Bachelor of Arts (Honours)

POLITICAL SCIENCE

BAPS
DSE-04

WOMEN, POWER AND POLITICS

Block-02
FEMINISM: ISSUES (1)

UNIT 5: PATRIARCHY
UNIT 6: SEX AND GENDER
UNIT 7: GENDER, POWER AND POLITICS
UNIT 8: WOMEN AND FAMILY
Course Writer

Dr. Ashok Nimesh

Assistant Professor,
Central University of Jharkhand
(Unit 5)

Course Editor

Dr.Dasarathi Bhuyan
Associate Professor Political Science, Berhampur University
(Unit-5)

Course Coordinator

Ms.Tulasi Ray
Academic Consultant (Political Science)
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur

Material Production
Prof. (Dr.) Manas Ranjan Pujari
Registrar
Odisha State Open University

© OSOU, 2021. Development process and social movements

in contemporary India is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-
ShareAlike 4.0http://creativecommons.org/licences/by-sa/4.0
Printed by:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Unit 6, 7,8 of this block is designed and developed by OER sources.
UNIT-5 PATRIARCHY
Structure

5.1 Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Understanding Patriarchy
5.4 Feminism and Patriarchy
5.4.1 Liberal Feminism
5.4.2 Marxist Feminism
5.4.3 Capitalist Patriarchy
5.4.4 Radical Feminism
5.4.5 Other Feminism
5.5 Patriarchy in India
5.5.1 Patriarchy and Sexuality of Women
5.5.2 Brahminical Patriarchy
5.5.3 The Kinship Structure
5.5.4 Institution of Marriage under Patriarchy
5.6 Contemporary Patriarchy and the Men
5.7 Summary
5.8 Exercises
5.9 References

5.1 OBJECTIVES

This unit will provide you with an in-depth understanding of the concept of
Patriarchy. It will give you an analytical insight into the dynamics of various social
institutions and their interplay in sustaining patriarchy through the ages. It will
specifically help you in understanding patriarchy in Indian socio-cultural settings and
the status of women in them. In the end, you will be able to:

 Explain the concept and definition of patriarchy

 Describe the role of various institutions in enforcing patriarchy
 Distinguish various forms of feminism and their views on patriarchy
 Locate the status and role of women in forces of production and reproduction
 Co-relate the intersectionality of caste, class, and race in patriarchy
 Know the importance of women's sexuality in the discourse of patriarchy
 Discuss the social transformations under marriage, family, and kinship

5.2 INTRODUCTION

Human civilizations have achieved unprecedented signs of progress in almost every

sphere of life. Interestingly, the level of progress it has achieved in the last few
decades has surpassed those of the last few centuries or more. Scholars have
universally acknowledged this radical transformation as a shift from traditional pre-
modern societies to an entirely new age of modernity. A step further, many of them
have taken a stand to address this new world as an age of post-modernity. It is a social
step-up where every other institution and idea was deconstructed and re-evaluated
through critical inquiry to sustain in the contemporary world. This is the theoretic
edifice on which both the modern and post-modern societies flourished.

The scholars cross-cutting through various disciplines and discourses have never
settled over a universally agreed definition of progress. Most of them attribute it to
economic development as the sin qua non, of progress. By doing this they devalued
other spheres of human lives and establish a hierarchical design of progress expressed
through economic development. This is also true to an extent when we see the
dimensions of human lives, especially the progress achieved in the social sector.
Societal progress has lacked far behind as compared to the economic sector. There is
no parallel between the two.

Societal institutions throughout the world suffer from multiple deformities varying
from discrimination to subjugation and likewise selective communities based on their
ascribed status of caste, colour, creed, race, or ethnicity. The physical parameters
acquired by birth and which are out of human control were made central to base the
rationale for establishing inequality. Through these inequalities, the dominant group
of people has established a hierarchy among people, cherishing their superiority at the
cost of others being subordinates to inferior. The Indian caste system is one such
example created through the Brahminical order of hierarchy which is in-humanistic
and discriminatory against the other castes. Another such example is gender
inequality. In the gender binary, the women are always subjected to discrimination
premised on multiple arguments, institutions, and practices. Surprisingly, the practice
of gender discrimination based on established gender inequalities is universal. They
transcend through every societal structure in almost every civilization while
establishing arbitrary culture and practices. India has not been left behind in this. You
can easily find numerable examples in the day-to-day life of gender discriminatory
practices which ultimately cost women in their extremes. You may have seen the
practice of dowry during wedding ceremonies in your nearby area. It is extremely
biased in favour of men, costing women not only monetary losses but also the mental
and psychological stress of dowry practice, its bargain, and finally objectification of
women as a property for consumption of men.

The new India, as a concept recently propounded by the political elite, is based on the
principles of liberalism and its offshoot market economy, with a minimal state. It is
aspired for a radical transformation of the state into a viable entity to compete with
the world’s best-developed nations like America, Japan, and Germany. Holistic
efforts undoubtedly waged for the same. But again, societal progress is not in priority.
This has cost heavily women. Societal institutions and practices are going unhindered
against the women. You might have encountered recent news of women being
subjected to burnt-alive by a local crowd on the pretext of witch-hunting in the district
of Lohardaga in Jharkhand. The incident not only shook the human conscience but
also pose a bigger question of which pathways our society is heading towards.
Another incident that was there in the media was about the restricted entry of women
into Sabrimala Temple in the Pathanamthitta district of the state of Kerala. Even after
the judgment of the Supreme Court of India, it was not conducive for women to get
access to the temple. In this way, many cultural institutions have restrained women
from various rituals and practices which were reserved only for men.

You can easily find out the status of women in contemporary Indian society. They
were denied the right to parental property for ages. Equally, they were not entitled to
have a legal claim over the property and resources of their in-laws. Adultery was a
punishable offence only for women till recently when the Apex Court has strike down
the arbitrary law. Their movement was regulated by institutions like Khap Panchayats
and Jati Panchayats. Even in institutions of higher education, they are restrained in
several ways. The Pinjra Tod Movement at Jamia Millia Islamia University in the
Capital city of Delhi was there in the recent news. It was launched by female students
to get the freedom of movement in and outside the hostel at par with the male students
who had unhindered access to the library and other educational buildings after the
sunset, a borderline (or Lakshman Rekha in Hindi) fixed for women. The female
students were frequently subjected to assaults in many educational institutions.
Recently, the female students in the Banaras Hindu University have conducted a
protest march and procession against the establishment for their failure to contain
such incidents of abuse. It was also in the headlines since many female students
encountered injuries due to assaults.

The women were subjected to insubordination, discrimination, and ostracization at

every level of their lives through innumerable institutions and agencies. These
institutions have established various prejudices and stereotypes against women. Later,
they were nurtured and entrenched deep in the societal fabric. This is done through
patriarchy. Now, you will be introduced to the concept and phenomenon of patriarchy
in detail.

5.3 UNDERSTANDING PATRIARCHY

The concept of patriarchy is very complex. It is a socio-cultural construct that

transcends political, economic, and other aspects of individual lives. It is difficult to
settle over a universally agreed definition of patriarchy. But few scholars have tried
to encapsulate the important aspects of patriarchy in their definition. Likewise,
Cathrine J. Nash wrote that ‘patriarchy is an analytical concept referring to a system
of political, social and economic relations and institutions structured around the
gender inequality of socially defined men and women. This means that the practice is
limited to the binary of men and women in a heterosexual relationship. A relationship
patterned in the hierarchy of male domination, over and above the female. It is rightly
defined in the words of Sylvia Walby that, ‘patriarchy is a system of social structure
and practices in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women’. In that way
patriarchy is a concept that works like a process or phenomenon with a defined
objective i.e., to subjugate women.

The subjugation of women is premised based on power-sharing. Gender inequality in

that sense is inequality of power holdings between the opposite genders. Power holds
a central position in the patriarchal structure. It is legitimized through another
important component called culture. It is through the cultural institutions that
patriarchy is inculcated in the mindsets of common people. Cultural institutions like
religion, festivals, rituals, arts, etc. play a crucial role in crafting orientations and
common patterns of human behaviour. These institutions are very much integral to a
culture. Here you have to understand that in the world we have several civilizations
and within them a greater number of cultures. No two cultures are identical in
themselves. So, no two institutions are linear in that sense. Cultures and their
institutions vary from country to country in every period and space. Interestingly,
these cultural variations are not obstacles to the process of acculturation. Through
acculturation, we learn values and imitate behaviour patterns from older generations
and pass it on to the future generations. Over time many values wither away and others
got deeply entrenched in the societal fabric. Patriarchy got deeply rooted in that
process. It got spread through the process of socialization among the people.
Theoretically, patriarchy has become a universal and overarching reality that is
dynamic to every specific culture.

The significant role played by culture in the context of gender relations is primarily
in inventing gender norms and secondarily in enforcing them through various
institutions. Culture prescribes diagonally opposite roles for men and women. The
roles are heavily biased in favour of men and at the cost of women. They are termed
gender roles. You must know that biologically the binary sex was male and female
which were later transformed into the gender connotation of men and women through
cultural settings. Later, the gender roles were stabilized through the process called
gendering. It resulted in the establishment of gender identity of the binary to be known
as either men or women. Further, these institutions worked for designing the sexual
orientation of the binary. They nurtured the notion of heterosexuality and restrained
the binary in that compartment. Any possibilities beyond heterosexual orientation
were strictly guarded by these institutions. In heterosexual orientation too, the norms
were biased in favour of men. And lastly, these cultural institutions crafted the
mechanisms for the expression of a particular gender. Segregated gender expressions
were introduced to the binary. Through this division, personality traits were identified
and attributed separately to each of the genders. The attributes were recognized as
masculine and feminine while the expressions were connoted as masculinity and
femininity. Surprisingly, masculinity was appreciated positively while feminine traits
were devalued and demeaned. Gender expressions beyond the binary like tomboy,
girlish men, or effeminate were severely boycotted. Overall, the entire process of
transformation from sex to gender and later to gender identity, its orientation, and
expression through biases is the result of patriarchy. As defined by writer Cynthia
Enloe, ‘patriarchy is the structural and ideological system that perpetuates the
privileging of hegemonic masculinities.

