saying that there is not
enough evidence to conclude that the alternate hypothesis, 𝐻1, is true.
We are not saying the null hypothesis is true. What we are saying is
that the null hypothesis might be true.
Example 1 – Stating Conclusions

An inspector thinks that the mean weight may be less than this, so he
performs a test of 𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 20 versus 𝐻1: 𝜇 < 20 . He rejects the null
hypothesis. State an appropriate conclusion.
Solution:
Because the null hypothesis is rejected, we conclude that the alternate
hypothesis is true. We conclude that the mean weight of cereal is less
than 20 ounces.
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Example 2 – Stating Conclusions

An inspector thinks that the mean weight may be less than this, so he
performs a test of 𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 20 versus 𝐻1: 𝜇 < 20. He does not reject the
null hypothesis. State an appropriate conclusion.
Solution:
Because the null hypothesis is not rejected, we do not have sufficient
evidence to conclude that the alternate hypothesis is true. In words, we
state: “There is not enough evidence to conclude that the mean weight
of cereal boxes is less than 20 ounces.”
OBJECTIVE 3
Distinguish between Type I and Type II errors
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Type I and Type II Errors

When a hypothesis test is conducted and a decision is made there is a
possibility that it is the wrong decision.
There are two ways in which a wrong decision may occur with hypothesis
testing.
1. If 𝐻0 is true, we might mistakenly reject it. A type I error occurs when
we reject 𝐻0 when it is actually true.
2. If 𝐻0 is false, we might mistakenly decide not to reject it. A type II error
occurs when we do not reject 𝐻0 when it is actually false.
Decision H0 is True H0 is False

Reject H0 Type I Error Correct Decision
Fail to Reject H0 Correct Decision Type II Error
Example 1 – Types of Errors

The dean of a business school wants to determine whether the mean
starting salary of graduates of her school is greater than $50,000. She
will perform a hypothesis test with the following null and alternate
hypotheses:
𝐻0: 𝜇 = $50,000 𝐻1 : 𝜇 > $50,000
Suppose that the true mean is 𝜇 = $50,000, and the dean rejects 𝐻0. Is
this a Type I error, Type II error, or a correct decision?
Solution:
The true mean is 𝜇 = $50, 000, so 𝐻0 is true. Because the dean rejects
𝐻0, this is a Type I error.
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hypotheses:
𝐻0: 𝜇 = $50,000 𝐻1 : 𝜇 > $50,000
Suppose that the true mean is 𝜇 = $55,000, and the dean rejects 𝐻0. Is
this a Type I error, Type II error, or a correct decision?
Solution:
The true mean is 𝜇 = $55, 000, so 𝐻0 is false. Because the dean
rejects 𝐻0, this is a correct decision.

hypotheses:
𝐻0: 𝜇 = $50,000 𝐻1 : 𝜇 > $50,000
Suppose that the true mean is 𝜇 = $55,000, and the dean does not
reject 𝐻0. Is this a Type I error, Type II error, or a correct decision?
Solution:
The true mean is 𝜇 = $55, 000, so 𝐻0 is false. Because the dean does
not reject 𝐻0, this is a Type II error.
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You Should Know…

• How to write the null and alternate hypotheses
• How to determine whether a hypothesis test is left-tailed, right-tailed,
or two-tailed
• How to state the conclusion to a hypothesis test
• How to distinguish between Type I and Type II errors and correct
decisions
HYPOTHESIS TESTS FOR A

POPULATION MEAN, 𝜎 KNOWN
Section 9.2
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Objectives
1. Perform hypothesis tests with the critical value method
2. Perform hypothesis tests with the P-value method
3. Describe the relationship between hypothesis tests and confidence
intervals
4. Describe the relationship between 𝛼 and the probability of error
5. Report the P-value or the test statistic value
6. Distinguish between statistical significance and practical
significance
OBJECTIVE 1
Perform hypothesis tests with the critical value
method
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Performing a Hypothesis Test

In the previous section, we discussed how to construct the hypotheses and
write the conclusions for a hypothesis test. Now, we turn our attention to
actually performing the test.
There are two ways to perform hypothesis tests; both methods produce the
same results. The methods are the Critical Value Method and the P-
Value Method.
In a hypothesis test, the idea is to select a sample, calculate a statistic

such as 𝑥, and compare it to the value in the null hypothesis, 𝐻0 . If the
difference between the sample mean and the value in 𝐻0 is large, it is less
likely to be due to chance, and 𝐻0 is less likely to be true. Otherwise, a
small difference may be due to chance and 𝐻0 may well be true.
We must determine how strong the disagreement is between the sample

mean and 𝐻0.
Example
We begin with an example. The College
Board reported that the mean math SAT
score in 2009 was 515, with a standard
deviation of 116. Results of an earlier study
suggest that coached students should have
a mean SAT score of approximately 530.
A teacher who runs an online coaching
program thinks that students coached by his
method have a higher mean score than this.
Because the teacher believes that the mean score for his students is
greater than 530, the null and alternate hypotheses are:
𝐻0: 𝜇 = 530
𝐻1: 𝜇 > 530
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Test Statistic
Suppose now that the teacher draws a random sample Remember
of 100 students who are planning to take the SAT, and 𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 530
enrolls them in the online coaching program. After 𝐻1 : 𝜇 > 530
completing the program, their sample mean SAT score 𝜎 = 116
is 𝑥 = 562. This is higher than the null hypothesis value
of 530, but to determine how strong the disagreement is between the sample
mean and the null hypothesis 𝜇 = 530, we calculate the value of the test
statistic, which is just the 𝑧-score of the sample mean. Assuming that the
population standard deviation is 𝜎 = 116, the test statistic of the sample mean,
𝑥 −𝜇 562 −530
𝑥 is 𝑧 = 𝜎 𝑛0 = 116/ 100 = 2.76.
Visually, we can see from the figure that our

observed value 𝑥 = 562 is pretty far
out in the tail of the distribution - far
from the null hypothesis value 𝜇 = 530.
Intuitively, it appears that the evidence
against 𝐻0 is fairly strong.
Critical Value Method

The Critical Value Method is based on the idea that we should reject 𝐻0 if the
value of the test statistic is unusual when we assume 𝐻0 to be true. We choose
a critical value, which forms a boundary between values that are considered
unusual and values that are not. The region that contains the unusual values is
called the critical region. If the value of the test statistic is in the critical region,
then we reject 𝐻0.
The probability that we use to determine
whether an event is unusual is called the
significance level. The significance level
is denoted by the letter 𝛼. Therefore, the
area of critical region is equal to 𝛼. The
choice of 𝛼 is determined by how strong we
require the evidence against 𝐻0 to be in
order to reject it. The smaller the value of 𝛼,
the stronger we require the evidence to be.
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Significance Level
One of the most commonly used values for 𝛼 is 0.05. When 𝛼 = 0.05 is used in a
one-tailed test, the critical value is 1.645.
Recall for the math SAT score example, that the test statistic was 𝑧 = 2.76.
Since 𝑧 = 2.76 falls in the critical region, 𝐻0 is rejected at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level.
Remember
𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 530
𝐻1 : 𝜇 > 530
𝑥 = 562
𝜎 = 116
𝑛 = 100
𝑧 = 2.76
We conclude that the mean SAT math score for students completing the online
coaching program is greater than 530.
Critical Values for Hypothesis Tests

The location of the critical region depends on whether the alternate is left-tailed,
right-tailed or two-tailed.
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Critical Values and Assumptions

The table indicates the critical values for some commonly used significance levels
𝛼.
Significance Level 𝜶
H1 0.10 0.05 0.02 0.01
Left-tailed –1.282 –1.645 –2.054 –2.326
Right-tailed 1.282 1.645 2.054 2.326
Two-tailed ±1.645 ±1.96 ±2.326 ±2.576
The assumptions for performing a hypothesis test about 𝜇 when 𝜎 is known are:
Assumptions:

normal.
Example – Perform a Hypothesis Test

The American Automobile Association reported that the mean price of a gallon of
regular grade gasoline in the city of Los Angeles in July 2013 was $4.04. A
recently taken simple random sample of 50 gas stations in Los Angeles had an
average price of $3.99 for a gallon of regular grade gasoline. Assume that the
standard deviation of prices is $0.15. An economist is interested in determining
whether the mean price is less than $3.99. Use the critical value method to
perform a hypothesis test at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level of significance.
Solution:
We first check the assumptions. The sample is a simple random sample and the
sample size is large (𝑛 > 30). The assumptions are met.
The null and alternate hypotheses are:

𝐻0: 𝜇 = 4.04
𝐻1: 𝜇 < 4.04
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Solution (continued): Remember
The significance level is given as 𝛼 = 0.05. Since this is a 𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 4.04
left-tailed test, the critical value is –1.645. 𝐻1 : 𝜇 < 4.04
𝑥 = 3.99
𝜎 = 0.15
𝑛 = 50
𝑥 −𝜇0 3.99 −4.04

The test statistic is computed as: 𝑧 = = = −2.36. This is a left-tailed test, so
𝜎 𝑛 0.15 50
we reject 𝐻0 if 𝑧 < −1.645. Since – 2.36 < −1.645, we reject 𝐻0 at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level.
We conclude that the mean price of a

gallon of regular gasoline in Los Angeles
is less than $4.04.
OBJECTIVE 2
Perform hypothesis tests with the P-value
method
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The P-Value
The P-value is the probability that a number drawn from the distribution
of the sample mean would be as extreme as or more extreme than our
observed value of 𝑥.
Unlike the critical value, the P-value tells us exactly how unusual the test
statistic is. For this reason, the P-value method is more often used in
practice, especially when technology is used to conduct a hypothesis
test.
The smaller the P-value, the stronger the evidence against 𝐻0.
Finding P-Values
Consider again the following example. An online coaching program is supposed to increase
the mean SAT math score to a value greater than 530. The null and alternate hypotheses are
𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 530 & 𝐻1 : 𝜇 > 530. Now assume that 100 students are randomly chosen to participate
in the program, and their sample mean score is 𝑥 = 562. Suppose that the population
standard deviation is known to be 𝜎 = 116. Does this provide strong evidence against the null
hypothesis 𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 530?
Recall that we begin by assuming that 𝐻0 is true, therefore we assume that the mean of 𝑥 is 𝜇
= 530. Since the sample size is large, we know that 𝑥 is approximately normally distributed
𝜎 116
with standard deviation = = 11.6.
𝑛 100
𝑥 − 𝜇0 562 −530
The 𝑧-score for 𝑥 is is 𝑧 = = = 2.76.
𝜎 𝑛 116/ 100
The P-value is the area under the normal

curve to the right of 𝑧 = 2.76. This area
equals 0.0029 (using Table A.2 or technology).
Therefore, the P-value for this test is 0.0029.
Such a small P-value strongly suggests that
𝐻0 should be rejected.
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Choosing a Significance Level

We have seen that the smaller the P-value, the stronger the evidence against 𝐻0 .
Therefore, to make a decision to reject 𝐻0 when using the P-value method, we:
• Choose a significance level 𝛼 between 0 and 1.
• Compute the P-value.
• If P ≤ 𝛼, reject 𝐻0 . If P > 𝛼, do not reject 𝐻0 .
If P ≤ 𝛼, we say that 𝐻0 is rejected at the 𝛼 level, or that the result is statistically

significant at the 𝛼 level.
Example:
Suppose we found a P-value that was P = 0.0122.
a) Do you reject 𝐻0 at 𝛼 = 0.05 level?
b) Do you reject 𝐻0 at 𝛼 = 0.01 level?
Solution:
a) Because P ≤ 0.05, we reject 𝐻0 at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level.
b) Because P > 0.01, we do not reject 𝐻0 at the 𝛼 = 0.01 level.

The mean height of adult men in the U.S. is 69.7 inches, with a standard
deviation of 3 inches. A sociologist believes that taller men may be more likely to
be promoted to positions of leadership, so the mean height 𝜇 of male business
executives may be greater than the mean height of the entire male population. A
simple random sample of 100 male business executives has a mean height of
69.9 in. Assume that the standard deviation of male executive heights is 𝜎 = 3
inches. Can we conclude that male business executives are taller on the
average than the general male population at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level?
Solution:
We first check the assumptions. We have a simple random sample and the
sample size is large (𝑛 > 30). The assumptions are satisfied.

𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 69.7
𝐻1: 𝜇 > 69.7
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Because the assumptions are satisfied, 𝑥 is approximately normally 𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 69.7
𝜎 3
distributed with mean 𝜇0 = 69.7 and standard deviation = = 0.3. 𝐻1 : 𝜇 > 69.7
𝑛 100
𝑥 = 69.9
𝑥 − 𝜇0 69.9 − 69.7
The test statistic is given by 𝑧 = = = 0.67. Since this is 𝜎=3
𝜎 𝑛 0.3
a right-tailed test, the P-value is the area to the right of 𝑧 = 0.67. 𝑛 = 100
Using Table A.2 or technology, we find the area to the right of 𝑧 = 0.67 to be 0.2514.
The P-value of 0.2514 is not unusual. Since P > 0.05, we do not reject 𝐻0 at the 𝛼 = 0.05
level.
There is not enough evidence to conclude that male

executives have a greater mean height than adult males
in general. The mean height of male executives may be
the same as the mean height of adult males in general.

At a large company, the attitudes of workers are regularly measured with a
standardized test. The scores on the test range from 0 to 100, with higher scores
indicating greater satisfaction with their job. The mean score over all of the
company’s employees was 74, with a standard deviation of 𝜎 = 8. Some time ago,
the company adopted a policy of telecommuting. Under this policy, workers could
spend one day per week working from home. After the policy had been in place for
some time, a random sample of 80 workers was given the test to see whether their
mean level of satisfaction had changed since the policy was put into effect. The
sample mean was 76. Assume the standard deviation is still 𝜎 = 8. Can we conclude
that the mean level of satisfaction is different since the policy change at the 𝛼 = 0.05
level?
Solution:
We first check the assumptions. We have a simple random sample and the sample
size is large (𝑛 > 30). The assumptions are satisfied.

𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 74
𝐻1 : 𝜇 ≠ 74
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Because the assumptions are satisfied, 𝑥 is approximately normally 𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 74
𝜎 8
distributed with mean 𝜇0 = 74 and standard deviation = = 0.8944. 𝐻1 : 𝜇 ≠ 74
𝑛 80
𝑥 = 76
𝑥 − 𝜇0 76 −74
The test statistic is given by 𝑧 = = = 2.24. Since this is 𝜎=8
𝜎 𝑛 0.8944
a two-tailed test, the P-value is the sum of the area to the right of 𝑛 = 80
𝑧 = 2.24 and to the left of 𝑧 = −2.24.
Using Table A.2 or technology, we find the sum of these areas to be 0.0250. Since P ≤ 0.05,
we reject 𝐻0 at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level.
We conclude that the mean score

among employees has changed
since the adoption of telecommuting.
Hypothesis Testing on the TI-84 PLUS

The Z-Test command will perform a hypothesis test when the population
standard deviation 𝜎 is known. This command is accessed by pressing STAT
and highlighting the TESTS menu.

If the raw sample data are given, the Data

option should be selected.
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At a large company, the attitudes of workers are regularly measured with a
standardized test. The scores on the test range from 0 to 100, with higher
scores indicating greater satisfaction with their job. The mean score over all of
the company’s employees was 74, with a standard deviation of 𝜎 = 8. Some
time ago, the company adopted a policy of telecommuting. Under this policy,
workers could spend one day per week working from home. After the policy
had been in place for some time, a random sample of 80 workers was given the
test to see whether their mean level of satisfaction had changed since the
policy was put into effect. The sample mean was 76. Assume the standard
deviation is still 𝜎 = 8. Can we conclude that the mean level of satisfaction is
different since the policy change at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level?
Solution:
We first check the assumptions. We have a simple random sample, the sample
size is large (𝑛 > 30), and the population standard deviation is known. The
assumptions are satisfied.

We press STAT and highlight the TESTS menu and select Z-Test.
Select Stats as the input option and enter 74 as the null hypothesis
mean 𝜇0 , 8 for the standard deviation 𝜎, 76 for the sample
mean 𝑥 , and 80 for the sample size 𝑛 . Since we have a two-
tailed test, select the ≠ 𝝁𝟎 option.
Select Calculate.
The P-value says that if 𝐻0 is true, then the probability of observing

a test statistic as extreme as the one we actually observed is only
0.0253. In practice, this would generally be considered fairly strong
evidence against 𝐻0 . Because the P-value is 0.0253, then P < 0.05;
we reject 𝐻0 at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level.
We conclude that the mean score among employees has changed since the adoption of
telecommuting.
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OBJECTIVE 3
Describe the relationship between hypothesis
tests and confidence intervals
Relationship Between Hypothesis Tests and

Confidence Intervals
In the previous example we rejected 𝐻0: 𝜇 = 74 at 𝛼 = 0.05. In doing
so, we are saying that 74 is not a plausible value for 𝜇.
Another way to express information about 𝜇 is through a confidence

interval. If we construct a 95% confidence interval for 𝜇 about the
attitude of workers, we find the interval to be 74.247 < 𝜇 < 77.753.
We note that this interval does not contain the null hypothesis value of
74. The confidence interval for 𝜇 contains all the plausible values for 𝜇 .
Because 74 is not in the confidence interval, 74 is not a plausible value
for 𝜇.
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OBJECTIVE 4
Describe the relationship between 𝛼 and the
probability of error
𝛼 and the Probability of an Error

Recall that a Type I error occurs if we reject 𝐻0 when it is true and a
Type II error occurs if we do not reject 𝐻0 when it is false. We would
like to make the probabilities of these errors small.
The probability of a Type I error is equal to the significance level,

which is denoted by 𝛼. In other words, if we perform a test at a
significance level of 𝛼 = 0.05, the probability of making a Type I error is
0.05.
Because 𝛼 is the probability of a Type I error, why don’t we always

choose a very small value for 𝛼? The reason is that the smaller a value
we choose for 𝛼, the larger the value of 𝛽, the probability of making a
Type II error.
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OBJECTIVE 5
Report the P-value or the test statistic value
Report the P-value

Sometimes people report only that a test result was statistically
significant at a certain level, without giving the P-value. It is much
better to report the P-value along with the decision whether to reject.
There are two reasons for this.
There is a big difference between a P-value that is just barely small

enough to reject and one that is extremely small. For example at the α
= 0.05 significance level, there is a huge difference between a P-value
= 0.049 and P-value = 0.0001.
Not everyone may agree with your choice of significance level, 𝛼. By

reporting the P-value, we let people decide for themselves at what level
to reject 𝐻0.
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Report the Test Statistic

When using the critical value method, you should report the value of
the test statistic rather simply stating whether the test statistic was in
the rejection region.
This will tell the reader whether the value of the test statistic was just
barely inside the critical region, or well inside. Also, it provides the
reader an opportunity to choose a different critical value and determine
whether 𝐻0 can be rejected at a different level.
OBJECTIVE 6
Distinguish between statistical significance and
practical significance
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Statistical Significance vs. Practical Significance

When a result has a small P-value, we say that it is “statistically
significant.” It is therefore tempting to think that statistically significant
results must always be important. Sometimes statistically significant
results do not have any practical importance or practical significance.
For example, a new study program may raise students’ scores by two
points on a 100 point scale. This improvement may have statistical
significance, but is the improvement important enough to offset the cost
of training teachers and the time investment on behalf of the students.
You Should Know…

• What are the assumptions for performing hypothesis tests about 𝜇
when 𝜎 is known
• How to perform hypothesis tests about 𝜇 when 𝜎 is known with the
critical value method
• How to find and interpret a P-value
• How to perform hypothesis tests about 𝜇 when 𝜎 is known with the
P-value method
• How to describe the relationship between hypothesis tests and
confidence intervals
• How to describe the relationship between 𝛼 and the probability error
• How to distinguish between statistical significance and practical
significance
• Why it is better to report the P-value or the test statistic value along
with the decision of a hypothesis test
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HYPOTHESIS TESTS FOR A

POPULATION MEAN, 𝜎 UNKOWN
Section 9.3
Objectives
1. Test a hypothesis about a mean using the P-value method
2. Test a hypothesis about a mean using the critical value method
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OBJECTIVE 1
Test a hypothesis about a mean using the P-
value method
(Tables)
Example – Performing a Hypothesis Test

We begin this section with an example. Suppose that in a recent medical study, 76
subjects were placed on a low-fat diet. After 12 months, their sample mean weight loss
was 𝑥 = 2.2 kilograms, with a sample standard deviation of 𝑠 = 6.1 kilograms. Can we
conclude that the mean weight loss is greater than 0?
If we knew the population standard deviation 𝜎, we would be able to compute the 𝑧-score
𝑥 −𝜇
of the sample mean to be 𝑧 = , and use this test statistic to perform a hypothesis
𝜎/ 𝑛
test. In this example, as is usually the case, we do not know the population standard
deviation. To proceed, we replace 𝜎 with the sample standard deviation 𝑠, and use the 𝑡
𝑥 −𝜇
test statistic instead: 𝑡 = . When the null hypothesis is true, the 𝑡 statistic has a
𝑠/ 𝑛
Student’s 𝑡 distribution with 𝑛 − 1 degrees of freedom.
The assumptions for performing a hypothesis test for 𝜇 when the population standard
deviation 𝜎 is unknown are as follows:
2. The sample size is large (𝑛 > 30), or the population is approximately normal.
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Suppose that in a recent medical study, 76 subjects were placed on a low-fat diet. After 12
months, their sample mean weight loss was 𝑥 = 2.2 kilograms, with a sample standard
deviation of 𝑠 = 6.1 kilograms. Can we conclude that the mean weight loss is greater than
0?
Since we have a simple random sample and the sample size is large, we may proceed with
the test. The issue is whether the mean weight loss 𝜇 is greater than 0. So the null and
alternate hypotheses are 𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 0 versus 𝐻1 : 𝜇 > 0.
𝑥 −𝜇 2.2−0
The test statistic is 𝑡 = = = 3.144. When 𝐻0
𝑠/ 𝑛 6.1/ 76
is true, the test statistic 𝑡 has the Student’s 𝑡 distribution
with 𝑛 − 1 = 76 − 1 = 75 degrees of freedom. This is a
right tail test, so the P-value is the area under the Student’s
𝑡 curve to the right of 𝑡 = 3.144. Using technology, we find
the exact P-value to be P = 0.0012.
Since P < 0.05, we reject 𝐻0 at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level. We conclude that the mean weight loss
of people who adhered to this diet for 12 months is greater than 0.
Computing P-Values
The P-value of the test statistic 𝑡 is the probability, assuming 𝐻0 is true, of
observing a value for the test statistic that disagrees as strongly as or more
strongly with 𝐻0 than the value actually observed. The P-value is an area
under the Student’s 𝑡 curve with 𝑛 − 1 degrees of freedom. The area is in the
left tail, the right tail, or in both tails, depending on the type of alternate
hypothesis.
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Estimating the P-value From a Table

When using a 𝑡 table, we cannot find the P-value exactly. Instead, we can only specify that
P is between two values. In the last example, there are 75 degrees of freedom. We
consult Table A.3 and find that the number 75 does not appear in the degrees of freedom
column. We therefore use the next smallest number, which is 60. Now look across the row
for two numbers that bracket the observed value 3.144. These are 2.915 and 3.232. The
upper-tail probabilities are 0.0025 for 2.915 and 0.001 for 3.232. The P-value must
therefore be between 0.001 and 0.0025. We can conclude that the P-value is small
enough to reject 𝐻0 at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level of significance.
P-value From a Table for a Two-tailed Test

If the alternate hypothesis were 𝐻1 : 𝜇 ≠ 0, the P-value would be the
sum of the areas in two tails. If using Table A.3, we can only specify
that P is between two values. We know, from Table A.3, that the area in
one tail is between 0.001 and 0.0025. Therefore, the area in both tails
is between 2(0.001) = 0.002 and 2(0.0025) = 0.005.
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Generic drugs are lower-cost substitutes for brand-name drugs. Before a generic drug can
be sold in the United States, it must be tested and found to perform equivalently to the
brand name product. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration is now supervising the testing
of a new generic antifungal ointment. The brand-name ointment is known to deliver a mean
of 3.5 micrograms of active ingredient to each square centimeter of skin. As part of the
testing, seven subjects apply the ointment. Six hours later, the amount of drug that has
been absorbed into the skin is measured. The amounts, in micrograms, are
2.6 3.2 2.1 3.0 3.1 2.9 3.7
How strong is the evidence that the mean amount absorbed differs from 3.5 micrograms?
Use the 𝛼 = 0.01 level of significance.
Solution:
We first check the assumptions. Because the sample is small, the population must be
approximately normal. We check this with a dotplot of the data. There is no evidence of
strong skewness, and no outliers. We may proceed.
The null and alternate hypotheses are: 𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 3.5 versus 𝐻1 : 𝜇 ≠ 3.5. We compute 𝑥
and 𝑠 from the sample. The values are 𝑥 = 2.9429 and 𝑠 = 0.4995.

