ABSTRACT

The samples are femur, vertebrate column (Lumber), skull, and cervical vertebrate
(Thoracic), rib and pelvic girdle bones. They were all collected from one ram
slaughtered at Kano abattoir. The samples have undergone several steps of
treatment which include removal of flesh, crushing, defatting and drying. The
samples were ashes in a murple furnace at 7500C for 5 hours. The calcium contents
in the samples were determined by the use of Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
(AAS). The results were 255mg/kg, 240mg/kg, 200mg/kg, 240mg/kg, 220mg/kg, and
lastly 230mg/kg, for femur, vertebrate column, skull, cervical vertebrate, rib and
pelvic girdle bones respectively.
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Bones are rigid organs that form part of the endo-skeleton of vertebrates. Bone plays
a vital role on movement, support and protection to the various organs of the body.
It produces red and white blood cells and also store minerals. Bone tissue is a type
of dense connective tissue. Because bones come in a variety of shapes and have a
complex internal and external structure, they are light weight, yet strong and hard,
in addition to fulfilling their many other function. (Stele et al., 1988).

COMPONENTS OF BONE

Bone is a connective tissue largely composed of an organic protein called collagen

and the inorganic mineral called hydroxyapatite. One of the types of tissue that
makes up bone is the mineralized osseous tissue, also called bone tissue that gives it
rigidity and a honey comb-like three dimensional internal structure. Other types of
tissue found in bones include marrow, endosteum and peridsteum, nerves, blood
vessels and cartilage. According to Prashanth, (2009), the collagen and
hydroxyapatite combine together and provide mechanical and supportive role in the
body.

(I) COLLIATION

Bone is a connective tissue largely composed of an organic protein called collagen

and the inorganic mineral called hydroxyapatite. One of the types of tissue that
makes up bone is the mineralized osseous tissue, also called bone tissue that gives it
rigidity and a honey comb-like three dimensional internal structure. Other types of
tissue found in bones include marrow, endosteum and peridsteum, nerves, blood
vessels and cartilage.
(ii) Hydroxyapatite

About 70% of bone is made up of the inorganic minerals, hydroxyapatite. This is

composed of calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, calcium hydroxide and citrate.
These inorganic components are predominately crystalline, though they may be
present in amorphous form. The crystals are platelets or rods of about 8–15A thick,
20-40A wide and 200-400A long.

The substitution mechanisms that occurs in the hydroxyapatite of bone include

intercrystalline exchanges and recrystallisation due to dissolution and reformation
of crystals to replace calcium ions that are being absorbed/adsorbed on the crystal
surface (Smith et al., 1983).

Functions of Bone

Bone is hard part of the body that forms skeleton of human or animal body which
gives support and protection to the body. (Oxford Advance Leaner’s Dictionary, 7th
Edition, 2011). Functions of bone include the following.

(i) Protection

Bones serve as protection to internal organs such as skull for brain protection, ribs
for heart and lungs protection.

(ii)Shapes

Bone provides a frame structure and keeps the body well supported.

(II) MOVEMENT

Bones, skeleton, muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints function together to generate
and transfer forces, so that the body will move (Steele et al., 1988).

(iv) Sound Transduction

Bones are important in the mechanical aspect of over shadowed hearing.

(V) BLOOD PRODUCTION Blood is produce in a long bone containing what is

called bone marrow and the process of producing is known as hematopoiesis.

(VI) MINERAL STORAGE Bone act as a reservoir of important minerals for the
body. Most notably calcium and phosphorus.

(VII) GROWTH FACTOR FOR STORAGE Mineralized bone matrix also store
important growth factor such as insulin, bone phogenetics, protein and others.

(VIII) FAT STORAGE

The yellow bone marrow act as a storage reserve of fatty acid.

(IX) ACID BASE BALANCE

Bone buffers the blood against excessive pH change by absorbing/releasing alkaline

SaH.

(X) DETOXIFICATION It can also store a heavy metal and others foreign element
removing them from blood so as to reduce their effect on other tissues. These later
be gradually release through excretion.

(XI) ENDOCRINE ORGAN Bone controls phosphates metabolism by releasing

fibroblast that is a growth factor which act on kidney to reduce phosphate re-
absorption. (Steele et al., 1988).

