Lesson 3: Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells

Generally, there are two major classification or types of cell based on their structural
composition. The prokaryotic cell and the Eukaryotic cell.

I. PROKARYOTIC CELL

Prokaryotes includes those organisms belonging archaeans and bacteria. These are
unicellular organisms and can withstand harsh environmental conditions which eukaryotic cells
could not.

Prokaryotic cells have the following characteristics:

1. Prokaryotes lack an organized nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

2. Prokaryotic DNA is found in a central part of the cell called the nucleoid.
3. The cell wall of a prokaryote acts as an extra layer of protection, helps maintain cell
shape, and prevents dehydration and made up mainly of peptidoglycan.
4. Prokaryotic cell size ranges from 0.1 to 5.0 μm in diameter.
5. The small size of prokaryotes allows quick entry and diffusion of ions and molecules to
other parts of the cell while also allowing fast removal of waste products out of the cell.

STRUCTURES OF A PROKARYOTIC CELL

Prokaryotic cells have the following parts:

1. Cell membrane- the outer covering of the cell that separates it with the cell interior.
2. Cytoplasm- consists of jelly like substances including the structures suspended on it.
3. Ribosomes- molecular machines that synthesizes proteins.
4. DNA/RNA – the genetic material
5. Cell Wall- made up mostly of peptidoglycan, a polymer composed of carbohydrates and
proteins, that provides extra cellular protection and help maintains its shape.
6. Capsule- a sticky carbohydrates that helps the cell attached to surfaces in its environment.
7. Pili – rod- like surface structures in bacteria that allow a bacterium to transfer DNA
molecules to other bacteria while in others, it is involved in locomotion.
8. Fimbriae- numerous hair-like structures that are used for attachment to host cells and
surfaces in the environment.
9. Flagellum – a whip-like structure that helps bacteria move.

Figure 16. Generalized structure of a Prokaryotic cell. Source: Khan Academy.org

II. EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Typically, eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells. They have a well -
organized nucleus and membrane –bound organelles in the cytoplasm. Eukaryotes include
animals, plants, fungi and protists.

The table below is a comparison of the cellular components in prokaryotic cell and
eukaryotic cells represented by the Plant and animal cells.

Table 3. Comparison of the components of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Cell components Present in Present in Present in

Prokaryotes? animal cells? plant cells?
1. Plasma membrane Yes Yes Yes
2. Cytoplasm Yes Yes Yes
3. Nucleus No Yes Yes
4. Ribosomes Yes Yes Yes
5. Mitochondria No Yes Yes
6. Peroxisomes No Yes Yes
7. Vesicles and vacuoles No Yes Yes
8. Centrosome No Yes No
9. Lysosomes No Yes No
10. Cell wall Yes, primarily No Yes,
peptidoglycan primarily
cellulose
11. Chloroplast No No Yes
12. Endoplasmic reticulum No Yes Yes
13. Golgi Bodies No Yes Yes
14. Central Vacuole No No Yes
15. Flagella Some Some No, except
for some
sperm cells
16. Cilia Some Some No
17. Capsule Some No No

Most prokaryotic cells reproduce through a process called binary fission. During binary fission,
the single DNA molecule replicates and the original cell is divided into two identical daughter
cells. Eukaryotic cells on the other hand, grow and reproduce through a process called mitosis and
meiosis.
Both types of cell are dependent on cellular respiration for their energy needs. In prokaryotic cells,
cellular respiration takes place in the cytoplasm and/or within the cell membrane. In eukaryotes,
respiration takes place in the mitochondria.

Cells made up the living world. Whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, they play an important role in
the biosphere by being a component of the diverse forms of life that interplay in the ecosystem.
Biodiversity is a unique feature of the living world.

Lesson 4: Cell Types

Multicellular organisms are made up of trillions of cells which are organized to form tissues,
organs and organ systems that performs specific functions. There are many types of cells making up the
organism and each of these cells perform specific functions.

I. TYPES OF ANIMAL CELL

The following are the most common type of animal cells and their functions.