𝑥 − 𝜇0 2.9429 −3.5
The 𝑡 test statistic is 𝑡 = = = −2.951. The number of 𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 3.5
𝑠 𝑛 0.1888
degrees of freedom is 𝑛 − 1 = 6. The alternate is two-tailed, so the 𝐻1 : 𝜇 ≠ 3.5
P-value is the sum of the area to the left of the observed 𝑡 statistic 𝑥 = 2.9429
–2.951 and the area to the right of 2.951. Using Table A.3, the two 𝑠 = 0.4995
values closest to 2.951 in the row corresponding to 6 degrees of 𝑛=7
freedom are 2.447 and 3.143. The area to the right of 2.447 is
0.025, and the area to the right of 3.143 is 0.01. Therefore, the area in the right tail is
between 0.01 and 0.025. The P-value is twice the area in the right tail, so we conclude that
P-value is between 0.02 and 0.05.
The P-value is small enough to

give us doubt about the truth of 𝐻0 .
However, because P > 0.01, we do
not reject 𝐻0 at the 0.01 level.
There is not enough evidence to conclude that the mean amount of drug absorbed differs
from 3.5 micrograms. The mean may be equal to 3.5 micrograms.
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OBJECTIVE 1
Test a hypothesis about a mean using the P-
value method
(TI-84 PLUS)

If we knew the population standard deviation 𝜎, we would be able to compute the 𝑧-score
𝑥 −𝜇
of the sample mean to be 𝑧 = , and use this test statistic to perform a hypothesis
𝜎/ 𝑛
test. In this example, as is usually the case, we do not know the population standard
deviation. To proceed, we replace 𝜎 is the sample standard deviation 𝑠, and use the 𝑡
𝑥 −𝜇
test statistic instead: 𝑡 = . When the null hypothesis is true, the 𝑡 statistics has a
𝑠/ 𝑛
Student’s 𝑡 distribution with 𝑛 − 1 degrees of freedom.
The assumptions for performing a hypothesis test for 𝜇 when the population standard
deviation 𝜎 is unknown are as follows:
2. The sample size is large (𝑛 > 30), or the population is approximately normal.
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Since we have a simple random sample and the sample size is large, we may proceed with
the test. The issue is whether the mean weight loss 𝜇 is greater than 0. So the null and
alternate hypotheses are 𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 0 & 𝐻1 : 𝜇 > 0.
𝑥 −𝜇 2.2−0
The test statistic is 𝑡 = = = 3.144. When 𝐻0
𝑠/ 𝑛 6.1/ 76
is true, the test statistic 𝑡 has the Student’s 𝑡 distribution
with 𝑛 − 1 = 76 − 1 = 75 degrees of freedom. This is a
right tail test, so the P-value is the area under the Student’s
𝑡 curve to the right of 𝑡 = 3.144. Using technology, we find
the exact P-value to be P = 0.0012.
Since P < 0.05, we reject 𝐻0 at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level. We conclude that the mean weight loss
of people who adhered to this diet for 12 months is greater than 0.

The T-Test will perform a hypothesis test when the population standard
deviation 𝜎 is not known. This command is accessed by pressing
If the summary statistics are given

the Stats option should be selected
for the input option.
If the raw sample data are given,

the Data option should be selected.
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In a recent medical study, 76 subjects were placed on a low-fat diet.
After 12 months, their sample mean weight loss was 𝑥 = 2.2 kilograms,
with a sample standard deviation of s = 6.1 kilograms. Can we
conclude that the mean weight loss is greater than 0? Use the
𝛼 = 0.05 level of significance.
Solution:
• We press STAT and highlight the TESTS menu and select T-Test.
• Select Stats as the input option and enter 0 as the null hypothesis
mean 𝜇0 , 2.2 for the sample mean 𝑥, 6.1 for the sample standard
deviation s, and 76 for the sample size n. Since we have a right-
tailed test, select the > 𝝁𝟎 option.
• Select Calculate.
The P-value is 0.0012. Since P < 0.05, we reject 𝐻0 . We conclude that the mean weight
loss of people who adhered to this diet for 12 months is greater than 0.

Generic drugs are lower-cost substitutes for brand-name drugs. Before a generic drug
can be sold in the United States, it must be tested and found to perform equivalently to
the brand name product. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration is now supervising the
testing of a new generic antifungal ointment. The brand-name ointment is known to
deliver a mean of 3.5 micrograms of active ingredient to each square centimeter of skin.
As part of the testing, seven subjects apply the ointment. Six hours later, the amount of
drug that has been absorbed into the skin is measured. The amounts, in micrograms, are
2.6 3.2 2.1 3.0 3.1 2.9 3.7
How strong is the evidence that the mean amount absorbed differs from 3.5 micrograms?
Use the 𝛼 = 0.01 level of significance.
Solution:
We first check the assumptions. Because the sample is small, the population must be
approximately normal. We check this with a dotplot of the data. There is no evidence of
strong skewness, and no outliers. We may proceed.
The null and alternate hypotheses are: 𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 3.5 versus 𝐻1 : 𝜇 ≠ 3.5.

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• We enter the data (2.6, 3.2, 2.1, 3.0, 3.1, 2.9, 3.7) into list L1.
• Press STAT and highlight the TESTS menu and select T-Test.
• Select Data as the input option and enter 3.5 in the 𝝁𝟎 field.
Enter L1 as the List option and 1 as the Freq option.
Since we have a two-tailed test, select the ≠ 𝝁𝟎 option.
• Select Calculate.
The P-value is 0.0256. The P-value is small enough to give us

doubt about the truth of 𝐻0 . However, because P > 0.01, we do
not reject 𝐻0 at the 0.01 level.
There is not enough evidence to conclude that the mean amount

of drug absorbed differs from 3.5 micrograms. The mean may be
equal to 3.5 micrograms.
OBJECTIVE 2
Test a hypothesis about a mean using the critical
value method
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Critical values for the 𝑡-Statistic

The critical value method for a hypothesis test of a population mean when 𝜎 is
unknown is the same as that when 𝜎 is known. The only exception is that we
use the Student’s 𝑡 distribution rather than a normal distribution. The critical
values for the Student’s 𝑡 distribution can be found in Table A.3 or with
technology.
Example
A computer software vendor claims that a new version of their
operating system will crash less than six times per year on average. A
system administrator installs the operating system on a random sample
of 41 computers. At the end of a year, the sample mean number of
crashes is 7.1, with a standard deviation of 3.6. Can you conclude that
the vendor’s claim is false? Use the 𝛼 = 0.05 significance level.
Solution:
We first check the assumptions. We have a large (𝑛 > 30) random
sample, so the assumptions are satisfied.

𝐻0: 𝜇 = 6 versus 𝐻1: 𝜇 > 6.
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Solution
We use a significance level of 𝛼 = 0.05 and Table A.3. The number of
degrees of freedom is 41 − 1 = 40. Since this is a right-tailed test, the
critical value is the 𝑡-value with area 0.05 above it in the right tail. Thus,
the critical value is 𝑡𝛼 = 1.684.
We have 𝑥 = 7.1, 𝜇0 = 6, 𝑠 = 3.6, and 𝑛 = 41.

𝑥 −𝜇0 7.1 −6
The test statistic is 𝑡 = = 3.6 = 1.957
𝑠 𝑛 41
Solution
Because this is a right-tailed test, we reject 𝐻0 if t ≥ 𝑡𝛼 . Since 𝑡 = 1.957
and 𝑡𝛼 = 1.684, we reject 𝐻0.
We conclude that the mean number of crashes is greater than six per
year.
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You Should Know…

• The assumptions for hypothesis tests for 𝜇 when 𝜎 is unknown
• How to perform hypothesis tests for 𝜇 when 𝜎 is unknown using the
P-value method
• How to estimate a P-value from a table for one-tailed and two-tailed
tests
• How to perform hypothesis tests for 𝜇 when 𝜎 is unknown using the
HYPOTHESIS TESTS FOR

PROPORTIONS
Section 9.4
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Objectives
1. Test a hypothesis about a proportion using the P-value method
2. Test a hypothesis about a proportion using the critical value
method
OBJECTIVE 1
Test a hypothesis about a proportion using the P-
value method
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Introduction
In a recent GenX2Z American College Student Survey, 90% of female
college students rated the social network site Facebook as “cool.” The
other 10% rated it as “lame.” Assume that the survey was based on a
sample of 500 students. A marketing executive at Facebook wants to
advertise the site with the slogan “More than 85% of female college
students think Facebook is cool.” Before launching the ad campaign,
he wants to be confident that the slogan is true. Can he conclude that
the proportion of female college students who think Facebook is cool is
greater than 0.85?
This is an example of a problem that calls for a hypothesis test about

a population proportion.
Notation
category.
specified category.
𝑥
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Assumptions
The method for performing a hypothesis test about a population proportion
Assumptions:
4. The values 𝑛𝑝0 and 𝑛(1 − 𝑝0 ) are both at least 10.
P-Value Method
Step 1: State the null and alternate hypotheses.
Step 2: If making a decision, choose a significance level 𝛼.
𝑝−𝑝0
Step 3: Compute the test statistic 𝑧 = .
𝑝0 1−𝑝0
𝑛
Step 4: Compute the P-value.
Step 5: Interpret the P-value. If making a decision, reject 𝐻0 if the P-value is less
than or equal to the significance level 𝛼.
Step 6: State a conclusion.
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Example
In a recent GenX2Z American College Student Survey, 90% of female college students
rated the social network site Facebook as “cool.” Assume that the survey was based on
a random sample of 500 students. A marketing executive at Facebook wants to advertise
the site with the slogan “More than 85% of female college students think Facebook is
cool.” Can you conclude that the proportion of female college students who think
Facebook is cool is greater than 0.85? Use the 𝛼 = 0.05 level of significance.
Solution:
We have a simple random sample of students. The members of the population fall into
two categories: those who think that Facebook is cool and those who don’t. The size of
the population of female college students is more than 20 times the sample size of
𝑛 = 500. The proportion specified by the null hypothesis is 𝑝0 = 0.85. Now 𝑛𝑝0 =
(500)(0.85) = 425 > 10 and 𝑛 1 − 𝑝0 = (500)(1 − 0.85) = 75 > 10. The assumptions are
satisfied.
The null and alternate hypotheses are: 𝐻0 : 𝑝 = 0.85 versus 𝐻1 : 𝑝 > 0.85
Example
The sample proportion 𝑝 is 0.90. The value of 𝑝 specified 𝐻0 : 𝑝 = 0.85
by the null hypothesis is 𝑝0 = 0.85. The test statistic is the 𝐻1 : 𝑝 > 0.85
𝑛 = 500
𝑧-score of 𝑝 and is given by:
𝑝 = 0.90
𝑝−𝑝0 0.90 − 0.85
𝑧= = = 3.13
𝑝0 1−𝑝0 0.85 1 − 0.85
𝑛 500
This is a right-tailed test, so the P-value

is the area to the right of 𝑧 = 3.13. We
may use Table A.2 or technology to find
that this is 0.0009.
Since P < 0.05, we reject 𝐻0 at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level

and conclude that more than 85% of female college
students think that Facebook is cool.
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OBJECTIVE 1
Test a hypothesis about a proportion using the P-
value method
(TI-84 PLUS)
Introduction
In a recent GenX2Z American College Student Survey, 90% of female
college students rated the social network site Facebook as “cool.” The
other 10% rated it as “lame.” Assume that the survey was based on a
sample of 500 students. A marketing executive at Facebook wants to
advertise the site with the slogan “More than 85% of female college
students think Facebook is cool.” Before launching the ad campaign,
he wants to be confident that the slogan is true. Can he conclude that
the proportion of female college students who think Facebook is cool is
greater than 0.85?
This is an example of a problem that calls for a hypothesis test about

a population proportion.
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Notation
category.
specified category.
𝑥
Assumptions
The method for performing a hypothesis test about a population proportion
Assumptions:
4. The values 𝑛𝑝0 and 𝑛(1 − 𝑝0 ) are both at least 10.
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The 1-PropZTest command will perform a

hypothesis test for a population proportion. This
The required inputs for the 1-PropZTest are the

values of 𝑥 and 𝑛. If the sample proportion 𝑝 is
given in the problem, the value of 𝑥 can be
computed as 𝑥 = 𝑝·𝑛.
Example
In a recent GenX2Z American College Student Survey, 90% of female college students
rated the social network site Facebook as “cool.” Assume that the survey was based on
a random sample of 500 students. A marketing executive at Facebook wants to advertise
the site with the slogan “More than 85% of female college students think Facebook is
cool.” Can you conclude that the proportion of female college students who think
Facebook is cool is greater than 0.85? Use the 𝛼 = 0.05 level of significance.
Solution:
We have a simple random sample of students. The members of the population fall into
two categories: those who think that Facebook is cool and those who don’t. The size of
the population of female college students is more than 20 times the sample size of
𝑛 = 500. The proportion specified by the null hypothesis is 𝑝0 = 0.85. Now 𝑛𝑝0 =
(500)(0.85) = 425 > 10 and 𝑛 1 − 𝑝0 = (500)(1 − 0.85) = 75 > 10. The assumptions are
satisfied.
The null and alternate hypotheses are: 𝐻0 : 𝑝 = 0.85 versus 𝐻1 : 𝑝 > 0.85
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𝐻0 : 𝑝 = 0.85
We press STAT and highlight the TESTS menu and select 𝐻1 : 𝑝 > 0.85
1-PropZTest. 𝑛 = 500
𝑝 = 0.90
We are given the sample proportion 𝑝 = 0.90 and 𝑛 = 500. We
compute the value of 𝑥 as 𝑥 = 𝑝 · 𝑛 = 0.90(500) = 450.
We enter 𝑥 = 450 and 𝑛 = 500. Since this is a right-tailed test, we

select > 𝒑𝟎 .
Select Calculate.
The P-value is approximately 0.0009. Since P < 0.05, we reject 𝐻0

at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level and conclude that more than 85% of female
college students think that Facebook is cool.
OBJECTIVE 2
Test a hypothesis about a proportion using the
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Critical Value Method