1.1.2 Calcium

This is a mineral that help build strong bones and teeth while you need calcium
throughout your life. Amount you need changes over time you need a lot of calcium
during your growing years to build strong bone. The most abundant mineral in the
body is calcium and it’s found in some foods added to others available as dietary
supplement and also present in some medicines (such as antacid). Calcium required
for vascular contraction and vasodilatation muscles function; nerve transmission,
intracellular signaling, and hormonal secretion. Through, less than 1% of total body
calcium is needed to support these critical metabolic functions. Serum calcium is
very tightly regulated and does not fluctuate with change in dietary intake, the
calcium is blood, muscles and intercellular fluids. The remaining 99% of the calcium
supply is stored in the bone and teeth where it supports their structure and function.
Bone itself undergoes continues remodeling with constant re-absorption and
deposition of changes with ages. Bone formation exceed re-absorption in period of
growth in children and adolescence where as in early and mid-adult particularly
among postmenopausal women, bone breakdown exceed formation resulting in tone
loss that increase the risk of Osteoporosis overtime (Legros et al., 1987). In a strictly
operational sense, calcium balance is determined by the relationship between
calcium intake and calcium absorption and excretion. A striking feature of the
system is that relatively small change in calcium absorption and excretion can
neutralize a high intake or compensate for a low one. There is a wide variation in
calcium intake among nations generally following the animal protein intake and
depending largely on dietary production / consumption. The lowest calcium intakes
are in developing countries, particularly Asia, and the highest are in developed
countries particularly in USA, Canada and Europe. Other issues on calcium include
the following.

(A) CALCIUM DEFICIENCY

In adequate intake of dietary calcium from food and supplement produce no

obvious symptoms in the short term. Circulating blood level of calcium are
tightly regulated hypocalcemia result primarily from medical problems or
treatment including renal failure surgical removal of the stomach and use of
certain medication (such as dieuretics) symptom of muscles cramps, convulsion,
lethargy, poor apatite and abnormal heart rhythms; if left untreated calcium
deficiency may lead to deat Over the long term inadequate calcium intake causes
Osteopenia which, if left untreated can lead to Osteoporosis and the risk of tone
fracture also increase in calcium deficiency can also cause rickets in children
though it’s more commonly associated with vitamin D deficiency (Legross et al,
1987).

(B) CHEMISTRY AND DISTRIBUTION OF CALCIUM

Calcium ion is a divalent cation, while the atomic weight is 40 and atomic number
of 20. It belongs to group two in the periodic table, calcium as an element is a
gray silvery metal that is hard and is essential constituent of leaves, bones and
teeth. Calcium is classified chemically as one of the alkaline earth metals
(Gillespia, R., 1989),. 1.1.3 Basic Information on Sheep According to taxonomy
that is classification of organisms into group’s base on similarities of origin and
structure sheep are classified in a tabular form below as follows:-

HABITAT OF A SHEEP

Sheep is a domestic animal. It adopts to live with people.

LIFE EXPECTANCY This means how long an organism is expected to live and
the life expectancy of a sheep is about 10- 12years, but some tend to live more
than that. E.g. According to the Guinness Book of Record the oldest sheep lived
23year.

FOOD: Mostly, sheep eat grasses, clovers, fords and other pasture plants. They
also eat variety of plant especially more notorious diet. Some Types of Bone in
Sheep With regard to this research project the content of calcium in different type
of bones in a particular animal is to be determined so there is need to explained
or define the type of bones that are going to be used. The definitions are as
follows:-

(I) THE CERVICAL VERTEBRATE

This is commonly known as neck-bone. It’s found in the neck region of all
mammals and their characteristics feature are presence of transverse process of
vertebraterial nodes on each side, round opening at the centre serve as the passage
of spinal cord and the possession of a small neural spine. Smith et al. (2003)

(II) THE SKULL

The skull bone consist of two major parts namely the cranium and facial bone.
Here the major concern would only be the cranium which is made up of a flat and
curved bone that are firmly fitted together by the saw-like edges called suture.
The main bones making up the cranium are frontal perital, temporal and occipited
bone. This cranium is commonly known as train box bone i.e. it encases and
protects the brain. Smith et al. (2003)

(ii) VERTEBRATE COLUMN

This is also called back-bone and it’s made up of 33hort bones. Each bone is
called a vertebra also they enclose and protect the spinal cord. They support skull
and provide the attachment sites for muscles. Smith et al. (2003)

(III) PELVIC GIRDLE

The pelvic bone consist of ilium, ischium and the pubis all of which are fused
together on each side of the body as the in nominate bone. The distal end of pelvic
girdle form a cavity called acetabullum into which the head of femur bone fits to
form the ball and socket hip joint. Smith et al. (2003)

xtremities that bears a head with a separating patella groove. It works with
massive muscles play a key role in locomotion and also in maintaining up right
posture. (Legros et al., 1987). (VI) RIB BONE This is bony and cartilaginous
structures which surrounds the thoracic cavity and support the pectoral girdles
forming a core portion of the human skeleton. Rib bone is also called a thoracic
cage and provides attachments for the muscles of neck, thorax, upper abdomen
and back. White folkens et al, (2005).