I. Epithelial Cells – these are cells forming the coverings of the body and line body cavities.
They come in different shapes. It can be squamous (flat), cuboidal (cubelike) or Columnar
(elongated). Example: Skin cells, mucus cells

Figure 17. Simple cuboidal epithelial cells. Source: Buzzle.com

II. Muscle Cells – These cells are mostly long, large and have the ability to contract and relax
providing movements. There are three types namely:
1. Skeletal muscle cells – attached to long bones and assist in their movement.
2. Cardiac muscle cells – cells of the heart. Similar to skeletal muscle in structure but
involuntary in nature.
3. Smooth muscle cells – they flexible yet can contract and relax and are present in internal
organs such as stomach, intestines and blood vessel walls.

Figure 17. Different Types of

Muscle cells
 Source: https://www.pinterest.ph
/pin/732538695628297522/

III. Bone Cells or Osteocytes – They are the toughest body cell as they are bound together by
Calcium and Phosphate. They gave strength, support and framework to the body.

Figure 18. The different bone cells.

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/714594665863174304/

IV. Cartilage cells or chondrocytes – similar to bone cells but made up mostly of collagen
which makes it flexible and bendable. Present in ears, nose, joints and between two ribs.

Figure 19. Structure of a cartilage showing the chondrocytes or cartilage cell.

Source: http://www.auburn.edu/academic/classes/zy/hist0509/html/Lec05Bnotes-cart_bone_bloo.html
 V. Nerve Cells or Neurons- These cells are very long and have many branching at either ends.
They never multiply in one’s life time. They form the brain, spinal cord and peripheral
nervous tissue. Neurons communicate with each other as well as with other cells through
electric signals (nerve impulses), which in turn allows effector organs to respond to the
appropriate stimuli.

Figure 20. Structure of a Neuron

Source: Wikipedia

VI. Secretory cells or glandular cells- They form glands and secretes substances needed by the
cells. Example: Pancreatic cells –secretes insulin, salivary glands secrete saliva

Figure 21. Cells of the Pancreatic gland

Source: https://www.shutterstock.com/search/glandular+cell

VII. Adipose cells- These are fat cells and are storage y nature to store fats. They are seen in
soles, palms and bums. They reduce friction to the body.

Adipocyte

Figure 22. Adipocytes contain fat droplets making up the adipose tissue.
Source: http://www.anatomybox.com/adipose/
VIII. Blood cells – These cells include Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells and platelets. They are
freely moving and have a limited life span. Blood cells do not undergo mitosis. Red blood
cells carry oxygen and remove waste materials from body cells; White blood cells protects
the body from foreign pathogens and platelets initiates the clotting process.

Figure 23. The different types of blood cell.

Source: https://www.craigdailypress.com/news/memorial-regional-health-blood-cells-reveal-
much-about-overall-health-simple-blood-cell-count-an-important-lab-test/

IX. Special Type of Cells:

1. Sperm Cell – a haploid cell present in male individuals. Its primary function is for
reproduction.
2. Oocytes – female reproductive cell and is also haploid like the sperm cell.
3. Stem cells – These are basic cells or parent cells which can differentiate into any of the
cell based on requirement.
4. Rods and Cones – These cells are present in the retina of the eye. They are the
photoreceptors in the human eye.
5. Ciliated cells – These cells are present in the linings of the respiratory tract and
esophagus and have a pointed-threadlike cilia which move in a particular direction to
pass materials.

II. TYPES OF PLANT CELLS

In Structure, plants are far simpler than animals. Plant are made up of only two structural
systems: The root system and the shoot system. The root system includes all structures underground
and the shoot system includes all parts of the plant above the ground such as stem, leaves. flowers and
fruits.