Step 1. State the null and alternate hypotheses.
Step 2. Choose a significance level 𝛼 and find the critical value(s).
𝑝−𝑝0
Step 3. Compute the test statistic 𝑧 = .
𝑝0 1−𝑝0
𝑛
Step 4. Determine whether to reject 𝐻0 as follows:
Step 5. State a conclusion.
Example
A nationwide survey of working adults indicates that only 50% of them are
satisfied with their jobs. The president of a large company believes that more
than 50% of employees at his company are satisfied with their jobs. To test his
belief, he surveys a random sample of 100 employees, and 54 of them report
that they are satisfied with their jobs. Can he conclude that more than 50% of
employees at the company are satisfied with their jobs? Use the 𝛼 = 0.05 level
of significance.
Solution:
We have a simple random sample from the population of employees. Each
employee is categorized as being satisfied or not satisfied. The sample size is
𝑛 = 100 and the proportion 𝑝0 specified by 𝐻0 is 0.5. Therefore 𝑛𝑝0 = 100(0.5) =
50 > 10, and n(1 − 𝑝0) = 100(1 − 0.5) = 50 > 10. If the total number of
employees in the company is more than 2000, as we shall assume, then the
population is more than 20 times as large as the sample. All the assumptions
are therefore satisfied.
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Example
The null and alternate hypotheses are: 𝑥 = 54
𝐻0 : 𝑝 = 0.5 versus 𝐻1: 𝑝 > 0.5 𝑛 = 100
𝑝0 = 0.5
Since the alternate hypothesis is 𝑝 > 0.5, this is a right-tailed test. The critical
value is 𝑧𝛼 = 1.645.
𝑥 54 𝑝−𝑝0 0.54 −0.5
Recall that 𝑝 = 𝑛 = 100 = 0.54, thus 𝑧 = = = 0.80.
𝑝0 1−𝑝0 0.5(1 −0.5)
𝑛 100
Because this is a right-tailed test,

we reject 𝐻0 if 𝑧 ≥ 1.645. Because
0.80 < 1.645, we do not reject 𝐻0.
There is not enough evidence to
conclude that company president is
correct in his belief that the proportion
of employees who are satisfied with
their jobs is greater than 0.5.
You Should Know…

• The notations used in performing a hypothesis test about a
population proportion
• The assumptions for performing a hypothesis test about a
population proportion
• How to perform a hypothesis test about a population proportion
using the P-value method
• How to perform a hypothesis test about a population proportion
using the critical value method
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DETERMINING WHICH METHOD

TO USE
Section 9.6
Objectives
1. Determine which method to use when performing a hypothesis test
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OBJECTIVE 1
Determine which method to use when performing
a hypothesis test
How To Begin
There are a variety of hypothesis tests and the task of selecting the
appropriate test and procedure can be overwhelming.
We begin by summarizing the three types of parameters about which

we have learned to perform hypothesis tests:
•Population mean, 𝜇
•Population proportion, 𝑝
•Population standard deviation, 𝜎, or variance, 𝜎 2
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Determining Which Method to Use

Once you have determined which type of parameter you are testing,
proceed as follows:
a. If you are testing the population mean, 𝜇, you will use either a 𝑧-test
(Section 9.2) or a 𝑡-test (Section 9.3).
b. If you are testing the population proportion, use the procedure in
Section 9.4.
c. If you are testing the population standard deviation or variance, use
the procedure in Section 9.5.
Determining Which Test of the Population Mean 𝜇 to Use
There is more than one procedure for testing a population mean, 𝜇. The tests
are
• 𝑧-test (Section 9.2)
• 𝑡-test (Section 9.3)
The diagram below will help in selecting the appropriate test for population
mean, 𝜇.
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You Should Know…

• How to determine which parameter is being tested
• The two methods for performing a hypothesis test for a population
mean
• How to determine which method to use in performing a hypothesis
test for 𝜇, 𝑝, or 𝜎
POWER
Section 9.7
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Objectives
1. Compute the power of a test
OBJECTIVE 1
Compute the power of a test
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Errors in Hypothesis Tests

Recall that in a hypothesis test, there are two types of errors:
• Type I Error – when a true 𝐻0 is rejected.
• Type II Error – when we fail to reject a false 𝐻0.
The probability of making a Type I Error is denoted by 𝛼 and the

probability of making a Type II Error is denoted by 𝛽.
Power
The power of a test is the probability of not making a Type II Error. In
other words, the power of a test is the probability that we reject
𝐻0 when it is false.
We would like to have a small probability of rejecting a true 𝐻0, and a

large probability of rejecting a false 𝐻0. That is, we would like the
probability of a Type I Error to be small, and the power to be large.
The power of a test about a population mean depends on the true value
of the population mean. To compute the power, we specify a value 𝜇1
for the population mean that satisfies the alternate hypothesis. The
power is the probability that the test statistic falls in the critical region
when 𝜇1 is the true value of the population mean.
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Computing the Power of a Test

Step 1: Find the critical value: 𝑧𝛼 for a one-tailed test or 𝑧𝛼 2 for a two-tailed test.
Step 2: For a one-tailed test, find the value of 𝑥 whose 𝑧-score is equal to the critical
value. We call this value 𝑥 ∗ . Find the value of 𝑥 ∗ as follows:
𝜎
Left-tailed: 𝑥 ∗ = 𝜇0 − 𝑧𝛼 ∙
𝑛
𝜎
Right-tailed: 𝑥 ∗ = 𝜇0 + 𝑧𝛼 ∙
𝑛
∗ ∗
For a two-tailed test, there are two values of 𝑥 ∗.
We call them 𝑥𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 and 𝑥𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 .
∗ 𝜎 ∗ 𝜎
They are computed as follows: 𝑥𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 𝜇0 − 𝑧𝛼 ∙ 𝑥𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝜇0 + 𝑧𝛼 ∙
𝑛 𝑛
Step 3: Let 𝜇1 be a specific value that satisfies the alternate hypothesis. Sketch a
normal curve with mean 𝜇1 .
Step 4: The power is an area under the normal curve sketched in Step 3. The area
depends on the form of the alternate hypothesis, as follows:
Left-tailed: Area to the left of 𝑥 ∗
Right-tailed: Area to the right of 𝑥 ∗
∗
Two-tailed: Sum of the area to the left of 𝑥𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
∗
and the area to the right of 𝑥𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Example
The 2008 General Social Survey indicates that Americans watch an average of
2.98 hours of television per day, with a standard deviation of 𝜎 = 2.66 hours. A
sociologist believes that the mean number for college students is less, because
students spend more time on the internet and playing video games. The
sociologist will sample 75 college students and test the hypotheses
𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 2.98 𝐻1 : 𝜇 < 2.98
at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level. Assume the population standard deviation for college
students is also 𝜎 = 2.66. Find the power of the test against the alternate 𝜇1= 2.
Solution:
This is a one-tailed test; therefore, we use the critical value 𝑧𝛼 = 1.645.
We have 𝜇0 = 2.98, 𝑧𝛼 = 1.645, 𝜎 = 2.66, and 𝑛 = 75. This is a left-tailed test.

𝜎 2.66
Therefore, 𝑥 ∗ = 𝜇0 − 𝑧𝛼 ∙ 𝑛 = 2.98 – (1.645) 75 = 2.475
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Solution
The graph below presents a normal curve
with mean 2 and the value of 𝑥 ∗ = 2.475
Since this is a left-tailed test, the power is the area to the left of 𝑥 ∗ = 2.475. To
find this area, we find the 𝑧-score for 2.475, using the value 𝜇1 = 2.
2.475 −2
𝑧 = 2.66 = 1.55
75
The power is the area under the normal

curve to the left of 𝑧 = 1.55. This area is 0.9394.
Illustration of the Concept of Power

The graph presents two distributions for 𝑥. The curve on the right is the distribution under
the assumption that 𝐻0 is true. This distribution has mean 𝜇0 = 2.98. The curve on the
left is the distribution under the assumption that the mean is equal to the alternate value
𝜇1 = 2. The critical region is the region to the left of 𝑥 ∗ = 2.475. The area of the critical
region under the null hypothesis distribution is the significance level 𝛼 = 0.05. The area
under the alternate distribution is the power, 0.9394.
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You Should Know…

• The meaning of power of a test
• How to compute the power of a test
Chapter 10
Two-Sample Confidence Intervals
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CONFIDENCE INTERVALS FOR THE

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO MEANS:
INDEPENDENT SAMPLES
Section 10.1
Objectives
1. Distinguish between independent and paired samples
2. Construct confidence intervals for the difference between two
population means
3. Describe the pooled standard deviation and the known standard
deviation methods
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OBJECTIVE 1
Distinguish between independent and paired
samples
Independent Samples vs. Paired Samples

A drug company has developed a new drug that is designed to reduce high
blood pressure. The researchers wish to design a study to compare the
effectiveness of the new drug to that of the old drug. Here is one way in which
the study can be designed.
Design 1: Two samples of individuals are chosen. One sample is given the old
drug and the other sample is given the new drug. After several months, blood
pressures of the members of both samples are measured. We compare the
blood pressures in the first sample to the blood pressures in the second sample
to determine which drug is more effective.
In this design, the samples are independent. This means that the observations
in one sample do not influence the observations in the other.
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Independent Samples vs. Paired Samples

A drug company has developed a new drug that is designed to reduce high
blood pressure. The researchers wish to design a study to compare the
effectiveness of the new drug to that of the old drug. Here is another way in
which the study can be designed.
Design 2: A single group of individuals is chosen. They are given the old drug
for a month, then their blood pressures are measured. They then switch to the
new drug for a month, after which their blood pressures are measured again.
This produces two samples of measurements, the first one from the old drug
and the second one from the new drug. We compare the blood pressures in the
first sample to the blood pressures in the second sample to determine which
drug is more effective.
In this design, the samples are paired. Each observation in one sample can be
paired with an observation in the second.
OBJECTIVE 2
Construct confidence intervals for the difference
between two population means
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Confidence Intervals for the Difference

Between Two Population Means
Imagine that we will compare the effectiveness of a new drug designed to
reduce blood pressure to the effectiveness of a standard drug. We will draw two
independent samples. The first sample will get the new drug, and the second
sample will get the standard drug. We can imagine these samples as coming
from two populations—a population of patients who take the new drug, and a
population of patients who take the standard drug. For each population, there is
a mean reduction in blood pressure. We are interested in estimating the
difference between the population means.
Let 𝜇1 be the population mean reduction for the new drug, and let 𝜇2 be the
population mean reduction for the standard drug. We wish to construct a
confidence interval for the difference 𝜇1 − 𝜇2.
It follows that the point estimate for the difference 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 is the difference
between the sample mean. In other words, the point estimate for 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 is 𝑥1
− 𝑥2.
Standard error of 𝑥1 − 𝑥2
The sample means 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 have variances 𝜎12 𝑛1and 𝜎22 𝑛2. When the
samples are independent, the variance of the difference 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 can be shown
to be the sum of the variances. In other words, the variance of 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 is
𝜎12 𝜎22
+
𝑛1 𝑛2
The standard error of 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 is the square root of the variance. Since we don’t
know the values of 𝜎12 and 𝜎22 , we approximate them with the sample variance
𝑠12 𝑠22
𝑠12and 𝑠22. Therefore, the standard error is 𝑛1
+ 𝑛2
.
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Critical Value and Margin of Error