Contrarily to the notion of patriarchy which was argued as a negative process, some
theoreticians argued in defence of it. They hailed from natural sciences and thus gave
scientific arguments to substantiate patriarchy as a natural and not historical
phenomenon. Moreover, they justified it as natural and very much integral to the
biology of human beings. They were addressed as socio-biologist since they heavily
relied on biological explanations of social realities. They argue that patriarchy is the
result of inherent biology and not social conditioning. It is the biological makeup that
results in male domination in the gender binary and not otherwise. Such arguments
were established by Steven Goldberg in his book titled, The Inevitability of Patriarchy
published dated back in the year 1973. Another such claim premised on scientific
explanation was on the human brain, where scientists argued that women and men
think while utilizing different compartments of the brain located on the left and the
right sides simultaneously and not in identical ways. Such claims were propounded
during the late seventies and eighties. But they all got redundant over time and most
of them were discarded. This was due to the impact of feminism which started
questioning the systematic biases against women in more rational ways.

Patriarchy as a concept was not a result of feminism. It was devised initially for
explaining the locus of power in a political organization. According to Carole
Pateman (1988), the word patriarchy was first used by Sir Robert Filmer in his popular
work titled, Patriarcha (1680) where he tried to establish a legitimate source of power
in the society. He was bewildered by the task to resolve the issues of maintenance and
regulation of power relations in a society. For that purpose, he has taken an extreme
step and challenged the biblical tradition of middle-ages. It was the period when the
Church was holding all sorts of power and authority while the State was secondary to
it. To reinforce state authority, he has crafted the idea of a political monarch. Since it
was not easy to break the traditions and yield wider acceptance, so he replicated the
familial system of authority into the political structure. He argued that paternal and
political power was not merely analogous but identical. The male authority was at the
helm of entire family affairs, so it was rational to have a monarch in a socio-political
setup. While stating that, ‘kings were fathers and fathers were kings’, he argued in
defence of an absolute monarch based on paternalistic grounds. It was one of the first
arguments on the discourse of patriarchy which Pateman termed Classical
Patriarchalism. It was a system where men in form of fathers use to dominate women
in the family and the macrostructure of the state. Later, with time, the fathers were
replaced with the term men in societal structure. This resulted in the domination of
fathers in the family and men in society over women. This phase of patriarchy was
termed Fraternal Patriarchy. While the final culmination of patriarchy was connoted
as Modern Patriarchy. It is a system of maintaining class, gender, racial, and other
heterosexual privileges and the status quo of power relying both on crude forms of
oppression like violence and subtle ones, like laws to perpetuate inequality. Overall,
patriarchy enforced in the political domain found its way into the socio-cultural
realities and was established there as a discriminatory practice. But the evolution of
patriarchy remained contested among scholars.

It was Gerda Lerner who in her work, The Creation of Patriarchy, published in 1986
systematically explained the evolution of patriarchy. She has studied ancient
Mesopotamian Societies especially the Sumerian, Babylonian, Akkadian, and
Hebrew cultures from the period of 3500 BC to 500 BC. It was the region that
corresponds to Iraq in West Asia. Through her studies, she found that no single factor
was responsible for the evolution of patriarchy and the present form is an outcome of
joint efforts of both the men and women. Initially, the gender relations were very
simple and the division of labour was not complex. Men singularly worked for
hunting and women along with economic activities does household work and reared
children. It became complex with the advent of agriculture. Agriculture and sedentary
lives have given birth to unequal family structures. With agriculture, production
becomes central and so does the need for more labour. And since women were the
source of reproduction, they were brought under the control of men. The societies
started engaging in war, where the men were killed and women were kept as the
source for the reproduction of labour. Gerda Lerner has drawn an inference that
women were the first to get enslaved by men as property as a part of animal
husbandry. She has challenged the Marxist claim of property which precedes the
control and ownership of women. There are various manifolds of feminism that
contested patriarchy. Let us discuss them.

5.4 FEMINISM AND PATRIARCHY

Patriarchy is deeply entrenched in almost every society. It has reached a level where
people find it natural to their existence and seldom contest against gender power
dynamics, it enforces in the society. It was with the advent of feminist ideology that
institutions of patriarchy were brought under scrutiny and examined. Every such idea
or institution of patriarchy that enforces gender suppression to subjugation or
ostracization was put to criticism. Patriarchy in that way has paved the way for the
evolution of Feminism as an ideology. Moreover, feminism came in multiple forms a
different points in time to conceptualize patriarchy through its own set of ideas.

5.4.1 Liberal Feminism

It was one of the first forms of feminism that came into existence. In the mid of 18 th
century, a group of scholars primarily from anthropology and allied disciplines started
researching the issues of women. They found many shocking pieces of evidence and
instances from which inferences were drawn. Through these studies, they established
logical explanations and theoretical foundations substantiating arguments on various
processes, practices, and institutions related to women. They constitute liberal
feminism.

Liberal feminism questioned the customary and legal framework of patriarchy which
has undermined the physical and intellectual capabilities of women. They argued that
patriarchy has confined women to household activities and other responsibilities of
childbearing and child-rearing. It has restrained women from the public sphere based
on femininity which was crafted as a negative attribute. The major focus area of
liberal feminism was the absence of women from the public sphere. They found
female subordination in terms of unequal distribution of rights and opportunities in
society. Hence, they prescribed reforming the public sphere through providing legal
and political rights to women. For this reason, they were addressed essentially as
Reformists. Scholars like Mary Wollstonecraft through her landmark work,
Vindication of the Rights of the Women (1792), have endorsed equal opportunities for
both men and women without any discrimination. She espoused education as the tool
for women to alleviate their status in society at par with men. Another social scientist
J S Mill in his work, Subjection of Women (1869) has also argued for establishing
equality for women both in public and political spheres.

Liberal feminism as an ideological setup has a limited outreach. It was criticized for
being individualistic and for overlooking the familial, societal, and structural
elements of male dominance and patriarchy. It has not addressed them, but rather
concentrated its focus only on a macro unit of the public sphere. It has also not dealt
with the plight of women in multiple settings of caste, class, and race. For this reason,
it became an ideology limited to elite women. But out of all odds, it goes to liberal
feminism for heralding an era of the movement against the dominant ideas and
structures of patriarchy enduring gender inequality.

5.4.2 Marxist Feminism

This form of feminism conceptualizes patriarchy based on Marxist ideas and writings.
Unlike liberal feminists who fail to find out the reasons for the origin of patriarchy
and male dominance, Marxist feminists substantiate it logically. They argued that
patriarchy originated with the origin of private property. Private property has brought
the concept of ownership, which was required to maximize production and ultimately
profit. Men started claiming ownership over various assets. Since women were the
source of production and reproduction, they were brought under the control of men.
It was done through the evolution of family and various societal institutions.
Patriarchy in that way has facilitated the capitalist mode of production. One of the
earliest Marxist scholars Fredrich Engels in his work, Origin of the Family, Private
Property and the State (1884) has stated that ‘patriarchy is the world-historical defeat
of the female sex’.

Though Marxist feminism has provided reasons for the evolution of patriarchy they
were criticized for being limited in its theoretical findings. Rather than establishing a
new framework of analysis, they have only incorporated gender dynamics in their
existing framework of class exploitation. Moreover, they have not explained the
reasons for women's subjugation before the origin of private property.

5.4.3 Capitalist Patriarchy

This concept has been brought by another fold of feminists’ ideology called Social
feminism. Like Marxist feminists, they were also influenced by the ideas of Marxism.
The concept of capitalist patriarchy was introduced to substantiate the argument that
patriarchy was not limited to the traditional forms of societies. It has permeated one
of the most advanced societies in the world which claims for being modern and
rational. Social feminism explores the possibilities of any relationships between the
capitalistic class structure with that hierarchical social structure. They conceptualized
the two-fold relationship that existed between the capitalist and worker in the
capitalistic structure. They found that in the economic sphere, capitalist exploits the
workers by paying low wages and taking a surplus profit. It renders them
discriminated against and exploited for which the other sphere of consciousness come
into play. It is from here that the workers develop self-realization of their status and
existence between the forces of production. After acquiring consciousness, they
motivate to alter those forces of production through revolt. Revolution to transform
the inhuman system of production into a more humane and judicious one. Social
feminists found an analogous relationship between the two structures. They equate
women in social settings of the family with that workers in industries.

Social feminist Zillah Eisenstein in her work, Capitalist Patriarchy and the Case of
Socialist Feminism (1979), has found the relationship of workers in capitalist
structure with that of women in household settings. She contends that the nature of
domination for women in the household is similar to that of workers in the industry,
but varies in the valuation of jobs that workers are paid for the same labour which
women were not. The nature of work is also similar in the sense that women tend to
work for the benefit of family members likewise the worker labours for benefit of
capitalists. The subjection of women is caused due unpaid work which does not have
any value attached but is rather rendered by them as a service to their family.
Moreover, the morals of love, care, and altruism drive women into a situation where
she is instrumentalized to serve without any returns.

Social feminism establishes a significant link between the capitalist mode of

production with that of female subordination, the two different settings. They contend
that the confinement of women in household work fulfils two major agendas of
capitalism. The first is that it relieves the capitalist class from the burden of domestic
work and other household activities. Women perform them all, without any monetary
gains, which again benefits the capitalist. They fetch surplus time to focus on the
capitalist mode of production. Second, women help in rearing and caring for children
of the capitalist class who are going to serve the interest of their fathers in the future.
This way they contribute to generating the next generation of the capitalist class while
acting as a ‘reserve army of labour’. In both ways, women do not receive anything
for their benefit. Moreover, their household work is not valued in the capitalist
structure. Capitalist Patriarchy in that way deprived women of the economic sphere
of activities that social feminist profoundly defends for them.