1. Parenchyma cells - are live thin-walled cells with permeable walls that are undifferentiated.
They do not have a specialized structure hence they easily adapt and differentiate into a variety of
cells performing different functions such as storage, absorption of light for photosynthesis,
transport of substances, biochemical secretions, gas exchange.
2. Collenchyma cells -are cells that are long with a primary thick cell wall. The cell wall is normally
irregular and made up of cellulose and pectin molecules. During maturity, at some point, they
resemble the parenchyma cells which transform into the collenchyma cells. When a few cells
accumulate, the Golgi bodies along with the endoplasmic reticulum come up together to form the

primary cell wall. When two cells fuse, they form a thin primary wall that doesn’t differentiate to
collenchyma cells. Therefore the more the cells accumulate and fuse, they form a strong irregular
functional primary cell wall. These newly formed cells are elongated to give support for the plant
to grow. However, the primary wall doesn’t have lignin, a polymeric organic complex that forms
strong structural tissues of vascular plants giving it rigid support, especially in wood and bark and
that it also prevents rotting.

Functions of Collenchyma cells

1. Being the living cells in plant tissues, they give support to the plant areas that are growing and
maturing in length. Since the cell wall lacks lignin, it remains supple giving the plant parts like
young stems, young roots, and young leaves plastic (stretchable) support.
2. They offer flexibility and tensile strength to plant tissues, allowing the plants to bend.
3. They also allow the plant parts to grow and elongate.
4. Collenchyma can combine with the chloroplast and perform the process of photosynthesis.
3. Sclerenchyma cells- They have a lignified cell wall, making them extremely hard. These make
them more rigid in comparison to the parenchyma and the collenchyma cells. They also have
suberin and cutin, which makes them waterproofed. Because of their rigidity and waterproof effect,
they do not live for long since they cannot exchange materials for cellular metabolisms to sustain
their longevity. Therefore in the event of fully developing their functional maturity (a phase for
cytoplasm formation), they are dead.

Functions of the sclerenchyma cells

1. Due to their thickened cell wall, they offer protection and support to other plant tissues
especially the tree trunks and fibers of large herbal trees.
2. The hardened cell wall discourages herbivory. Ingestion of the hard cell wall causes damage to
the digestive tract of larval stage insects, especially in peach fruits.
3. Sclerenchyma found fibers are used in making fabric, thread, and yarns.

4. Xylem cells- are complex cells found in the vascular tissues of plants mostly in woody plants.
The primary function of the xylem cells is to transport water and soluble nutrients, minerals
and inorganic ions upwardly from the roots of the plants and its parts. These elements flow
freely through the xylem tracheids and vessel elements with the aid of the xylem sap.

5. Phloem cells These cells are located outside the xylem layer of cells. They become alive at
maturity because they need the energy to move materials. They function to transport food from
the plant leaves to other parts of the plant. They also have a flaccid cell wall hence they lack
tensile strength that allows them to move materials at high pressure.

6. Meristematic cells- are thin- walled cells that lack the central vacuole and are composed of
immature plastids. They continuously divide and differentiate giving rise to the different tissues
 in the plant body. The apical meristem found at the tips of roots and stem is responsible for
the increase in length while the lateral meristem increases the thickness or diameter of the

stem and roots. The intercalary meristem found at the base of leaves give rise to variations
in the sizes of leaves.

7. Epidermal cells - These are the external cells of the plants offering protection from water loss,
pathogenic invaders such as fungi. They are placed closely together with no intracellular
spaces. They are covered with a waxy cuticle layer to reduce water loss.
These cells cover the plant stems, leaves, roots and plant seeds.

Meristematic
cells

Parenchyma cells

Sclerenchyma cells
Epidermal cells

Figure 24 . The different types of plant cells. Source: Microbenotes.com

You have seen some of the most common types of cell in the body. They come in different shapes
and sizes but they are similar in chemical composition and a slight difference in structures because of
their functions. Each type of cell has a specific function.

Lesson 5: Cell Modification

Most multicellular organisms start their life as a single cell- a fertilized egg. During this stage, cell
divides repeatedly to produce many cells that will ultimately differentiate to form specialized structures
that will perform a specific function.
Cell Specialization or modification is actually a process that occurs after cell division where the
newly formed cells are structurally modified so that they can perform their function efficiently and
effectively.
Cell modifications are commonly observed in epithelial tissue. It includes
TYPES OF CELL MODIFICATION

1. Apical ( Surface or Luminal) modifications - It is specialized to carry out functions that

occur at these interfaces, including secretion, absorption, and movement of luminal contents.

a. Cilia – are hair like projection on epithelial cells that beat in coordinated waves and often
moving on surface coat of mucus and trapped materials. They function primarily as
receptors (photoreceptors, mechanoreceptors and mechanoreceptors), transport of fluid
and for locomotion as in paramecium.