Let 1 − 𝛼 be the confidence level, expressed as a decimal. The critical value for a
confidence interval is 𝑡𝛼 2, based on the Student’s 𝑡 distribution.
There are two ways to compute the number of degrees of freedom: a simple
method that is easier when computing by hand, and a more complicated method
that is used by software packages and calculator procedures. The simple method
is: Degrees of Freedom = smaller of 𝑛1 − 1 and 𝑛2 − 1.
The margin of error is obtained by multiplying the critical value and the standard
𝑠12 𝑠22
error. The margin of error is 𝑡𝛼 2 ∙ + .
𝑛1 𝑛2
The confidence interval is constructed by adding and subtracting the margin of

error from the point estimate.
𝑠12 𝑠22 𝑠12 𝑠22
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑡𝛼 2 ∙ + < 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 < 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑡𝛼 2 ∙ +
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2
This method is often referred to as Welch’s method.
Assumptions
Welch’s Method requires some assumptions:
Assumptions:
1. We have simple random samples from two populations.
2. The samples are independent of one another.
3. Each sample size is large (𝑛 > 30), or its population is approximately

normal.
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Example
A drug company has developed a new drug that is designed to reduce high blood
pressure. To test the drug, a sample of 15 patients is recruited to take the drug. Their
systolic blood pressures are reduced by an average of 28.3 mmHg, with a standard
deviation of 12.0 mmHg. In addition, another sample of 20 patients takes a standard
drug. The blood pressures in this group are reduced by an average of 17.1 mmHg with a
standard deviation of 9.0 mmHg. Assume that blood pressure reductions are
approximately normally distributed. Find a 95% confidence interval for the difference
between the population mean reduction for the new drug and that of the standard drug.
Solution:
We first check the assumptions. We have two independent random samples, and the
populations are approximately normally distributed. The assumptions are satisfied.
New Drug Standard Drug

We summarize
the information: Sample mean 𝑥 1 = 28.3 𝑥 2 = 17.1
Sample stand dev. 𝑠1 = 12 𝑠2 = 9
Sample size 𝑛1 = 15 𝑛2 = 20
Population Mean 𝜇1 (unknown) 𝜇2 (unknown)
Solution
The point estimate is: Remember:
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 28.3 − 17.1 = 11.2 𝑥1 = 28.3 𝑥2 = 17.1
The degrees of freedom is the smaller of 𝑛1 − 1 = 14 𝑠1 = 12 𝑠2 = 9
and 𝑛2 − 1 = 19, which is 14. Using Table A.3, degrees 𝑛1 = 15 𝑛2 = 20
of freedom of 14 and 95% confidence level, we obtain
a critical value of 𝑡𝛼 2 = 2.145.
𝑠12 𝑠22 12.02 9.02
The standard error is + = + = 3.6946. The margin of error is 𝑡𝛼 2
𝑛1 𝑛2 15 20
𝑠12 𝑠22 12.02 9.02
∙ + = 2.145 ∙ + = 7.925.
𝑛1 𝑛2 15 20
The 95% confidence interval is
𝑠12 𝑠22 𝑠12 𝑠22
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 - 𝑡𝛼 2 ∙ + < 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 < 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑡𝛼 2 ∙ +
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2
11.2 – 7.925 < 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 < 11.2 + 7.925

3.3 < 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 < 19.1
We are 95% confident that the new drug provides a greater reduction in systolic blood
pressure, and that the improvement due to the new drug is between 3.3 and 19.1 mmHg.
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Technology and Degrees of Freedom

If you construct a confidence interval for the difference between two
means with technology, you will get a somewhat different answer than
you will get using the method we have presented here. The reason is
that computers and calculators compute the number of degrees of
freedom differently, using a more accurate but rather complicated
formula.
Most computers and calculators compute the degrees of freedom as

follows:
𝑠2 2 2
1 +𝑠2
𝑛1 𝑛2
Degrees of freedom = 2 2 2
𝑠2
1 𝑛1 + 𝑠2 𝑛1
𝑛1 −1 𝑛1 −1
Confidence Intervals on the TI-84

PLUS
The 2-SampTInt command constructs confidence
intervals for the difference of the means of two
independent samples. This command is accessed
by pressing STAT and highlighting the TESTS
menu.
If the summary statistics are given the Stats option

should be selected for the input option.

should be selected.
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A drug company has developed a new drug that is designed to reduce high blood
pressure. To test the drug, a sample of 15 patients is recruited to take the drug. Their
systolic blood pressures are reduced by an average of 28.3 mmHg, with a standard
deviation of 12.0 mmHg. In addition, another sample of 20 patients takes a standard
drug. The blood pressures in this group are reduced by an average of 17.1 mmHg with a
standard deviation of 9.0 mmHg. Assume that blood pressure reductions are
approximately normally distributed. Find a 95% confidence interval for the difference
between the population mean reduction for the new drug and that of the standard drug.
Solution:
populations are approximately normally distributed. The assumptions are satisfied.
New Drug Standard Drug

We summarize
the information: Sample mean 𝑥1 = 28.3 𝑥2 = 17.1

Solution:
2-SampTInt.
Select Stats as the input method and enter the following values:
𝑥1 = 28.3 𝑥2 = 17.1
𝑠1 = 12 𝑠2 = 9
𝑛1 = 15 𝑛2 = 20
Enter 0.95 as the confidence level and select No for the pooled option.
Select Calculate.
The confidence interval is (3.5912, 18.809). The results differ somewhat

from those when calculating the confidence interval by hand, because
the degrees of freedom has been calculated by the more accurate
formula.
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OBJECTIVE 3
Describe the pooled standard deviation and the
known standard deviation methods
Alternate Methods
In most situations in practice, Welch’s method is the method of choice for
constructing confidence intervals for the difference between two means with
independent samples. There are two other methods that are sometimes used.
They are often not the best to use in practice, however, so we will always use
Welch’s method.
Alternate Methods:
1. Using the pooled standard deviation when two population variances 𝜎12
and 𝜎22 are known to be equal.
2. Using 𝑧𝛼 2 when the population variances 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are known.
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Confidence Intervals Using Pooled Standard Deviation

When the two population variances, 𝜎12 and 𝜎12 , are known to be equal, there is an
alternate method for computing a confidence interval. This alternate method was
widely used in the past, and is still an option in many forms of technology. However,
it is not recommended. The major problem with this method is that the assumption
that the population variances are equal is very strict. The method can be quite
unreliable if it is used when the population variances are not equal.
Step 1: Compute the pooled standard deviation, 𝑠𝑝 , as follows:

𝑛1 − 1 𝑠12 + 𝑛2 − 1 𝑠22
𝑠𝑝 =
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 − 2
Step 2: Compute the degrees of freedom:
Degrees of freedom = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 − 2
A level 100(1 - 𝛼)% confidence interval is

1 1 1 1
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 - 𝑡𝛼 2 ∙ 𝑠𝑝 + < 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 < 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑡𝛼 2 ∙ 𝑠𝑝 +
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2
Confidence Intervals When 𝜎1and 𝜎2 are Known

A level 100(1 − 𝛼)% confidence interval when 𝜎1and 𝜎2 are known is
given by
𝜎12 𝜎22 𝜎12 𝜎22

𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑧𝛼 2 + < 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 < 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑧𝛼 2 +
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2
Note that this method is the same as Welch’s except that the sample
standard deviations 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are replaced with the population standard
deviations 𝜎1and 𝜎2, and 𝑡𝛼 2 is replaced with 𝑧𝛼 2 .
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You Should Know…

• The difference between independent and paired samples
• How to construct confidence intervals for the difference between two
population means
• The pooled standard deviation method
• The known standard deviation method

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO
PROPORTIONS
Section 10.2
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Objectives
1. Construct confidence intervals for the difference between two
proportions
OBJECTIVE 1
Construct confidence intervals for the difference
between two proportions
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Notation
Consider the following example. In a study of the effect of air pollution on lung
function, a random sample of 50 children living in a community with a high level of
ozone pollution had their lung capacities measured, and 14 of them had capacities
that were below normal for their size. A second random sample of 80 children was
drawn from a community with a low level of ozone pollution, and 12 of them had lung
capacities that were below normal for their size. We are interested in studying the
difference between the proportions of individuals in two different categories
(communities).
We begin by associating some notation for the population proportions, the numbers
of individuals in each category, and the sample sizes.
• 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 are the population proportions of the category of interest in the two
populations.
• 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are the numbers of individuals in the category of interest in the two
samples.
• 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 are the two sample sizes.
Point Estimate and Standard Error

The point estimates for the population proportions are the sample proportions
𝑥 𝑥
𝑝1 = 𝑛1 𝑝2 = 𝑛2
1 2
It is relatively straightforward to see that the point estimate of 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 is 𝑝1

− 𝑝2.
𝑝1 1−𝑝1 𝑝2 1−𝑝2
The sample proportions 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 have variances and
𝑛1 𝑛2
respectively. When the samples are independent, the variance of the difference
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 can be shown to be the sum of the variances of the sample proportions.
𝑝 1−𝑝1 𝑝 1−𝑝2
In other words, the variance of 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 is 1 + 2 , therefore, the
𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑝1 1−𝑝1 𝑝 1−𝑝
standard error is 𝑛1
+ 2𝑛 2 .
2
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Critical Value and Margin of Error

When the sample sizes are large enough 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 are approximately normally
distributed, so the critical value is 𝑧𝛼 2.
We multiply the standard error by the critical value to obtain the margin of
error:
𝑝1 1 − 𝑝1 𝑝2 1− 𝑝2
Margin of error = 𝑧𝛼 2 𝑛1
+ 𝑛2
The level 100(1 − 𝛼)% confidence interval is
Point estimate ± Margin of Error
𝑝1 1 − 𝑝1 𝑝2 1− 𝑝2
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ± 𝑧𝛼 2 +
𝑛1 𝑛2
Assumptions
The method for constructing a confidence interval for the difference of
population proportions requires that the sampling distribution be
approximately normal. The following assumptions ensure this:
Assumptions:
1. We have two independent simple random samples.
2. Each population is at least 20 times as large as the sample drawn from

it.
3. The individuals in each sample are divided into two categories.
4. Both samples contain at least 10 individuals in each category.
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Example
A random sample of 50 children living in a community with a high level of ozone pollution
had their lung capacities measured, and 14 of them had capacities that were below
normal. A second random sample of 80 children was drawn from a community with a low
level of ozone pollution, and 12 of them had lung capacities that were below normal.
Construct a 95% confidence interval for the difference between the proportions of
children with diminished lung capacity differ between the two communities.
Solution:
We have two independent random samples. The populations of children are more than
20 times as large as the samples. The individuals are divided into two categories with at
least 10 individuals in each category. The assumptions are satisfied. We summarize
the information:
High Pollution Low Pollution

Number with below-normal lung capacity 𝑥1 = 14 𝑥2 = 12
Population proportion 𝑝1 (unknown) 𝑝2 (unknown)
Solution
The point estimate is: Remember:
𝑥1 𝑥2 14 12 𝑥1 = 14 𝑛1 = 50
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = − = − = 0.130
𝑛1 𝑛2 50 80 𝑥2 = 12 𝑛2 = 80
The critical value for a 95% confidence interval is 𝑧𝛼 2 = 1.96.

𝑝1 1 − 𝑝1 𝑝2 1− 𝑝2 0.280(1 −0.280) 0.150(1 −0.150)
The standard error is + = + = 0.075005.
𝑛1 𝑛2 50 80
𝑝1 1 − 𝑝1 𝑝2 1− 𝑝2 0.280(1 −0.280) 0.150(1 −0.150)
The margin of error is 𝑧𝛼 2 + = 1.96 ∙ +
𝑛1 𝑛2 50 80
= 0.14701. The 95% confidence interval is

Point estimate ± Margin of Error
0.130 ± 0.14701
0.130 – 0.14701< 𝑝1 – 𝑝2 < 0.130 + 0.14701
– 0.017 < 𝑝1 – 𝑝2 < 0.277
We are 95% confident that the difference between the proportions is between −0.017 and
0.277. This confidence interval contains 0. Therefore, we cannot be sure that the
proportions of children with diminished lung capacity differ between the two communities.
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Confidence Intervals on the TI-84

PLUS
The 2-PropZInt command constructs confidence
intervals for the difference between two proportions.
This command is accessed by pressing STAT and
Input the values of 𝑥1 , 𝑛1 , 𝑥2 , and 𝑛2 and the

confidence level.