5.4.4 Radical Feminism

This stream of feminism emerged during mid 19th century with the second wave of
feminism. They have focused on the private sphere of individual lives including the
dynamics of interpersonal relationships. They claimed that patriarchy functions
primarily in the personal relationship of the binary where men dominate and subjugate
women. It functions at every level of decision making including the intimate ones.
For this reason, all societies, historical or contemporary are characterized primarily
as patriarchal.

Radical feminist contends that women being the source for production and
reproduction, their bodies hold a significant position. And patriarchy functions to
control the sexuality of women under the domination of men. Feminist scholar
Adrienne Rich writes in her work, Of Women Born (1976) that, ‘there is nothing
revolutionary whatsoever about the control of women’s bodies by men. The women’s
body is the terrain on which patriarchy is erected. So, the tendency of men to control
the reproductive capacities of women is the root cause of the propagation of
patriarchy.

Radical feminist acknowledges the biological differences between gender binaries.

They also describe the role played by cultural institutions in reinforcing gender roles
for them. As discussed before, the process of gendering is what radical feminists
countered. Gendering is done under the umbrella of patriarchy which always results
in a hierarchy of gender roles and a power imbalance tilted heavily in favour of men.
This is the reason for which radical feminists proclaimed the need for a sexual
revolution. A revolution to restructure personal, domestic, and family lives. But
likewise other feminists, the radicals also failed to suggest measures to end patriarchy
and improve the plight of women. They are criticized for being biologically
determinists and reductionists in their theoretical construct.

5.4.5 Other Feminisms

As you know that we have evolved several feminist ideologies to address the
subjugation of women, you should also know that every such feminist ideology has
its own set of theories and concepts to suffice its arguments on patriarchy and gender
inequality.

Few prominent feminist schools of thought have found that societal elements like
race, caste, colour, etc. do play a significant role within the patriarchal structure. But
they also complicate it to the next level. For example, colour is privileged over gender
for which white women face less discrimination compared to women of colour. And
the women of colour also face discrimination from the white women. Black feminism
as an ideology conceptualizes this complexity. They contend that colour
discrimination is so engrossed in societies that people of colour (usually the black
skin colour) were subjected to discrimination beyond the gender connotation. And
even in gender settings, white women discriminate against both the men and women
of coloured skin.

Another fold of feminism identical to black feminism is Dalit feminism. They contend
the interplay of the caste system and its hierarchy is a prominent element in gender
subjugation. Women of lower caste in the established caste hierarchy were subjected
to intense discrimination compared to women of high caste. And likewise, Black
feminists and Dalit feminism contend that lower caste women and men both were
subjected to ill-treatment by both the men and women of high caste. Gender binaries
of males over and above females become secondary to the concept of caste. Both the
Black and Dalit feminism argue that colour and caste have deeply entrenched in the
society and are the hard realities to live with. Black feminist scholar Bell Hooks writes
that ‘we have to constantly critique imperialist white supremacist patriarchal culture
because it is normalized by mass media and rendered unproblematic’. So, they
recommend education and awareness as the tool to break these stereotypical barriers
of caste and colour to emancipate women and to an extent men in lower categories.

5.5 PATRIARCHY IN INDIA

The interplay of patriarchy is very complicated when it comes to India. It has a unique
history of societal development both in terms of institutions and their values. To
understand the patriarchal dynamics, you need to unfold the concepts like the one of
women's sexuality.

5.5.1 Patriarchy and Sexuality of Women

In the Indian context, patriarchy is manifested through the control of men over the
sexuality of women. It is done through the structures of marriage, kinship, and family.
Except for a few exceptions of tribal societies in India which were matrilineal, most
of the societies are patrilineal. They essentially result in the production of patriarchal
structures.

It starts with the idea of virginity enforced as an attribute essential for women to
become brides. In that way, pre-marital sex is considered an immoral act. The body
is considered a substance that got polluted due to pre-marital sex. Hence, the act is
also called moral pollution. So, the women were required to keep themselves pure. It
is here where the concept of purity came into existence. The concept of purity is
employed to build caste distance and hierarchies. The exchange of women for
marriage is done through selective procedure maintaining caste structure. In that way,
the sexuality of women becomes a part of a larger social structure. Women were
restricted to the caste system through stringent punishments for instances of hypo-
gamy with minimal acceptance of hyper-gamy. Here you have to understand that high
caste men marrying low caste women is hyper-gamy and permissible in a few
instances but low caste men were punished if they marry women of high caste i.e.,
hypo-gamy. You must have read in newspapers about the criminal incidents of honour
killings in India based on caste hierarchies.

Similarly, in matters of kinship women's sexuality is regulated. They were the

medium for the reproduction of the lineage. Their sexuality is restricted within the
heterosexual orientation usually with one man but in many cases, we have evidence
of multiple husbands or women married to the brother in cases of the husband’s death.
But in no way they were allowed to move out of the patrilineal system. It is because
they carry the future generation with them and moving out of the patrilineal system
will undermine the kinship of the family and its resources.

The family as an institution also guards the sexuality of women under the pretext of
moral virtue rendering protection to them. They were kept under the surveillance of
fathers and brothers to prevent them from having any intimacy with anyone before
the marriage and after. Unlike matrilineal societies where the sexuality of women is
kept under less control and toleration by the people, women in patrilineal societies
were under great control and violation of sexuality is not tolerated. This means that
men are the users of women's sexuality for their private and social purposes.

5.5.2 Brahminical Patriarchy

Feminist historian Uma Chakravarti has coined the term Brahmanical Patriarchy to
address the form of patriarchy prevalent in Indian society. She contends that the caste
system devised by upper caste people in the social structure succeeded in segregating
people of low castes from intermingling with people of high caste. It has restrained
low caste men to have access to high caste women but not the opposite. Men of high
caste can have unhindered access to women of low caste.

Moreover, in her findings, Uma Chakravarty establishes the fact that

Dharamshashtras has prescribed greater control of women's sexuality due to the
dependency of men on women for family and lineage. For that purpose, texts like
Manusmriti and Mahabharata professed heterosexual relationships. But Manusmirti
took an extreme step denouncing women for their inability to handle sexuality and
honesty in their character. So, the high caste men have established stringent control
over their women. They have made women economically and ritually dependent on
them. Upper caste women in that way were supremely lacking in their autonomy and
sexuality. They are severely guarded and monitored by their male kin as part of their
upper-caste privilege. The same is not with low caste women who have more freedom
with few restrictions. Hence, Brahmanical patriarchy affects women of high caste
more than the women of low caste.
5.5.3 The Kinship Structure

You know kinship is generally the blood relations or ties of a person in the matrix of
social relations which we loosely categorize into family or relatives. In India, we
primarily have a patrilineal kinship structure with very few societies specifically the
tribal being matrilineal. But by the passage of time, patrilineal kinship structure
dominated the social fabric.

In patrilineal structure, man occupies the central position of being a member of the
family and inheriting the resources. A woman contrarily does not belong to her family
and has to leave her home to settle with the family of her husband. Due to this
phenomenon, the residence of women becomes a crucial component of social reality.
Since the woman leaves her home, she is debarred of property and other resources of
her own family. And in any case, if she got property or resources from her family, in
that case also, the ownership automatically transfers to her in-laws or husband’s
family. Moreover, she does not have control over the resources of her in-law’s family.
Post-marriages she turns down to became resourceless. Her natural attribute of
reproduction also went under the control of her in-laws as they demand children
usually a male child. So, a woman lost her control over resources and reproduction
only because she leaves her home. This is the reason for many feminists to contend
residence of women is not a material but rather an ideological expression of the
principle of kinship. It is the core from where patriarchy operates in the social
structure.

Matrilineal societies were contrarily found functional only in selected tribal societies
of India. They were geographically located in certain pockets of the central and
northeastern parts of India. Few were also found in the Garhwal Kumaon hill region
of north India. But by the passage of time and increased inter-tribal dialogues and
exchanges, they have gradually shifted towards the patrilineal structure of kinship.
This shift was the result of the dominant idea of the patrilineal structure of kinship
that undermined their traditions and practices. Matrilineal institutions were demeaned
and ridiculed by the dominant patriarchal society. This resulted in them adopting the
dominant idea of society. You might be amazed to learn about a tribal community of
central India the Gonds of Vidharbha in Maharashtra who have made this shift. They
have shifted from the practice of bride-price which was very much matrilineal to the
practice of dowry which is patrilineal. This is the impact of patriarchy which has
infused the patrilineal structure of kinship in almost every social structure of the
country.

5.5.4 Institution of Marriage Under Patriarchy

You know that the institution of marriage in India is considered sacred. But the
sacredness is limited to the practice of arranged marriages. Love marriages or
marriages based on inter-caste or inter-faith were severely discouraged. Except for a
few exceptions, they were not at all entertained among the people including the most
learned communities in India. There are many reasons for carrying this conservative
thought primarily unscientific and discriminatory. One important factor is
maintaining caste distances and hierarchies created under the Brahminical order and
the other is patriarchy.

Patriarchy is a dominant factor in arranged marriages in India. It starts with the system
of fixing a marriage between the two individuals. In the process, the consent of men
is seldom taken into consideration but women were hardly asked for their choices and
consent. Elderly people specifically men were respected because their age factor
dominates the process. They fix the wedding as per their calculations of caste, class,
and other matrices. Then comes the dowry practice, which is based on negotiations
of monetary and other resources sought by the family of the groom from the family
of the bride. This negotiation creates the subordination of the bride’s family to the
dominance of the groom’s family. It also functions at the level of elderly men of the
families engaged in marriage. The hierarchy created through the practice of dowry
continues with the entire process of marriage. Most of the rituals were hierarchical
like the kanyadaan or giving daughter as charity. Even after marriage, the women
were dominated by other women called the mothers-in-law. They regulate the
interpersonal relations of the couple through the manifestation of power and authority.
This is how patriarchy operates beyond the gender binaries. Women in the decisive
position of power and authority do act in conformity with the patriarchal norms. They
worked under the patriarchal setup which is the main argument of structural feminists.