Figure 25. Ciliated epithelial cells. Source: https://en.ppt-online.org/447523

b. Flagella –It is a tail-like projection that protrudes from the cell body of certain prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells, and functions in locomotion.

Figure 26. Flagella in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Source: http://lifeofplant.blogspot.com/2011/04/flagella-and-cilia.html
https://www.invitra.com/en/sperm-cell/

c. Microvilli- are microscopic cellular membrane protrusions that increase the surface area of
cells. They can be found in the intestines, kidney proximal tubules, sensory cells of the inner
ear, cells of the taste buds and olfactory receptor cells. Their functions are: absorption,
secretions, cellular adhesions and mechanotransduction in proximal tubules of the kidney.
Figure 27. Villi and Microvilli in the small intestines. Source: https://socratic.org/questions/how-is-the-
structure-of-a-villi-in-the-small-intestine-related-to-its-function

2. Lateral Specialization/modification- cell modification found on the lateral (side) surface of a cell.

Figure 28. The different types of cell junctions Source: https://www.nature.com/scitable/content/the-different-types-

of-cell-junctions-14714296/
Tight junctions (blue dots) between cells are connected areas of the plasma membrane that stitch cells together. Adherens
junctions (red dots) join the actin filaments of neighboring cells together. Desmosomes are even stronger connections that
join the intermediate filaments of neighboring cells. Hemidesmosomes (light blue) connect intermediate filaments of a cell to
the basal lamina, a combination of extracellular molecules on other cell surfaces. Gap junctions (yellow) are clusters of
channels that form tunnels of aqueous connectivity between cells.
Figure 29. Examples of cell junctions. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_junction

a. Tight junctions - are located near the cell apex and seal off the intercellular space, allowing
the epithelium to isolate certain body compartments (they help keep intestinal bacteria and
toxins out of the bloodstream). Its function is to prevent leakage of transported solutes and
water and seals the para-cellular pathway.

Figure 30. Diagram of a tight junction. Source: Wikipedia

b. Adherens junctions - are protein complexes that occur at cell–cell junctions in epithelial and
endothelial tissues, usually more basal than tight junctions. Fasten cells to one another. (See
figure 29.) The Adherens junction performs multiple functions including initiation and
stabilization of cell-cell adhesion, regulation of the actin cytoskeleton, intracellular signaling
and transcriptional regulation. ... Together, these proteins control the formation,
maintenance and function of adherens junctions.

c. Gap junctions – are also called communicating junction. They directly connect the cytoplasm
of two cells, which allows various molecules, ions, and electrical impulses to directly pass
through a regulated gate between cells.
 Figure 31. Structure of the Gap Junction.
Source: https://www.slideshare.net/magaoaykevin/lesson-4-cell-modifications

3. Basal Modification – a surface modification found at the basal surface of the cell.

a. Desmosomes -are adhesive intercellular junctions that mechanically integrate adjacent cells
by coupling adhesive interactions mediated by desmosomal cadherins to the intermediate
filament cytoskeletal network. (See figure 29). Anchoring junctions on the basal surface of
the cell.
b. Hemidesmosomes – rivet like links between cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix.

Figure 31. A structure of epithelial cell showing

the desmosome and hemidesmosome.
Source:
https://www.histology.leeds.ac.uk/cell/cell_jun
ctions.php

Cells are the basic unit of life. They have structures that every organisms need in order to perform
life functions. Cells may come in different shapes, sizes and structures but basically they are the same in
chemical composition. Cells differentiation or modification is a part of the development of an organism
that allows the different cells to specialize in order to perform specific functions. Modification also allows
cell to perform their functions efficiently and effectively.