A random sample of 50 children living in a community with a high level of ozone pollution
had their lung capacities measured, and 14 of them had capacities that were below
normal. A second random sample of 80 children was drawn from a community with a low
level of ozone pollution, and 12 of them had lung capacities that were below normal.
Construct a 95% confidence interval for the difference between the proportions of
children with diminished lung capacity differ between the two communities.
Solution:
We have two independent random samples. The populations of children are more than
20 times as large as the samples. The individuals are divided into two categories with at
least 10 individuals in each category. The assumptions are satisfied. We summarize
the information:
High Pollution Low Pollution

Number with below-normal lung capacity 𝑥1 = 14 𝑥2 = 12
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Solution:
2-PropZInt.
Select Stats as the input method and enter the following values:
𝑥1 = 14 𝑛1 = 50
𝑥2 = 12 𝑛2 = 80
Enter 0.95 as the confidence level and select Calculate.
The confidence interval is (–0.17, 0.277). We are 95% confident that the
difference between the proportions is between −0.017 and 0.277. This
confidence interval contains 0. Therefore, we cannot be sure that the
proportions of children with diminished lung capacity differ between the
two communities.
You Should Know…

• The assumptions for constructing a confidence interval for the
difference between proportions
• How to construct confidence intervals for the difference between two
proportions
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PAIRED SAMPLES
Section 10.3
Objectives
1. Construct confidence intervals with paired samples
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OBJECTIVE 1
Construct confidence intervals with paired
samples
Paired Samples
Suppose we select sixteen volunteers and they are given a test in
which they had to push a button in response to the appearance of an
image on a screen. Their reaction times are measured. Then the
subjects consumed enough alcohol to raise their blood alcohol level to
0.05%. They then took the reaction test again.
Now, we have gathered two samples of data, a sample of reaction

times before alcohol consumption, and a sample after alcohol
consumption.
These are paired samples, because each value in one sample can be
paired with the value from the same person in the other sample. The
pairs of data are called matched pairs.
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Notation
We can compute the means of the two 0.05% 0% Difference
original samples as well as the mean of 1 102 103 -1
the sample of differences between each 2 100 99 1
matched pair. 3 77 69 8
4 61 50 11
5 85 96 -11
6 50 26 24
Means of the two original samples: 7 95 71 24
𝑥1 and 𝑥2 8 115 109 6
9 64 53 11
Mean of the sample differences 10 98 89 9
between each matched pair: 𝑑 11 107 103 4
12 44 27 17
13 47 50 -3
14 92 100 -8
The data for our experiment, along with the 15 70 66 4
means, is presented in the table: 16 94 86 8
Sample Mean 81.3 74.8 6.5
Relationship Between 𝑥1 , 𝑥2, and 𝑑

The values of 𝑥1, 𝑥2, and 𝑑 are
𝑥1= 81.3 , 𝑥2 = 74.8, and 𝑑 = 6.5
Simple arithmetic shows that the mean of the differences, 𝑑, is the same as the
difference between the sample means. In other words, 𝑑 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥2.
The same relationship holds for the populations. If we let 𝜇1and 𝜇2 represent
the population means and 𝜇𝑑 represent the population mean of the difference,
then 𝜇𝑑 = 𝜇1 − 𝜇2.
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Confidence Interval Using Matched Pairs

Since 𝜇𝑑 = 𝜇1 − 𝜇2, a confidence interval for the mean 𝜇𝑑 is also a
confidence interval for the difference 𝜇1 − 𝜇2. The paired data reduce
the two-sample problem to a one-sample problem.
Suppose we want to construct a confidence interval for the population

mean increase 𝜇𝑑 of our experiment. The method for computing a
confidence interval for 𝜇𝑑 is the usual method for computing a
confidence interval for a population mean.
Notation and Assumptions

Notation:
𝑑 is the sample mean of the differences between the values in the matched
pairs.
𝑠𝑑 is the sample standard deviation of the differences between the values in the
matched pairs.
𝜇𝑑 is the population mean difference for the matched pairs.
Assumptions:
1. We have two paired random samples.
2. Either the sample size is large (𝑛 > 30), or the differences between the
matched pairs come from a population that is approximately normal.
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Confidence Interval for the Mean Difference

Let 𝑑 be the sample mean of the differences between matched pairs,
and let 𝑠𝑑 be the sample standard deviation.
Let 𝜇𝑑 be the population mean difference between matched pairs.
A level 100(1 − 𝛼)% confidence interval for 𝜇𝑑 is
𝑠𝑑 𝑠𝑑
𝑑 – 𝑡𝛼 2 𝑛 < 𝜇𝑑 < 𝑑 + 𝑡𝛼 2 𝑛
Example
Suppose we select sixteen volunteers 0.05% 0% Difference
and they are given a test in which they 1 102 103 -1
had to push a button in response to the 2 100 99 1
3 77 69 8
appearance of an image on a screen. 4 61 50 11
Their reaction times are measured. 5 85 96 -11
Then the subjects consumed enough 6 50 26 24
alcohol to raise their blood alcohol level 7 95 71 24
8 115 109 6
to 0.05%. They then took the reaction
9 64 53 11
test again. 10 98 89 9
11 107 103 4
12 44 27 17
Construct a 95% confidence for 𝜇𝑑 , the 13 47 50 -3
mean difference in reaction times. 14 92 100 -8
15 70 66 4
16 94 86 8
Sample Mean 81.3 74.8 6.5
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Solution
First, we check the assumptions. Since the sample size is small (𝑛 = 16), we
construct a boxplot for the differences to check for outliers or strong skewness.
There are no outliers and no evidence of strong skewness, so we may proceed.

We compute the sample mean difference 𝑑, and the sample standard deviation
of the differences 𝑠𝑑.
The sample mean and standard deviation are

𝑑 = 6.500 𝑠𝑑 = 9.93311
The sample size is 𝑛 = 16, so the degrees of freedom is 16 − 1 = 15. The

confidence level is 95%. From Table A.3, we find the critical value to be 𝑡𝛼 2 =
2.131
Solution
𝑠𝑑 9.93311 𝑠𝑑
The standard error is = = 2.48328 and the margin of error is 𝑡𝛼 2 𝑛 =
𝑛 16
2.131(2.48328) = 5.292.

Point estimate ± margin of error
6.5 – 5.292 < 𝜇𝑑 < 6.5 + 5.292
1.2 < 𝜇𝑑 < 11.8
We are 95% confident that the mean difference is between 1.2 and 11.8. In
particular, the confidence interval does not contain 0, and all the values in the
confidence interval are positive. We can be fairly certain that the mean reaction
time is greater when the blood alcohol level is 0.05%.
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Matched Pairs and Margin of Error

Matched pairs usually have a smaller margin of error than the margin of error
for two independent samples. To see this, we will compute the sample
standard deviations for the reaction time data in the previous example.
Let 𝑠1 denote the sample standard deviation for the blood level 0.05% sample
and let 𝑠2 denote the sample standard deviation for the blood level 0 sample.
We have
𝑠1 = 22.71 𝑠2 = 27.39
If the samples had been independent, the standard error would have been
𝑠12 𝑠2 22.712 27.392
+ 𝑛2 = + 16 = 8.90
𝑛1 2 16
Because we were able to use the sample of differences, the standard error was
only 2.48. This smaller value results in a smaller margin of error.
You Should Know…

• The assumptions for confidence interval using matched pairs
• How to construct confidence intervals with paired samples
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Chapter 11
Two-Sample Hypothesis Tests
HYPOTHESIS TESTS FOR THE DIFFERENCE

BETWEEN TWO MEANS: INDEPENDENT
SAMPLES
Section 11.1
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Objectives
1. Perform a hypothesis test for the difference between two means
2. Perform a hypothesis test for the difference between two means
OBJECTIVE 1
Perform a hypothesis test for the difference
between two means using the P-value method
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Independent Samples
Scores on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
mathematics test range from 0 to 500. In a recent year, the sample mean
score for students using a computer was 309, with a sample standard
deviation of 29. For students not using a computer, the sample mean was
303, with a sample standard deviation of 32. Assume there were 60
students in the computer sample, and 40 students in the sample that didn’t
use a computer. We can see that the sample mean scores differ by 6
points: 309 − 303 = 6. Now, we are interested in the difference between
the population means, which will not be exactly the same as the difference
between the sample means.
Is it plausible that the difference between the population means could be

0? How strong is the evidence that the population mean scores are
different?
This is an example of a situation in which the data consist of two

independent samples. Two samples are independent if the observations
in one sample do not influence the observations in the other.
Notation
• 𝜇1 and 𝜇2 are the population means.
• 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are the sample means.
• 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are the sample standard deviations.
• 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 are the sample sizes.
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Null and Alternate Hypotheses

In the scores from the NAEP, the issue is whether the mean scores
from both populations of students, those using computers and those
without computers, are equal.
In other words, does 𝜇1 = 𝜇2? Therefore, the null hypothesis says

that the population means are equal:
𝐻0 : 𝜇1 = 𝜇2
As an alternate to the null hypothesis above, there are three

possibilities.
𝐻1 : 𝜇1 < 𝜇2 𝐻1 : 𝜇1 > 𝜇2 𝐻1 : 𝜇1 ≠ 𝜇2
Test Statistic
The test statistic is based on the difference between the two sample
means 𝑥1 − 𝑥2. The mean of 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 is 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 . We approximate the
standard deviation of 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 with the standard error derived in the
previous chapter.
𝑠12 𝑠22
Standard error of 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = +
𝑛1 𝑛2
The test statistic is

𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝜇1 − 𝜇2
𝑡=
𝑠12 𝑠22
+
𝑛1 𝑛2
With degrees of freedom = smaller of 𝑛1 − 1 and 𝑛2 − 1
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Assumptions
The method just described requires the following assumptions:
Assumptions:
1. We have simple random samples from two populations.
2. The samples are independent of one another.
3. Each sample size is large (𝑛 > 30), or its population is

approximately normal.
Hypothesis Test for 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 using the P-value

Method
𝑥 1 −𝑥 2 − 𝜇1 −𝜇2
Step 3: Compute the test statistic 𝑡 = .
𝑠2 2
1 + 𝑠2
𝑛1 𝑛2
Step 4: Compute the P-value
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Example
The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) tested a sample of students
who had used a computer in their mathematics classes, and another sample of students
who had not used a computer. The sample mean score for students using a computer
was 309, with a sample standard deviation of 29. For students not using a computer, the
sample mean was 303, with a sample standard deviation of 32. Assume there were 60
students in the computer sample, and 40 students in the sample that hadn’t used a
computer. Can you conclude that the population mean scores differ? Use the α = 0.05
level.
Solution:
We first check the assumptions. We have two independent random samples with sizes
larger than 30. The assumptions are satisfied. We summarize the relevant information:
With Computer Without The null and alternate

Computer hypotheses are:
Sample mean 𝑥 1 = 309 𝑥 2 = 303
Sample stand dev. 𝑠1 = 29 𝑠2 = 32 𝐻0 : 𝜇1 = 𝜇2
𝐻1 : 𝜇1 ≠ 𝜇2

Under the assumption that 𝐻0 is true, the test statistic is 𝐻0 : 𝜇1 = 𝜇2
𝐻1 : 𝜇1 ≠ 𝜇2
𝑥 1 −𝑥 2 − 𝜇1 −𝜇2 309 −303 − 0
𝑡= = = 0.953 𝑥1 = 309 𝑥2 = 303
292 322
𝑠 1 𝑠2 + 40 𝑠1 = 29 𝑠2 = 32
+
𝑛1 𝑛2
60
𝑛1 = 60 𝑛2 = 40
This is a two-tailed test, so the P-value is the

sum of the areas to the right of 0.953 and to
the left of −0.953. Using technology, we get
a P-value of 0.343.
Since P > 0.05, we do not reject 𝐻0 at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level.
There is not enough evidence to conclude that the mean scores differ between those
students who use a computer and those who do not. The mean scores may be the same.
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The 2-SampTTest command will perform a
hypothesis test for the difference between two
means when the samples are independent. This
If the summary statistics are given the Stats option

should be selected for the input option.
should be selected.

The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) tested a sample of students
who had used a computer in their mathematics classes, and another sample of students
who had not used a computer. The sample mean score for students using a computer
was 309, with a sample standard deviation of 29. For students not using a computer, the
sample mean was 303, with a sample standard deviation of 32. Assume there were 60
students in the computer sample, and 40 students in the sample that hadn’t used a
computer. Can you conclude that the population mean scores differ? Use the α = 0.05
level.
Solution:
We first check the assumptions. We have two independent random samples with sizes
larger than 30. The assumptions are satisfied. We summarize the relevant information:
With Computer Without The null and alternate

Computer hypotheses are:
Sample mean 𝑥 1 = 309 𝑥 2 = 303
Sample stand dev. 𝑠1 = 29 𝑠2 = 32 𝐻0 : 𝜇1 = 𝜇2
𝐻1 : 𝜇1 ≠ 𝜇2
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The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) tested a sample of
students who had used a computer in their mathematics classes, and another
sample of students who had not used a computer. The sample mean score for
students using a computer was 309, with a sample standard deviation of 29.
For students not using a computer, the sample mean was 303, with a sample
standard deviation of 32. Assume there were 60 students in the computer
sample, and 40 students in the sample that hadn’t used a computer. Can you
conclude that the population mean scores differ? Use the α = 0.05 level.
Solution:
select 2-SampTTest.