5.6 CONTEMPORARY PATRIARCHY AND THE MEN

Social transformations are happening worldwide through their outreach is limited to

the educated or conscious people. The impact of patriarchy on women were known
for ages but in the contemporary era, they are now visible to men. There is a
significant rise in the number of men worldwide who are being affected by the toxicity
of patriarchy. There is a rise of consciousness among the men about their being used
as a channel to propagate patriarchal practices.

Structural feminists connote that patriarchy functions in a broader setup through

designing a social structure that enforces hierarchical gender norms. It is the entire
structure that becomes gendered to bias men over women. Anyone who reaches the
position from where patriarchy is manifested acts in those ways. For example, you
can easily find out that in families where an elderly woman holds the authority, acts
in identical ways to the one an elderly man. It is due to the entire structure which got
patriarchal in its entirety.

In the contemporary period, men have realized their status as independent entities not
to be used as an agent directly or directly in subtle forms for the propagation of
patriarchal norms. They have started resisting those practices which are against
women. You can now find many instances where weddings were organized without
a dowry. Women are treated equally in sharing responsibilities and resources. The
transformations are positive toward gender justice, hopefully, to usher a new era of
humanity.

5.7 SUMMARY

Patriarchy operates in a multifaceted way to subjugate women. Where power is central

to patriarchy, cultures work in legitimizing the same. It reinforces gender roles while
feminizing and masculinizing the heterosexual binary. The process is called
gendering. It helps in rooting patriarchy in the societal structure. Few scholars have
endorsed it as natural to the human being. They are socio-biologists but their
arguments fail to sustain for a longer period. They were brought into the contest by
various folds of feminism. Of them, the Liberal Feminists contend that patriarchy has
diminished the presence of women in the public sphere. Their emancipation can only
be possible through legal reforms and the dissemination of rights to women.

Marxist Feminist on the different line addresses the issues of women from an
economic perspective. They claim that private property is the base on which societal
structures are built. The longing for private property drives men to occupy maximum
resources. It is so strong that they do not share resources with women and debar them
for it. The entire gamut of the state and its institutions were crafted to suffice the goal
of the economic interests of men. This idea is further driven by Social Feminists. They
claim that women were restrained to household activities by the capitalist class to get
themselves relieved from domestic labour and other household work. Moreover,
women kept to child-rearing and caring will result in the production of another class
of capitalists, for which women act as the ‘reserve army of labour’. Radical feminists
in a different setting claim that patriarchy functions in inter-personal relations which
are private to the couple. It is the sexuality of women which is brought under the
control of men through which they are made dependent on men. They cease to have
control over both the economic resources and the reproductive rights. Similarly,
Structural feminists and Black or Dalit Feminism unfolded the complex pattern of
patriarchy. They found that patriarchy has helped in establishing unequal arbitrary
structures in the societal setup. It facilitated casteism, racism, and xenophobia in
society.

In the specific context of India, patriarchy functions in regulating the marriages,

kinship, and sexuality of women. It drives the societal exchanges and customary
practices of inheritance, ownership, and lineage patterns within the family and beyond
it. Women from all folds of society were victimized by patriarchal institutions. Even
the dominant and rich women of elite families are not left behind. They do suffer from
Brahminical Patriarchy.

In contemporary times, things are positively changing as both men and women are
acting in their full capacities against patriarchal practices and institutions. We can
make positive changes in society.
5.8 EXERCISES

1. Discuss Patriarchy in detail with suitable examples.

2. What are the major arguments of Radical Feminists on the Evolution of
Patriarchy?
3. What is Brahminical Patriarchy?
4. Discuss the role of Women's Sexuality in Patriarchy.
5. Explain how Patriarchy functions in a Marriage System.

5.9 REFERENCES

1. Chakravarti, Uma (2002). Gendering Caste: Through a Feminist Lens,

Delhi: Sage Publications.

2. Lerner, Gerda (1986). The Creation of Patriarchy, New York: Oxford

University Press.
3. Pateman, Carole (1988). The Sexual Contract, California: Stanford
University Press.

4. Walby, Sylvia (1990). Theorizing Patriarchy, Cambridge: Basil Blackwell

Inc.
UNIT-6 SEX AND GENDER

Structure

6.1 Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 The Making of Gender
6.3.1 Gender Expression
6.3.2 Gender Roles
6.3.3 Socialization of Gender
6.4 Culture and Gender: The Connections
6.5 Patriarchy, Power and Gender
6.5.1 Role of Institutional Patriarchy and Power in Shaping Gender Relations
6.6 Summary
6.7 Exercise
6.8 References
6.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to understand :

• The concept of gender and its complexities in shaping societal behaviours

• Be able to locate the ways in which patriarchy impinges upon society and
produces privilege and power for men over women.
• Be also able to use the conceptual frameworks to analyse the specificities of
gender and its intersectionalities and how these create unique experiences of
marginalities for some women and men
• Develop an ability to utilize the gendered concepts for social work practice

6.2 INTRODUCTION
Gender as a category of analysis for social relations forms an important dimension in
feminist social work practice. While working with people gendered identities and
relationships are embedded in power relations and hierarchies emanating out of the
social stratifications based on gender, caste, ethnicity, disability, region and religion.
Sex is what is perceived as “natural” and biological and gender as “cultural”, which
includes the ways in which cultural norms of different communities and societies
shape and socialize behaviours, attitudes, and access to resources for women and men.
However this binary of women and men is fluid and not necessarily the same for all
persons in the given society/community.

What needs to be understood and kept in mind while working on issues as social
workers, is the inequalities that emerge out of the gendered transactions that people
engage in their lives based on their location within households, community, in
institutions formal (e.g., panchayats, municipal corporations, bureaucracy, political
organisations, NGOs etc) and informal (e.g., cultural groups, social groups).
Inequalities are also justified on the basis of biological determinism wherein a
woman’s ‘nurturing’ role is often eulogized as a “good quality” and hence care work
remains the gendered domain of work for ‘women”. At the same time this work is not
seen as significant and is largely seen as ‘private’ within the domain of the household.
This devaluing of the work that women do within household creates inequalities as
choices made by women has to be based on prioritizing this work first and then any
other work that they may do outside the household. Thus biological determinism plays
a very important role in creating inequalities for women and thereby creating
conditions of structural oppression.

6.3 THE MAKING OF GENDER

Certain characteristics and behaviours of people are categorized as masculine and

feminine through cultural norms and practice. Often when a child is born, there is an
effort to gently and at times through disciplining measures push towards what is the
acceptable ‘male’ behaviour or ‘female’ behaviour’. However sex and gender have
different dimensions and needs to be understood as such. Sex is the
physical/anatomical structure, which is linked to one’s physical reproductive organ
that is used to assign sex at birth. The biological sex includes chromosomes (XX for
assigned females; XY for assigned males); hormones (estrogen/progesterone for
assigned females, testosterone for assigned males); and internal and external genitalia
(vulva, clitoris, vagina for assigned females, penis and testicles for assigned males).
Given the potential variation in all of these, biological sex must be seen as a spectrum
or range of possibilities rather than a binary set of two options.

The formation of gender identity is not a neutral space and the local culture, religious
texts, stories and narratives, discipline, punishment and also institutional
arrangements in the society impact socialisation of human beings. Hence gender
identity is a person’s innate, psychological identification as a man or a woman, which
may or may not correspond to the person’s physiology or designated sex at birth.
Individuals become conscious of this between the ages 18 months and 3 years. Most
people develop a gender identity that matches their biological sex. For some, however,
their gender identity is different from their biological or assigned sex. Some of these
individuals choose to socially, hormonally and/or surgically change their physical
appearance to more fully match their gender identity.

6.3.1 Gender Expression

Gender expression refers to the ways in which people externally communicate their
gender identity to others through behavior, clothing, haircut, voice, and other forms
of presentation. Gender expression also works the other way as people assign gender
to others based on their appearance, mannerisms, and other gendered characteristics.
Sometimes, transgender people seek to match their physical expression with their
gender identity, rather than their birth-assigned sex. Gender expression should not be
viewed as an indication of sexual orientation.

6.3.2 Gender Roles

In this module we will be examining gender from the point of view of women and
men. Hence gender roles are the activities, expectations and behaviors assigned to
females and males by society. Our culture recognizes two basic gender roles:
Masculine (having the qualities attributed to males) and feminine (having the qualities
attributed to females). In this module the gender roles, which are going to be explained
refer to the socially learned behaviours and expectations that are associated with the
two sexes, which are:

• Set by culture and society

• Changes through time and history
• Attributes and designations may change depending on the place and the culture

The shift towards using ‘gender’ as a category of analysis to locate and understand
women’s inequality in given societies was first initiated by writers like Oakley (1972)
and Rubin (1975). They brought in the context of social relationships rather than only
the biological differences among women and men that shaped these inequalities. The
analysis brought out the fact that culture and societal norms frame the ways in which
women are systematically subordinated as ‘women’ as against ‘men”. More and more
writers became concerned with issues relating to women in developing countries and
the manner in which gender and concomitant relationships were socially constructed.
The focus on gender rather than women makes it critical to look not only at the
category ‘women’—since that is only half the story—but at women in relation to men,
and the way in which relations between these categories are socially constructed. Men
and women play different roles in society with their gender differences shaped by
ideological, historical, religious, ethnic, economic and cultural determinants
(Whitehead 1979). These roles show similarities and differences between other social
categories such as class, ‘race’, ethnicity and so on. Since the way they are socially
constructed is always temporally and spatially specific, gender divisions cannot be
read off on checklists. Social categories, therefore, differentiate the experience of
inequality and subordination within societies.