2-SampTTest.
Select Stats and enter the following:

With Computer Without Computer
Sample mean 𝑥 1 = 309 𝑥 2 = 303
Since we have a two-tailed test, select the ≠ 𝝁𝟎 option and No for

the pooled option.
Select Calculate.
The P-value > 0.05, so we do not reject 𝐻0 at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level.

There is not enough evidence to conclude that the mean scores
differ between those students who use a computer and those who
do not. The mean scores may be the same.
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OBJECTIVE 2
between two means using the critical value
method
Hypothesis Tests Using the Critical Value

Method
Step 1. State the null and alternate hypotheses. The null hypothesis will have the
form 𝐻0 : 𝜇1 = 𝜇2 . The alternate hypothesis will be 𝜇1 < 𝜇2 , 𝜇1 < 𝜇2 , or 𝜇1 ≠ 𝜇2 .
Step 2. Choose a significance level 𝛼, and find the critical value or values.
𝑥 1 −𝑥 2 − 𝜇1 −𝜇2
Step 3. Compute the test statistic 𝑡 =
𝑠2 2
1 + 𝑠2
𝑛1 𝑛2
Step 4. Determine whether to reject 𝐻0 , as follows:
Step 5. State a conclusion.
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Example
Treatment of wastewater is important to reduce the concentration of undesirable pollutants.
One such substance is benzene, which is used as an industrial solvent. Two methods of
water treatment are being compared. Treatment 1 is applied to five specimens of
wastewater, and treatment 2 is applied to seven specimens. The benzene concentrations,
in units of milligrams per liter, for each specimen are as follows:
Treatment 1: 7.8 7.6 5.6 6.8 6.4
Treatment 2: 4.1 6.5 3.7 7.7 7.3 4.7 5.9
How strong is the evidence that the mean concentration is less for treatment 2 than for
treatment 1? We will test at the α = 0.05 significance level.
Solution:
We first check the assumptions. Because
the samples are small, we must check for
strong skewness and outliers. We construct
dotplots for each sample. There are no
outliers, and no evidence of strong skewness,
in either sample.
Solution
𝐻0 : 𝜇1 = 𝜇2 𝐻1 : 𝜇1 > 𝜇2
We will find the critical value in Table A.3. The sample sizes are 𝑛1 = 5 and 𝑛2 =
7. For the number of degrees of freedom, we use the smaller of 5 − 1 = 4 and 7 −
1 = 6, which is 4. Because the alternate hypothesis, 𝜇1 − 𝜇2> 0, is right-tailed, the
critical value is the value with area 0.05 to its right.
We consult Table A.3 with 4 degrees of freedom and find that 𝑡𝛼 = 2.132.
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Solution
To compute the test statistic, we first compute the sample means and standard
deviations. These are
𝑥1 = 6.84 𝑥2 = 5.70 𝑠1 = 0.8989 𝑠2 = 1.5706
The sample sizes are 𝑛1 = 5 and 𝑛2 = 7. Under the assumption that 𝐻0 is true, 𝜇1
− 𝜇2= 0, the value of the test statistic is
𝑥 1 −𝑥 2 − 𝜇1−𝜇2 6.84 −5.70 − 0
𝑡= = = 1.590
0.89892 1.57062
𝑠2 2
1 +𝑠2 + 7
5
𝑛1 𝑛2
This is a right-tailed test, so we reject 𝐻0 if 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡𝛼 . Because 𝑡 = 1.590 and 𝑡𝛼 =

2.132, we do not reject 𝐻0.
There is not enough evidence to conclude that the mean benzene concentration
with treatment 1 is greater than that with treatment 2. The concentrations may be
the same.
Hypothesis Tests Using Pooled Standard Deviation

When the two population standard deviations, 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 , are known to be equal, there is
an alternate method for testing hypotheses about 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 . This alternate method was
widely used in the past, and is still an option in many computer packages. We will
describe the method here, because it is still sometimes used. However, the method is
rarely appropriate, for the same reasons that the pooled method for constructing
confidence intervals is rarely appropriate.
Step 1: Compute the pooled standard deviation, 𝑠𝑝 , as follows:

𝑛1 − 1 𝑠12 + 𝑛2 − 1 𝑠22
𝑠𝑝 =
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 − 2
Step 2: Compute the test statistic:
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝜇1 − 𝜇2
𝑡=
1 1
𝑠𝑝 +
𝑛1 𝑛2
Step 3: Compute the degrees of freedom:
Degrees of freedom = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 − 2
Step 4: Compute the P-value using a Student’s 𝑡 distribution with 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 − 2 degrees

of freedom.
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Hypothesis Tests When 𝜎1and 𝜎2 are Known

When the two population standard deviations, 𝜎1 and 𝜎2, are known, we
can modify the test statistic presented here by replacing 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 with
𝜎1 and 𝜎2, and using the standard normal distribution rather than the
Student’s 𝑡 distribution to find the P-value or critical values. In practice,
𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are rarely known, so this method is not often applicable.
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝜇1 − 𝜇2
𝑧=
σ12 σ22
+
𝑛1 𝑛2
The assumptions for this method are the same as for the method using
the Student’s 𝑡 distribution, with the additional assumption that the
population standard deviations are known.
You Should Know…

• How to perform a hypothesis test for the difference between two
means using the P-value method
means using the critical value method
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HYPOTHESIS TESTS FOR THE DIFFERENCE

BETWEEN TWO PROPORTIONS
Section 11.2
Objectives
1. Perform a hypothesis test for the difference between two
proportions using the P-value method
2. Perform a hypothesis test for the difference between two
proportions using the critical value method
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OBJECTIVE 1
between two proportions using the P-value
method
Difference Between Two Population Proportions

The General Social Survey took a poll that asked 350 employed people aged 25–40
whether they used a computer at work, and 259 said they did. They also asked the
same question of 500 employed people aged 41–65, and 384 of them said that they
used a computer at work.
We can compute the sample proportions of people who used a computer at work in
259
each of these age groups. Among those 25–40, the sample proportion was
350
384
= 0.740, and among those aged 41–65 the sample proportion was = 0.768. So
500
the sample proportion is larger among older workers.
The question of interest, however, involves the population proportions. There are two
populations involved; the population of all employed people aged 25–40, and the
population of all employed people aged 41–65. The question is whether the population
proportion of people aged 41–65 who use a computer at work is greater than the
population proportion among those aged 25–40.
This is an example of a situation in which we have two independent samples

involving sample proportions.
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Notation
We begin by associating some notation for the population proportions, the
sample proportions, the numbers of individuals in each category, and the sample
sizes.
• 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 are the population proportions of the category of interest in the two
populations.
• 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 are the proportions of the category of interest in the two samples.
• 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are the numbers of individuals in the category of interest in the two
samples.
• 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 are the two sample sizes.
Null and Alternate Hypothesis

In order to perform a hypothesis test in the previous situation, we need to
examine the issue at hand, which is whether the population proportions
𝑝1 and 𝑝2 are equal.
The null hypothesis says that they are equal:
𝐻0: 𝑝1 = 𝑝2
There are three possibilities for the alternate hypothesis:
𝐻1: 𝑝1 < 𝑝2 𝐻1 : 𝑝1 > 𝑝2 𝐻1: 𝑝1 ≠ 𝑝2
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Mean and Standard Deviation

The test statistic is based on the difference between the sample proportions,
𝑝1 – 𝑝2. When the sample size is large, this difference is approximately
normally distributed.
The mean and standard deviation of this distribution are
𝑝1 1−𝑝1 𝑝2 1−𝑝2
Mean = 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 Standard Deviation = +
𝑛1 𝑛2
Pooled Proportion
To compute the test statistic, we must find values for the mean and standard
deviation. The mean is straightforward: Under the assumption that 𝐻0 is
true, 𝑝1 – 𝑝2 = 0. The standard deviation is a bit more involved. The standard
deviation depends on the population proportions 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 , which are
unknown. We need to estimate 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 . Under 𝐻0 , we assume that 𝑝1 =
𝑝2 . Therefore, we need to estimate 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 with the same value. The value
to use is the pooled proportion, which we will denote by 𝑝.
The pooled proportion is found by treating the two samples as though they
were one big sample. We divide the total number of individuals in the
category of interest in the two samples by the sum of the two sample sizes.
𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝑝=
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
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Standard Error/Test Statistic

The standard deviation is estimated with the standard error:
𝑝 1−𝑝 𝑝 1−𝑝 1 1
Standard Error = 𝑛1
+ 𝑛2
= 𝑝 1−𝑝 𝑛1
+𝑛
2
The test statistic is the 𝑧-score of 𝑝1 – 𝑝2:
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 − 0 𝑝1 − 𝑝2
𝑧= = =
1 1 1 1
𝑝 1−𝑝 + 𝑝 1−𝑝 + 1 1
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑝 1−𝑝 𝑛1 + 𝑛2
Assumptions
The method just described for performing a hypothesis test for the
difference of population proportions requires the following assumptions.
Assumptions:
1. We have two independent simple random samples.
2. Each population is at least 20 times as large as the sample drawn from it.
3. The individuals in each sample are divided into two categories.
4. Both samples contain at least 10 individuals in each category.
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Hypothesis Test for 𝑝1 − 𝑝2

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝑥1 +𝑥2
Step 3: Compute the test statistic 𝑧 = where 𝑝 =
1 1
𝑝 1−𝑝 𝑛 +𝑛 𝑛1 +𝑛2
1 2
Step 4: Compute the P-value.
Example
whether they used a computer at work, and 259 said they did. They also asked the same
question of 500 employed people aged 41–65, and 384 of them said that they used a
computer at work. Can you conclude that the proportion of people who use a computer at
work is greater among those aged 41–65 than among those aged 25–40? Use the 𝛼 =
0.05 level.
Solution:
populations are more than 20 times as large as the samples. The individuals in each
sample are divided into two categories with more than 10 individuals in each category.
The assumptions are satisfied. We summarize the relevant information:
25-40 41-65 The null and alternate

Sample size 𝑛1 = 350 𝑛2 = 500 hypotheses are:
Number of individuals 𝑥1 = 259 𝑥2 = 384

𝐻0 : 𝑝1 = 𝑝2
Sample proportion 259 384 𝐻1 : 𝑝1 < 𝑝2
𝑝1 = = 0.740 𝑝2 = = 0.768
350 500
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The pooled proportion 𝑝 is 𝑝 =
𝑥1 +𝑥2
=
259+384
= 0.756471. 𝐻0 : 𝑝1 = 𝑝2
𝑛1 +𝑛2 350+500 𝐻1 : 𝑝1 < 𝑝2
The test statistic is 𝑛1 = 350 𝑛2 = 500
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 0.740−0.768 𝑥1 = 259 𝑥2 = 384
𝑧= = = −0.94.
𝑝 1−𝑝
1
+
1 1
0.756471(1 −0.756471) 350+ 500
1 𝑝1 = 0.740 𝑝2 = 0.768
𝑛1 𝑛2
The alternate hypothesis, 𝑝1 < 𝑝2 , is left-tailed. Therefore,

the P-value is the area to the left of 𝑧 = −0.94. We find
this area to be 0.1736.
Since P > 0.05, we do not reject 𝐻0 at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level. We cannot conclude that the
proportion of workers aged 41–65 who use a computer at work is greater than the
proportion among those aged 25–40.

The 2-PropZTest command will perform a
hypothesis test for the difference between
proportions. This command is accessed by pressing
We enter the values of 𝑥1 , 𝑛1 , 𝑥2 , and 𝑛2.
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whether they used a computer at work, and 259 said they did. They also asked the same
question of 500 employed people aged 41–65, and 384 of them said that they used a
computer at work. Can you conclude that the proportion of people who use a computer at
work is greater among those aged 41–65 than among those aged 25–40? Use the 𝛼 =
0.05 level.
Solution:
populations are more than 20 times as large as the samples. The individuals in each
sample are divided into two categories with more than 10 individuals in each category.
The assumptions are satisfied. We summarize the relevant information:
25-40 41-65 The null and alternate

hypotheses are:
Number of individuals 𝑥1 = 259 𝑥2 = 384 𝐻0 : 𝑝1 = 𝑝2
Population proportion 𝑝1 (unknown) 𝑝2 (unknown) 𝐻1 : 𝑝1 < 𝑝2

Press STAT and highlight the TESTS menu and
select 2-PropZTest. We enter the following information:
25-40 41-65
Number of individuals 𝑥1 = 259 𝑥2 = 384
Since we have a left-tailed test, select the < 𝒑𝟐 option.
Select Calculate.
The P-value is 0.1746. Since P > 0.05, we do not reject

𝐻0 at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level. We cannot conclude that the
proportion of workers aged 41–65 who use a computer
at work is greater than the proportion among those aged
25–40.
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OBJECTIVE 2
between two proportions using the critical value
method
Using the Critical Value Method

The critical value method can be used to perform a hypothesis test for the
difference between two proportions. To use the critical value method, compute
the test statistic as in the P-value method. Since the critical value is a 𝑧-score,
critical values can be found in Table A.2 or with technology. The assumptions
for the critical value method are the same as for the P-value method.
Step 1: State the null and alternate hypotheses:
Step 2: If making a decision, choose a significance level 𝛼 and find the critical
value(s).
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝑥1+𝑥2
Step 3: Compute the test statistic 𝑧 = where 𝑝 = .
1 1 𝑛1 +𝑛2
𝑝 1−𝑝 𝑛 +𝑛
1 2
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Step 4: Determine whether to reject 𝐻0, as follows:
Example
Traffic engineers tabulated types of car accidents by drivers of various ages. Out of a total
of 82,486 accidents involving drivers aged 15–24 years, 4243 of them, or 5.1%, occurred in
a driveway. Out of a total of 219,170 accidents involving drivers aged 25–64 years, 10,701
of them, or 4.9%, occurred in a driveway. Can you conclude that accidents involving drivers
aged 15–24 are more likely to occur in driveways than accidents involving drivers aged 25–
64? Use 𝛼 = 0.05.
Solution:
We have two independent samples, and the individuals in each sample fall into two
categories with at least 10 individuals in each category. The assumptions are satisfied. We
summarize the relevant information:
Ages 15-24 Ages 25-64 The null and alternate
hypotheses are:
Sample size 𝑛1 = 82,486 𝑛2 = 219,170
Number of individuals 𝑥1 = 4,243 𝑥2 = 10,701 𝐻0 : 𝑝1 = 𝑝2
4,243 10,701
Sample proportion 𝑝1 = 82,486 = 0.051439 𝑝2 = 219,170 = 0.048825 𝐻1 : 𝑝1 > 𝑝2
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𝑥1 +𝑥2 4243+10701 𝐻0 : 𝑝1 = 𝑝2
The pooled proportion is 𝑝 = = = 0.049540. 𝐻1 : 𝑝1 > 𝑝2
𝑛1 +𝑛2 82486+219170
𝑛1 = 82,486 𝑛2 = 219,170
𝑝1 − 𝑝2
The test statistic is 𝑧 = 1 1
= 2.95. 𝑥1 = 4,243 𝑥2 = 10,701
𝑝 1−𝑝 𝑛 +𝑛 𝑝1 = 0.051439 𝑝2 = 0.048825
1 2
Because this is a right-tailed test, the critical value

is the value for which the area to the right is 0.05.
This value is 𝑧𝛼 = 1.645. We reject 𝐻0 if 𝑧 > 𝑧𝛼 .
Because 𝑧 = 2.95 and 𝑧𝛼 = 1.645, we reject 𝐻0
at the 𝛼 = 0.05 level.
We conclude that accidents involving drivers aged 15–24 are more likely to occur in a
driveway than accidents involving drivers aged 25–64.
You Should Know…

proportions using the P-value method
proportions using the critical value method
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HYPOTHESIS TESTS FOR THE

PAIRED SAMPLES
Section 11.3
Objectives
1. Perform a hypothesis test with matched pairs using the P-value
method
2. Perform a hypothesis test with matched pairs using the critical
value method
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OBJECTIVE 1
Perform a hypothesis test with matched pairs
Paired Samples
A sample of eight automobiles were run to determine their mileage, in
miles per gallon. Then each car was given a tune-up, and run again to
measure the mileage a second time.
Automobile After Before
1 35.44 33.76
The sample mean mileage was 2 35.17 34.30
higher after tune-up. We would 3 31.07 29.55
4 31.57 30.90
like to determine how strong the
5 26.48 24.92
evidence is that the population 6 23.11 21.78
mean mileage is higher after 7 25.18 24.30
tune-up. 8 32.39 31.25
These are paired samples, because each value before tune-up is

paired with the value from the same car after tune-up.
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Matched Pairs
When we have paired samples, the pairs are called matched pairs. By
computing the difference between the values in each matched pair, we
construct a sample of differences:
If we denote the population mean Automobile After Before Difference

mileage before tune-up by 𝜇1, and 1 35.44 33.76 1.68
the population mean mileage after 2 35.17 34.30 0.87
3 31.07 29.55 1.52
tune-up by 𝜇2, then we are interested
4 31.57 30.90 0.67
in the difference 𝜇1 − 𝜇2. Because
5 26.48 24.92 1.56
these are paired samples, the 6 23.11 21.78 1.33
population mean of the differences, 7 25.18 24.30 0.88
𝜇𝑑, is the same as 𝜇1 − 𝜇2. Therefore, 8 32.39 31.25 1.14
performing a hypothesis test on 𝜇𝑑 is
the same as performing a hypothesis
test on the difference of the population
means 𝜇1 − 𝜇2.
Notation
• 𝑑 is the sample mean of the differences between the values in the

matched pairs.
• 𝑠𝑑 is the sample standard deviation of the differences between the

values in the matched pairs.
• 𝜇𝑑 is the population mean difference for the matched pairs.
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Assumptions
The method just described requires the following assumptions:
Assumptions:
1. We have a simple random sample of matched pairs.
2. Either the sample size is large (𝑛 > 30), or the differences between
items in the matched pairs show no evidence of strong skewness and
no outliers. This is required to be sure that 𝑑 will be approximately
normally distributed.
Hypothesis Test with Matched-Pair Data Using

the P-Value Method
𝑑 − 𝜇0
𝑠𝑑 𝑛
Step 4: Compute the P-value. The P-value is an area under the 𝑡 curve with
𝑛 − 1 degrees of freedom.
Step 5: Interpret the P-value. If making a decision, reject 𝐻0 if the P-value is less than
or equal to the significance level 𝛼.
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Example
Using the data about a tune-up improving car Automobile Difference
engine gas mileage, test 𝐻0: 𝜇d = 0 versus 1 1.68
2 0.87
𝐻1 : 𝜇d > 0. Use the 𝛼 = 0.01 significance level.
3 1.52
4 0.67
5 1.56
Solution: 6 1.33
7 0.88
We have a simple random sample of differences.
8 1.14
Because the sample size is small (𝑛 = 8), we must
check for signs of strong skewness or outliers.
Following is a dotplot of the differences.
The dotplot does not reveal any outliers or strong skewness. Therefore we
may proceed.
Solution
The null and alternate hypotheses are 𝐻0: 𝜇d = 0 versus 𝐻1 : 𝜇d > 0.
We compute the sample mean and sample standard deviation of the differences.
These are
𝑑 = 1.20625 𝑠𝑑 = 0.37317
Under the assumption that 𝐻0 is true, 𝜇d = 𝜇0 = 0, and the value of the test
statistic is
𝑑 − 𝜇0 1.20625 −0
𝑡= = = 9.1427.
𝑠𝑑 𝑛 0.37317 8
Also, the test statistic has a 𝑡 distribution with 𝑛 − 1 = 8 − 7 degrees of freedom.
Since this is a right tailed test, the P-value is the area to the right of the observed
value of 𝑡 = 9.1427. Using Table A.3 or technology, we find that P = 0.0000193.
The P-value is nearly 0, which is very strong evidence against 𝐻0. Because P <
0.01, we reject 𝐻0 at the 𝛼 = 0.01 level. We conclude that the gas mileage
increased after a tune-up.
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OBJECTIVE 2
Perform a hypothesis test with matched pairs
Testing a Hypothesis with Matched-Pair Data

The critical value method for matched-pair data is essentially the same as that for a
population mean with 𝜎 unknown. The assumptions for the critical value method are the
same as for the P-value method.
Step 2: Choose a significance level 𝛼 and find the critical value or values.
𝑑 − 𝜇0
𝑠𝑑 𝑛
Step 4: Determine whether to reject 𝐻0 , as follows:
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Example
For a sample of nine automobiles, Automobile Rear Front Difference
the mileage (in 1000s of miles) at 1 42.7 32.8 9.9
which the original front brake pads 2 36.7 26.6 10.1
3 46.1 35.6 10.5
were worn to 10% of their original
4 46.0 36.4 9.6
thickness was measured, as was
5 39.9 29.2 10.7
the mileage at which the original 6 51.7 40.9 10.8
rear brake pads were worn to 10% 7 51.6 40.9 10.7
of their original thickness. The 8 46.1 34.8 11.3
results are given. 9 47.3 36.6 10.7
The differences in the last column of the table are Rear − Front. Can you
conclude that the mean time for the rear brake pads to wear out is longer than
the mean time for the front pads? Use the α = 0.05 significance level.
Solution
Since the sample size is small, we construct a dotplot.
The dotplot shows no evidence of outliers or extreme skewness, so we may

proceed.
We are interested in determining whether the mean time for the rear pads is
longer than for the front. Therefore, the hypotheses are
𝐻0 : 𝜇d = 0 𝐻1 : 𝜇d > 0
Because this is a right-tailed test, the critical value is the value for which the
area to the right is 0.05. The sample size is 𝑛 = 9, so there are 9 − 1 = 8
degrees of freedom. The critical value is 𝑡𝛼 = 1.860.
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Solution
We compute the sample mean and standard deviation of the differences
𝑑 = 10.1444 𝑠𝑑 = 1.0333
𝑑−0 10.478
The test statistic is 𝑡 = = = 60.28.
𝑠𝑑 𝑛 0.5215 9
This is a right-tailed test, so we reject 𝐻0 if 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡𝛼 . Because 𝑡 = 60.28 and 𝑡𝛼 =

1.860, we reject at 𝐻0 the 𝛼 = 0.05 level.
We conclude that the mean time for rear brake pads to wear out is longer than
the mean time for front brake pads.
You Should Know…

• How to perform a hypothesis test with matched pairs using the P-
value method
• How to perform a hypothesis test with matched pairs using the
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2/13/2017

Introduction to Statistics Course

Spring Semester 2017

Instructor: Prof. Dr. Samir Khaled Safi

Numerical Summaries of Data

Mean of a Data Set

Notation - Population Versus Sample

Computing the Mean

∑𝑥𝑖 represents the sum of these numbers: ∑𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + … + 𝑥𝑛

The procedure for computing the median differs, depending on whether

The median is the middle The median is the average of

Mean and Median on the TI-84 PLUS

The 1-Var Stats command returns the following quantities:

Mean and Median on the TI-84 PLUS

Step 1: Enter the data in L1.

Step 3: Select 1-Var Stats and press ENTER.

Mean, Median, and the Shape of a Data Set

When a data set is skewed to the right, there

Similarly, when a data set is skewed to the left,

Mode for Qualitative Data

Honda Toyota Toyota Honda Ford

“Toyota” appears most frequently. Therefore, the mode is “Toyota”.

Approximating the Mean

Step 3: Add the products (Midpoint)x(Frequency) over all classes.

Number of Text Messages Sent Frequency

Number of Text Messages Sent Class Frequency

Number of Text Messages Sent Class Frequency (Midpoint)x

Grouped Data on the TI-84 PLUS

TI-84 PLUS Example

You Should Know…

The average monthly temperatures, in degrees Fahrenheit, for San

The range of temperatures is: 63 – 51 = 12.

Although the range is easy to compute, it is not often used in practice.

The variance is computed slightly differently for populations and

Definition: Population Variance

Example – Population Variance

Example – Population Variance

Step 4: Sum the squared deviations to obtain the quantity ∑ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇 2.

It can be shown mathematically that the appropriate correction is to

Example – Sample Variance

The sample variance is given by

We do this simply by taking the square root of the variance. This

Sample Standard Deviation Population Standard Deviation

Example – Standard Deviation

Standard Deviation on the TI-84 PLUS

Enter the data into L1 in the data editor.

Run the 1-Var Stats command (the same command

Standard Deviation and Resistance

The standard deviation is not resistant.

That is, the standard deviation is affected by extreme values.

Approximating the Standard Deviation

Number of Text Messages Sent Frequency

Number of Text Messages Sent Class

Number of Text Messages Sent Class (Midpoint –

Number of Text Messages Sent Frequency (Midpoint – (Midpoint –

∑ Midpoint−Mean 2 × Frequency 292,800

Grouped Data on the TI-84 PLUS

The Empirical Rule