6.3.3 Socialisation of Gender :

Human interactions and social life leads to the creation and recreation of gender.
Gender refers to the socio-cultural definition of man and woman; the way societies
distinguish men and women and assign them social roles (Bhasin 2000). Gender is not
characterised from birth rather it is a social construct and defined by expectations and
created by society. While society expects male and female to behave, dress, act in a
certain way to show their masculinity and femininity. But every culture has its ways
of valuing girls and boys and assigning them different roles, responses and attributes.
All the social and cultural "packaging" that is done for girls and boys from birth
onwards is "gendering"(Bhasin 2000). Since gender is a socially constructed system
of classification that ascribes qualities of masculinity and femininity to people. Gender
characteristics can change over time and are different between cultures. Gender is
often used synonymously with sex, but this is inaccurate because sex refers to
physical/biological characteristics and gender refers to social and emotional attributes.
Women and men are assigned certain roles and responsibilities in their specific
societal situations through norms, rules and culture. Similarly the division of labor
among men and women is also gets attributes as men being breadwinners and women
as housewives. Qualities like aggressiveness is associated with men while submissive,
nurturing and caring are some qualities expected in women. It is amounting to the
exploitation, subordination and exclusion of one gender at the cost of their basic
human rights. Gender also governs how girls, boys, men and women are expected to
relate to one another. It is a key determinant of who does what, who has what, who
decides and, importantly, who has power (UNICEF 2011).

Different genders in our society need equal respect and a favorable socio-economic
environment where all can contribute in their different ways in an unfettered manner.
This gets further complicated if a girl prefers to dress in clothes culturally
appropriated by boys, and she is rebuked and to another extreme subjected to
violence. Similarly if boys prefer to dress, talk and behave in a ‘feminine’ manner as
culturally seen and understood, they are rebuked, punished and encouraged in
numerous ways to adhere to the ‘masculine’.

6.4 CULTURE AND GENDER: CONNECTIONS

Gender roles, ideas, stereotypes and also inequalities are all shaped by specific
cultures and normative rules. What constitutes culture and makes it unique for the
contextual society? Schech and Haggis (2000) define culture as: a) Cultivation of land,
crops and animals

b) Cultivation of mind, arts, civilization

c) Ways of life, meanings and values
d) Ways of life structured by representations and power

This is a useful framework to understand culture and how it works towards shaping
gender roles. Religion too as one part of culture also plays a critical role in defining
gender roles. According to Jolly (2002) “culture has been understood in a hierarchical
way as cultivation of mind, arts and civilisation, with only the elites seen as truly
cultured. For example, in India, the Sanskrit culture of upper castes is often seen as
superior and to be aspired to. In contemporary China, people with education are said
to ‘have culture’ and be of ‘higher quality’. In the British colonial tradition, upper
class British are seen as most cultured, with other classes and nationalities deemed
less civilised. This British tradition in particular has influenced the values of
development ideology. Historically in Britain, and to some extent today, the lifestyle
of those with economic and political power was considered cultured, while working
class occupation and social conduct came to be considered as uncultured.” Within
this context of culture then gender gets embedded differently for women belonging to
different communities in given societies. Gendered understandings define and dictate
some commonplace ideas and norms like:

Dress
Girls and boys, women and men dress differently in most societies. In some places
this difference may be minimal, at others very stark. In some communities women are
made to cover their bodies from top to toe, including their faces. The mode of dress
can and does influence the mobility, sense of freedom and dignity of people. Dress is
often used for body shaming, defining behaviours and also linking the women’s
behaviours to the izzat or honour of the family .

Attributes
In most societies women are expected to have and perfect qualities such as gentleness,
caring, nurturing and obedience; men are expected to be strong, self-confident,
competitive and rational. Vasanth Kannabiran, an Indian feminist, once said in a
gender training, "Rearing of children is supposed to be as natural, as inherent to a
woman as giving birth to children. . . And it is not just in relation to the children we
produce; it is assumed that love or motherhood is sitting in me waiting to flow out like
a stream to anybody who needs it. We become eternal mothers. So I mother my child,
other people's children, my husband, my brothers, my sisters, my father who actually
calls me 'my little mother'! To everyone I become a mother by extension. You are
expected to overflow with a motherly feeling towards the entire universe. And this is
supposed to be natural! Not work at all. It is something you do as easily as breathing,
eating or sleeping."2

Division of Labour
Gendered division of roles is deeply implicated in the ways in which there is division
of labour amongst women and men. Engels wrote ‘The Origin of the Family, Private
Property, and the State’ (1845), in which he showed how changes in the material
conditions of people affect the organization of their family relations. He argued that
before the family, or structured conjugal relations, there existed a primitive state of
“promiscuous intercourse.” In this early state, every woman was fair game for every
man, and vice versa. All were essentially married to all. In the process of natural
selection, suggested Engels (1845), various kinds of blood relatives were gradually
excluded from consideration as eligible marriage partners. Later, Engels speculated
that pairing societies may have been not merely matrilineal societies but also
matriarchal societies in which women ruled at the political, social, and economic
levels. But his main and less debatable point remained that whatever power women
had in past times, it was rooted in their position in the household, at that time the
center of production. Only if the site of production changed would women lose their
advantaged position. This happened with the advent of industrialization wherein the
production of goods was shifted into factory premises and became part of the ‘public’
sphere, which men took over (Tong R, 2009, pp118). Women’s work for the
household was pushed into ‘private’ realm and relegated to less significant, hidden
and devalued. Most production took place within the household and all members
participated in it. Everyone was "breadwinner". The household was the site of both
reproduction and production. There was co-operation and complementarity between
men and women. Women's skills, knowledge and their ability to reproduce the next
generation were highly valued because they were indispensable for survival. With the
separation of the two, a hierarchy developed between them. The private or domestic
sphere lost all economic, political and historical significance and became less and less
important. That which does not enter the market is not considered "work", those who
do not operate in it have no economic worth. Because women remained in the
economically insignificant household, they lost their centrality, their value. Men's
work became more important, the differences between women and men kept
increasing and patriarchy became more powerful (Bhasin 2000). From being
gynocentric, households — and of course the public arena — became androcentric
(male centred) and androcratic (male-ruled). The basic values, which govern the
domestic and public sphere, have also been sharply divided; in fact one can almost
say they are opposed to each other. While in the private sphere love, caring,
selflessness, understanding are appreciated, the public sphere requires and valorises
competition, ambition, aggression, individualism. Women are expected to provide a
haven for men at home, away from the ruthlessness of the market place.

Intersectionalities and Gender

Intersectionality is largely a black feminist concept and expanded by others like Dalit
feminists to examine, analyse and work with women within marginalised
communities/groups. (Kimberle Crenshaw, hooks and others). According to this
approach people experience multiple barriers when gender intersects with other
identities (e.g. based on race, caste, ethnicity, sexuality, etc.), and/or other barriers
(e.g. poverty, rural residence, etc.), which create marginalities for women. The term
“axis” is used to describe identities such as gender race, ethnicity, caste, poverty, etc.

The terms “multiple” discrimination and “compound” discrimination are also used to
describe this axis. It is these socio-economic and cultural stratifications, which create
gender identities specifically which are substantively distinct and often a combination
of several of these aspects. Intersectional analysis of gender relations aims to address
the manner in which racism, casteism, patriarchy, class oppression, heteronormativity,
religious fundamentalism and other systems of discrimination create inequalities that
structure the relative positions of women.

6.5 PATRIARCHY,POWER AND GENDER

Patriarchy is both a social structure and an ideology or a belief system according to

which men are superior. Religions have also played an important role in creating and
perpetuating patriarchal ideology. They have spread notions of male superiority
through stories like, Eve was created from Adam's rib; or man is created in the image
of God, etc.

Today, media and even educational institutions spread patriarchal ideology by

showing men to be stronger in decision making positions, and women as voracious
consumers, dependent and jealous. Patriarchy works in tandem with culture and
ensures the maintenance of power of the privileged and elite of most societies.
Cultures play the role of creating the hegemony of male/masculine privilege, which
play out in different ways. Once privileged the rules, norms give power to certain men
of the elite and powerful and these get strengthened through a complex system of
formal and informal systems, which are hierarchical. These power relations remain
unquestioned and are reinforced by cultural representations and practices. For
example caste has remained a very resilient form of social category in the Indian
society. It gets reinforced through endogamy and marriage as social institutions and
the upper caste privileges continue to be enjoyed by people belonging to these castes.
Women belonging to these categories may face a different form of inequality within
the household i.e., private realm and in the public realm, however they may equally
discriminate and use power over lower caste men.

6.5.1 Role of Institutional Patriarchy and Power in Shaping Gender Relations

Measuring gender discrimination in social institutions draws attention to the role of
‘culture’ or social relations in limiting or enabling individual or collective agency.
Douglas C. North (1990) describes institutions as ‘ the humanly devised constraints
that structure political, economic and social interaction. They consist of both informal
constraints (sanctions, taboos, customs, traditions, and codes of conduct), and formal
rules (constitutions, laws, property rights)’. Formal and informal laws can coexist in
different types of legal systems including civil or common law, customary law, and
religious laws. The social aspect of institutions refers to the way they influence social
relations and shape the decisions, choices, and behaviours of groups, communities,
and individuals, determining what is deemed acceptable or unacceptable in a society.
Social institutions therefore, play a key role in defining and influencing gender roles,
power, and relations. They determine whether women have an opportunity to forge
their own pathway to empowerment. Social institutions operate and exert influence at
micro-meso and macro-levels (Kabeer 1994). For example, social institutions
regarding women’ s status in the family play out at a household (micro) level in
behaviours and attitudes, such as unequal financial decision-making power between
men and women; at community (meso) level in specific beliefs or sanctioned
practices, such as discrimination against widows; and at a country (macro) level in
terms of broader social norms or laws which allow discrimination, such as
discriminatory laws in relation to inheritance. Gender discriminations in social
institutions affect the whole female life-cycle; for example, by ascribing greater social
value to sons over daughters, by preventing women from owning land, or by
restricting widow’ s inheritance rights.

6.6 SUMMARY

This module discusses the complex elements of gender and a focus on how it is differs
from biological differences and yet is informed by them. The discussions on gender
roles, culture, intersectionality and institutions all focus on the complex web that come
together to create inequalities for women as against men. It is important to keep these
basic concepts as first step towards understanding the course on Gender and Social
Work.

6.7 EXERCISE

1.Write a short notes on Socialisation of gender.

2.Explain about Patriarchy, Power and Gender.

3. Discuss about Culture and Gender connection.

4.What is Gender Roles ?

6.8 REFERENCE

• B. Hooks, (2010) ‘Feminism: A Movement to End Sexism’, in C. Mc Cann and

S. Kim (eds),
• M. John.(2008) (ed) Women's Studies in India, New Delhi: Penguin.
• M. Kosambi, (2007) Crossing the Threshold, New Delhi, Permanent Black.
• Menon, (2008) ‘Power’, in R. Bhargava and A. Acharya (eds), Political
Theory: An Introduction, Delhi: Pearson.
• Naarivaadi Rajneeti: Sangharsh evam Muddey, University of Delhi: Hindi
Medium Implementation Board.
• T. Shinde, (1993) ‘Stree Purusha Tulna’, in K. Lalitha and Susie Tharu (eds),
Women Writing in India, New Delhi, Oxford University Press.
The Feminist Reader: Local and Global Perspectives, New York:
Routledge.
• U. Chakravarti, (2001) ‘Pitrasatta Par ek Note’, in S. Arya, N. Menon & J.
Lokneeta (eds.)
• V Geetha, (2002) Gender, Kolkata, Stree Publications.
• N. Gandhi and N. Shah, (1992) Issues at Stake – Theory and Practice in the
Women’s Movement, New Delhi: Kali for Women.
• N. Menon, (2004) ‘Sexual Violence: Escaping the Body’, in Recovering
Subversion, New Delhi: Permanent Black.
• P. Swaminathan, (2012) ‘Introduction’, in Women and Work, Hyderabad:
Orient Blackswan.
• R. Kapur, (2012) ‘Hecklers to Power? The Waning of Liberal Rights and
Challenges to Feminism in India’, in A. Loomba South Asian Feminisms,
Durham and London: Duke University Press.
• U. Chakravarti, (2003) Gendering Caste through a Feminist Len, Kolkata,
Stree pubications.
• V. Bryson, (1992) Feminist Political Theory, London: Palgrave-MacMillan.
UNIT-7 GENDER, POWER AND POLITICS
Structure

7.1 Objectives

7.2 Introduction

7.3 Gender: Meaning and Nature

7.3.1 Nature of Gender

7.4 Concept of Gender Empowerment

7.5 Political Empowerment of women

7.6 Role and Position of women in electoral Politics: Global Perspective

7.7 Summary

7.8 Exercise

7.9 References

7.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to understand:

 Meaning and Nature of Gender

 Concept of Gender Empowerment
 Political Empowerment of women
 Role and Position of women in electoral Politics: Global Perspective

7.2 INTRODUCTION

Gender is an important concept of our society that defines and imposes specific roles
and behaviours on women and men. Patriarchy is another important concept
associated with the concept of Gender. In this unit, we shall discuss the meaning and
nature of the concepts of Gender and Patriarchy. Democracy implies equality for all
human persons, men and women. As against this basic notion of democracy what is
normally seen is that women are excluded from different walks of life, more visibly
in politics. The U.N. observes that women constitute “world’s largest excluded
category”. For the attainment of true democratic spirit it is important to include
women to better political representation. "As long as women of lndia", declared
Mahatma Gandhi in 1925, "do not take part in public life, there can be no salvation
for the country". He further declared, "As long as… women do not come to public
life and purify.We are not likely to attain swaraj". "Ever if we did", he added, "it
 would have no use for that kind of swaraj to which women have not made their full
contribution.”

7.3 GENDER: MEANING AND NATURE

Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behavioural aspects, activities and
attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. It implies the
social construction of male and female identity. It is a social recognition of biological
differences. In Social Sciences, the term gender is used to indicate the differences in
the social status of men and women. In a patriarchal society, the concept of gender is
understood as an ideological mechanism for the subordination of women. Gender
identity is not fixed at birth rather it gains a core identity with the physiological and
social factors. It is developed utilizing social reinforcement and language. Here we
may refer to Simone de Beauvoir's opinion that "One is not born a woman; one
becomes a woman." The formation of gender differs from one culture to the other as it
is a culture-specific aspect. Ann Oakley regards gender as a matter of culture. It refers
to the social classification of men and women into 'masculine' and 'feminine'.

The term gender has been increasingly used to identify gender roles since the 1950s.
The World Survey 1999 on the 'Role of Women in Development' defined gender as
'the social meanings given to biological sex differences. It is an ideological and cultural
construct. It affects the distribution of resources, wealth, work, decision-making
power, rights etc. both in public as well as private life. It stratifies the society between
the sexes assigning different roles with other stratifies like race, class, caste etc.

Gender is not static but rather dynamic. It changes from time to time, culture to culture
and even family to family. Thus, there are different features within the definition of
gender that include ideology, cultural

construct, identity, entitlements, along with other social divisions such as race, class,
identity, sexuality, age etc. The word gender is now used sociologically or as a
conceptual category. It is used as an analytical tool to understand social realities about
women and men. Every culture has its way of valuing and assigning different roles,
responses and attributes to girls and boys. Every society gradually transforms a male
or female into a man or a woman with different qualities, responsibilities, rights and
expectations. Gender has no biological origin, and the connections between sex and
gender are not natural at all.

7.3.1 Nature of Gender

In common parlance, the terms 'sex' and 'gender' are used synonymously. However,
technically there is a distinction between these two terms. Gender is the 'social
classification' of people. On the other hand, sex is a 'biological classification' of people.
The distinction between the two can be summed up as follows.
1. Gender is a social and cultural construct of images and expectations of both
males and females. Whereas, sex is biological differences between men and
 women such as reproductive function and secondary characteristics like body
hair and breast development.
2. Gender is made whereas sex is born. A child is born as a baby boy or baby girl
but develops into a man or a woman when assigned a particular role in society.
3. 'Masculine' and 'Feminine' are gender categories whereas 'Male' and 'Female' are
sex categories.
4. Gender reflects nurture whereas sex reflects nature. In other words, gender
develops as a result of nurture while the development of sex is the result of
nature.
5. Gender discrimination is social discrimination whereas sexual inequality is an
inborn phenomenon.
6. The task of feminism is to abolish gender inequality and not a sexual one. The
ideology of feminism advocates gender equality within the framework of sexual
inequalities.
Kishore and Gupta (2006) have identified three dimensions of gender which can be
mentioned as follows:
(a) Gender tends not to be value-neutral. The roles, rights and obligations
assigned to each sex are not just different, but also unequal with male roles
and rights generally valued more than female roles and rights.
(b) Gender is not static or immutable. Being socially constructed, gender roles,
rights and expectations can change over time and across geographical
spaces as societal needs, opportunities and customs change.
(c) Gender involves differences in power. Generally, men tend to have greater
power than women.
From the above analysis, we can summerise the nature of gender as follows:

a) Gender is socio-cultural and it is manmade.

b) Gender refers to masculine and feminine qualities, behaviour patterns, roles

and responsibilities.
c) Gender is variable. It changes from time to time, culture to culture and
family to family.

7.4 CONCEPT OF GENDER EMPOWERMENT

The concept of empowerment of women is related to gender equality. It is found that

women have not been able to enjoy equality in different spheres of their life. Socially
discriminated against, economically exploited, and politically subjugated, women
have not been able to enjoy their rights equally with that men. Due to various kinds of
discrimination faced by women in the society right from their birth to unequal
treatment, demands arose for the promotion and protection of their rights. This had
become a worldwide movement with the United Nations at the forefront which assured
the protection of human rights and the fundamental freedom to all in its Charter.

In 1946, the United Nations established the Commission on the Status of Women to
look after women's issues. Though the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights contain certain human rights provisions yet, they were
not considered sufficient enough. Therefore, women-specific measures were felt
necessary. To deal with the rights of women more comprehensively, the Declaration
on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women was adopted by the General
Assembly on 7th November 1967. To implement the principles of the Declaration, the
General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women on 18th December 1979. On 20th December 1993,
another important measure was taken by the UN namely the Declaration on the
Elimination of Violence Against Women which directed the state parties to condemn
violence against women and not to invoke any custom, tradition or religious
consideration to avoid their obligation concerning the elimination of violence against
women.

The United Nations has also been organising World Conferences emphasising
particularly on women so that they can have their due share of rights in the society.
The First World Conference was held in Mexico City in 1975 which highlighted the
themes of "Equality, Development, and

Peace". The UN observed the decade 1975-85 as the International Women's Decade.
The themes of the Mexico Conference were further developed during the International
Women's Decade. The Second World Conference was held in Copenhagen in 1980
which added three sub-themes, "Education, Employment, Health" to the themes
already adopted in Mexico City. The Third Conference was held in Nairobi in 1985
and the Fourth one was held in Beijing in 1995. The Beijing Conference adopted a
platform for action concentrating on key issues identified as obstacles, such as poverty,
education, health, violence, armed conflicts, economic disparity and power-sharing for
the advancement of women throughout the world.

According to the UN Development Fund for Women, the following factors are
included in defining women empowerment: (i) acquiring knowledge and
understanding of gender relations and how these relations may be changed; (ii)
developing a sense of self-worth, a belief in one's ability to secure desired changes and
the right to control one's life; (iii) giving the ability to generate choice and exercise
bargain power.

To ensure women's empowerment, equality must be established between men

and women. Education at all levels must be assured so that they can take part in the
decision-making process both in the individual and social life. Economic security in
terms of employment with adequate wages and social security in terms of protection
from violence and atrocities should also be assured. Empowerment of women entails
equal access to resources of the society, equal opportunities for development,
economic independence, equal political participation, participation in the decision-
making processes at all levels, and freedom of thought and choice to list the least.
7.5 POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN

Political empowerment of women is an important aspect to ensure gender

empowerment. Political empowerment of women refers to ensuring equal and active
participation of women in the political process of the state. Women must be provided
with all political rights on equal terms with that men. Right to vote, right to contest in
elections, right to hold public office, right to express political views, and right to
criticise the government are some of the important political rights and these rights must
be enjoyed by all without any discrimination based on class, creed, religion, language,
sex, etc. The guarantee of political rights is important for the political empowerment
of women. Unless women are politically aware they cannot take part in the political
process. Without their involvement in the political process, they will not be able to
take part in the decision-making process most essential factor to change women's status
in society.

Women had to fight for their political rights. Many states of the world guaranteed the
right to vote to women much later since the adoption of their democratic constitutions.
However, with the coming of the UN, equality in matters of rights of all, irrespective
of men and women, has been established universally and the constitutions of almost
all the states of the world have granted social, political and economic rights to both
men and women.

The Convention on the Political Rights of Women was adopted by the UN General
Assembly on 31st March 1953. The first three Articles of the Convention assert the
rights of women to vote, to be eligible for election and to hold public office, with each
Article ending with the specification- "all on equal terms with men, without any
discrimination."

The political empowerment of women entails the following measures:

l The legal-judicial system should be made such that they are more responsive to the
needs and requirements of women. Laws must protect women in case of violence
and personal assault. Changes should be made in the personal laws in matters
like marriage, divorce, maintenance, guardianship, etc. to eliminate
discrimination against women.
l Developmental processes should be gender-sensitive to minimise the gap between
men and women in different spheres of life. The programmes and policies should be
enacted to bring women into the developmental process as catalysts, participants and
recipients. l Equal access must be provided to guarantee women's participation in the
decision-making process at different levels including legislative, executive, and
judicial bodies at central, state and local levels.
7.6 ROLE AND POSITION OF WOMEN IN ELECTORAL POLITICS:
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

Political participation has always been considered a secondary activity for women.
Motherhood is regarded as the major role of women. Women's political participation
and access to positions of power are restricted for several reasons, e.g., women's
mobility is restricted, they have fewer opportunities to mix up with those in power,
they have the sole responsibility for household maintenance and childcare activities
and they face political nepotism which favours men. Women face two major
obstacles while entering the political process - one is lack of support from family and
friends and the aggressive and very competitive political atmosphere. To add to this,
women are not treated as a political constituency to be wooed and won, much less as
a political actors in their rights. Political parties also show reluctance in giving a
justified share to women in the decision-making process. For example, in India, the
Parliament has not been able to pass the 81st Constitution Amendment Bill to date
which promises a 33 per cent reservation of seats for women in the Central and State
legislatures. The recent 17th Lok Sabha election saw the highest number of women
M.P.s with 78 women being elected to the House. This, however, constitutes only
14% of the 543 elected members House. This is much lower in a large democratic
country like India where more than 48% of the population is women. According to
the Economic

The survey, 2017-18, which was placed in the Parliament of India, there are developing
countries like Rwanda which has more than 60% women representatives in the Central
Legislature in 2017. Countries like Egypt, Brazil, Malaysia, Japan, Sri Lanka and
Thailand have less than 15% representation of women in the Legislature. The survey
maintained that as of 2017, the Lok Sabha had 64 (11.8%) and Rajya Sabha had 27
(11%) women M.P.s. As of October 2016, out of a total of 4118 M.L.A.s across the
country, only 9% were women. It also mentioned that there were 13.72 lakh elected
women representatives in the Panchayati Raj Institutions which constitute 44.2% of
the total elected representatives as of December 2017. This reflects that reservation of
seats is an essential factor to encourage more women to participate in the electoral
process. In the 2019 Lok Sabha elections, a total of 724 women contested from across
the country out of 8049 candidates who were in the fray, which is only 9% ( the Assam
Tribune, May 25, 2019). In India, the gap between male and female voters turning out
to vote is narrowing since 2009. In 2009, the gap was 9%, which went down to 1.4%
in 2014. In 2019, it stands at 0.4%. In the 17th Lok Sabha elections in 2019, the total
voter turnout was 67.47% which itself was the highest in history. In this election,
women voters outnumbered men, voters, in 13 states out of 29 states of the country.
This is a positive sign.

In the UK, which is regarded as the mother of parliamentary governments, there were
211 women in the House of Commons in 2019. This constituted 32% of the total
members. There were 207 female peers27% of the members of the House of Lords. In
the European Parliament, 41% of the members are women. At 32%, the UK is in 39th
position in the proportion of women in the Lower House of the Parliaments of the
world. Rwanda has over 61% along with Cuba and Bolivia having a majority of women
in Parliament (www. parliament. the UK). In the 116th Congress of the US, there were
127 women representatives which constituted 23.7% of the total members.

Women should actively participate in the political process. They should act as real
leaders and decision-makers. In those capacities, their activities should not only be
women-centric rather their activities should be broad enough to include all issues
related to the socio-economic development of the society, and then only real
empowerment of women is possible.

7.7 SUMMARY

Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behavioural aspects, activities and
attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. It implies
the social construction of male and female identity. It is a social recognition of
biological differences. In Social Sciences, the term 'gender' is used to indicate the
differences in the social status of men and women. Gender is not static but rather
dynamic. It changes from time to time, culture to culture and even family to family.
There are differences between sex and gender. Sex refers to the biological
classification of people and gender refers to the social classification of people.
Regarding the nature of gender, we can say that gender is sociocultural and it is
manmade. Gender refers to masculine and feminine qualities, behavioural patterns,
roles and responsibilities. Gender is variable. It changes from time to time, culture to
culture and family to family.
The concept of empowerment refers to the process of strengthening oneself to be more
powerful and have the potential to guide himself to a good life and to claim his rights
to lead a good life. If empowerment is understood as an action, then it refers to the
process of making oneself confident to overcome obstacles and achieve success in
life - socially, politically and economically. As far as the concept of gender
empowerment is concerned, it refers to the empowerment of people of any gender and
does not directly refer to the empowerment of women as such. As women are
marginalised in most of the societies of the world, so gender empowerment
conventionally refers to the empowerment of women.

7.8 EXERCISE

1. What is Gender? Describe the Meaning and Nature of Gender.

2. What do you mean by Gender Empowerment?

3. Write short notes on the Political Empowerment of women.

4. Define the Role and Position of women in electoral politics.

7.9 REFERENCES

• B. Hooks, (2010) ‘Feminism: A Movement to End Sexism’, in C. Mc Cann and

S. Kim (eds),
• M. John. (2008) (ed) Women's Studies in India, New Delhi: Penguin.
• M. Kosambi, (2007) Crossing the Threshold, New Delhi, Permanent Black.
• Menon, (2008) ‘Power’, in R. Bhargava and A. Acharya (eds), Political
Theory: An Introduction, Delhi: Pearson.
• Naarivaadi Rajneeti: Sangharsh evam Muddy, University of Delhi: Hindi
Medium Implementation Board.
• T. Shinde, (1993) ‘Stree Purusha Tulna’, in K. Lalitha and Susie Tharu (eds),
Women Writing in India, New Delhi, Oxford University Press.
The Feminist Reader: Local and Global Perspectives, New York:
Routledge.
• U. Chakravarti, (2001) ‘Pitrasatta Par ek Note’, in S. Arya, N. Menon & J.
Lokneeta (eds.)
• V Geetha, (2002) Gender, Kolkata, Stree Publications.
• N. Gandhi and N. Shah, (1992) Issues at Stake – Theory and Practice in the
Women’s Movement, New Delhi: Kali for Women.
• N. Menon, (2004) ‘Sexual Violence: Escaping the Body’, in Recovering
Subversion, New Delhi: Permanent Black.
• P. Swaminathan, (2012) ‘Introduction’, in Women and Work, Hyderabad:
Orient Blackswan.
• R. Kapur, (2012) ‘Hecklers to Power? The Waning of Liberal Rights and
Challenges to Feminism in India’, in A. Loomba South Asian Feminisms,
Durham and London: Duke University Press.
• U. Chakravarti, (2003) Gendering Caste through a Feminist Len, Kolkata,
Stree publications.
• V. Bryson, (1992) Feminist Political Theory, London: Palgrave-MacMillan.
UNIT-8: WOMEN AND FAMILY
Structure

8.1 Objectives

8.2 Introduction

8.3 Structure of Family

8.4 Power Structure in Family

8.5 Position of Women in Family

8.6 Summary

8.7 Exercises

8.8 References

8.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 Explain the structure of the family

 Discuss the power structure in the family
 Analyze the position of women in the family

8.2 INTRODUCTION

Indian culture attaches great importance to women, comprising half of the world's
population. According to a report by the Secretary-General of the United Nations,
women constitute 50% of human resources. Women are the key to sustainable
development and quality of life in the family. The varieties of the role the women
assume in the family are such as the role of mother, wife, leader, administrator,
manager of family income, etc. In this unit, we shall discuss the position of women
in a family structure.

8.3 STRUCTURE OF FAMILY

Within any society, there are more or less common ways of identifying family
relationships. There are ways of organizing family relationships that are broadly
accepted as appropriate and given legitimacy in the respective society.

According to George Murdock, the term 'family' can be defined as, "a social group
characterized by common residence, economic cooperation, and reproduction. It
includes adults of both sexes at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual
relationship and one or more children owned or adopted by sexually cohabiting
adults". Various types of families exist in today's society, some of the more common
family structures are:

 Nuclear Family: It usually consists of two generations of family, parents and

their child/ children residing in the same household.
 Extended Family: It is also known as a three-generation family consisting of
grandparents, their children, and grandchildren.
 Single Parent Family: It is also known as a lone parent family. It consists of
one parent and the child/children in the household.
 Reconstituted Family: This is a family where one or more parents have been
married previously. Here it introduces the concept of stepmother, stepfather,
etc.
 Symmetrical Family: This is a family where the roles of husband and wife or
cohabiting partners have become more alike or equal.
 Empty Nest Family: This is a family, where the child/children have moved
out of the home and the parents reside together.
 Patrilineal Family: In this type of family, property and title inheritance are
inherited by the father's side. Here, the father is the head of the family.
 Matrilineal Family: In this type of family, property and title inheritance
passes down through the mother's side. Here, the mother is the head of the
family.

8.4 POWER STRUCTURE IN FAMILY

Feminists have been central in criticizing gender roles associated with the traditional
nuclear family, especially since the 1950s. They have argued the nuclear family has
traditionally performed two key functions which oppressed women, such as:

a) Socializing girls to accept subservient roles within the family, while

socializing boys to believe they are superior - this happens through children
witnessing then recreating the parental relationship.
b) Socializing women into accepting the "housewife" role as the only
possible/acceptable role for a woman. Indeed, it was the only way to be
feminine or to be a woman. Essentially, feminists viewed the function of the
family as a breeding ground where patriarchal values were learned by an
individual, which in turn created a patriarchal society.

The three distinct branches of feminism, Liberal Feminists, Marxist Feminists, and
Radical Feminists differ significantly over the extent to which they believe that the
family is still patriarchal and the underlying causes of the existence of patriarchy.

Family power structure plays a critical role in family health functioning. Power has
been defined as the ability to control, influence, or change another person's behaviour
(Friedman, 1998). Power is related to resources. Control over resources (eg. money)
infers power. In most families, parents control these resources. There are three types
of family power namely chaotic power, symmetrical power, and complementary
power (Hanson, 2001). Again apart from this many sociologists also examine the
concept of the family power structure in terms of the familial or marital as well as the
factor of decision making.

8.5 POSITION OF WOMEN IN FAMILY

From the ancient period in most human societies, social differentiation between the
sexes, the male and female existed and in the majority of them, women were assigned
an inferior position. In recent times equality in status has been assigned to women in
the socialist societies, however, many are still deprived of the same. Thus, women
accounting for nearly one-half of the human population, live in perpetual
subordination to the other half of men. Women are considered primarily reproducers
although they invented agriculture and produce about fifty per cent of the world's
food. Their role as producers is acknowledged but it is viewed as a transferable role.
It seems that the indispensability of women as reproducers of human societies has
turned into an instrument of their enslavement.

Traditionally, an Indian woman had four-fold status or role sequences. These were
her role as a daughter, wife, housewife (homemaker), and mother. The woman, whose
status and role traditionally were well defined and almost fixed in the society, is now
experiencing significant changes. The woman in modern times has entered certain
new fields which were earlier unknown to the woman's sphere of role sets. They
actively participate in social, economic, and political activities today. The women of
the present generation have generally received higher education than the women of
their preceding generation. There have been far-reaching consequences on the
economic status of their families.

Apart from the traditionally fixed four-fold roles, women, in contemporary times, also
play important role in the family as decision-makers and managers of income for
household expenditure. Women in the family continuously work for the mental and
physical well-being of all the family members. But most of the time women are
engaged in unpaid labour within the family. Due recognition is not given to their
labour at the domestic level.

 Women's Role in Society: Modern women are inclined toward social issues,
and trying hard to improve the social status of women at large. Increased
awareness and education have inspired women to come out of the four walls
of their homes. Many women had actively supported and participated in the
nationalist movement and secured eminent positions and offices in
administration and public life in free India. Just like their male counterpart,
women too are fond of attending social functions and value their social life and
status. Previously, men used to discourage women from leaving their
 households to attend social functions. Now the spread of education, especially
that of women, and their changing social attitudes women have changed the
order. The modern woman has started caring for her health, cultural needs,
interests, academic pursuits, social intercourse, religious activities,
recreational needs, etc.
 Woman as a Wife: A woman as a wife enjoyed ideally a status almost equal
to that of her husband and performed both social as well as biological
functions. Even today, Indian girls are still brought up on models portraying
selflessness, self-denial, and sacrifice. The desire for mutual affection and love
is beginning to appear in the conception of their relationship with their
husbands. The husband-wife relationship has become more equal and much
more compatible. More freedom of choice in marriage is thus an
accompaniment to the changes in the family.
 Women's Role in Politics: The education of women has not only helped them
become aware of the political problems, but they are gradually becoming
active participants in political life. Some are enrolling themselves as members
of political parties, attending party meetings, and conventions, and carrying
out political programs. Many women have attained influential political stature
of their own and have become instrumental in shaping public opinions for the
betterment of women's conditions in society.
 Participation of Women in Socio-economic Activities: Women in modern
times are entering into certain new fields that were unknown to the woman's
sphere of role sets. These are the woman's participation in economic, political,
and social life. The modern woman keenly desires to enter into a work career
because of the pressing economic needs of the family. In middle-class families,
much emphasis is given to the maintenance of high standards of living. To
fulfil the economic needs of the family and to achieve a higher standard of
living the woman participates in economic activities.
 Women Equality is not Universal: Women's equality in terms of education,
employment, and power is still an individual rather than a universal
achievement. The majority of our women are still content to accept an inferior
status. This is by and large because, although legally women have equal rights
with men, there are not enough jobs for women, and working women are not
adequately protected from exploitation.
 Unaware of their Legal Status: Women are generally not aware of the
provisions related to the improvement of their position. Even if they know
about some of the provisions related to their rights of succession, marriage, or
family, they do not desire to invoke them. The traditional dominance of the
authority of the male parents, husband, and other elder members of the family
often tends to restrict the legal rights of women. The materialization of these
problems still depends largely on the attitudinal changes in society.
 Rural Women: According to Gandhiji's vision women must play an equal and
important role in national development. However, the movement for raising
 the socio-economic status of women had generally involved the middle-class
educated women in major urban centres while the great mass of rural women
is yet to enjoy the rights and privileges enshrined in the Constitution. The
scenario of rural women in India is not so encouraging. The literacy rate of
rural women is less than their male counterparts. The attitude of the family
towards the education of a girl child is negative. Rural women are the worst
victims of poverty. Besides economic poverty, rural women are also victims
of information poverty.
 Role of Women Welfare Organisations: At present several women welfare
organizations exist both at the national and international levels. The main
objective of such organizations is to achieve maximum welfare for women and
to establish a gender-just society. In India, some of such organizations are- the
Young Women Christian Association, All India Women's Conference,
National Council of Women, and Inner Wheel (Women's section of the Rotary
International). In many cities, local organizations exist such as Mahila Mandal,
Mahila Samiti, Recreation Clubs, etc. Likewise, at the international level too,
several women organizations, such as Women's Environment and
Development Organisation, United Nations Development Fund for Women,
Women for Women International, and Women's International Democratic
Federation- are working for the greater welfare of women in general.

Educated women are just on the threshold of transition from tradition to modernity.
The women themselves desire that their status and position in society should rise
higher. Though a proper climate for such a change is still wanting, there have been
many structural and statutory innovations for the improvement of their position.
The traditional status and role sets of women are breaking up and new role sets
based on achievement, independence, and equality are gradually coming up.

8.6 SUMMARY

Indian culture attaches great importance to women, comprising half of the world's
population. According to a report by the secretary-general of the United Nations,
women constitute 50% of human resources, the greatest human resource next only to
a man having great potential. A family is a social group characterized by common
residence, economic cooperation, and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes
at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship and one or
more children owned or adopted by sexually cohabiting adults. The position of
women in ancient India has been a very complicated one because of the paradoxical
statements in different religious scriptures and sometimes in the same text in different
places. Some have described their status as 'equals to men', while others have held not
only in disrespect but even in positive hatred. This is why it has presented many
problems to scholars while evaluating women's status in India. The cultural history of
India reveals that theoretically women enjoyed the status of Devi (goddess) as
described in many religious texts of Hindus, the majority community in India. Though
women enjoyed the theoretical importance that these texts outline for the wife who
was defined as ardhangini (better-half), in practice she had a subservient position to
a man with no rights. It was generally seen and believed that women had lower status
concerning power and influence than men in all spheres of life-family, community,
religion, and politics. There are different structures of families like- Nuclear family,
Extended, Single parent family, Reconstituted family, Symmetrical family, Empty
nest family, patrilineal family, and matrilineal family. Feminists have been central in
criticizing gender roles associated with the traditional nuclear family, especially since
the 1950s. Various branches of feminism differ significantly over the extent to which
they believe that the family is still patriarchal and in what the underlying causes of
the existence of patriarchy are.

8.7 EXERCISES

1. What is the Matrilineal Family?

2. How George Murdock defines family?
3. Mention the position of the women in the family
4. What is a single-parent family?
5. What are the feminist views on the equality of women in power structure/
6. Analyze the role of housewife in the society.
7. Discuss the role of women in society.

8.8 REFERENCES

Prata, Ndola. Fraser, Ashiley. and Upadhya, Ushma. (2017). Women’s Empowerment
and Family Planning: A Review of Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

Tilly, Louise. Scott, W Joan. (1989). Women, Work, and Family. UK: Psychology
Press.

Seymour. Susan, Mukhopadhyay, Chapnick Carol. (1994). Women, Education and

Family Structure in India. Cambridge: US: Westview Press.