BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE &

CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

SYLLABUS – CHAPTER 1
TRADITIONAL BUILDING MATERIALS:
PROPERTIES, TYPES, APPLICATIONS & TESTING OF
TRADITIONAL BUILDING MATERIALS

STONE
STONE AS A BUILDING MATERIAL
 Stones have been considered as one of the poPULAR
BUILDing material from the olden days due to their
availability in abundance from the natural rocks.
 Building stone is a natural engineering material.
 Many ancient monuments like Ajantha temple [ROCK
CUT CAVES], Taj Mahal [MARBLE], Red fort [RED
SANDSTONE] etc., were completely made of stone.
 Many ancient civilizations like INDUS valley civilization,
Mesopotamian civilization used stone as building
material
 Stones are derived from rocks, which form the earth’s
crust and have no definite shape or chemical
composition but are mixture of two or more minerals.
Guess what monument is this

Taj Mahal Red Fort

Ajantha Temple
 ROCK / STONE
 Rock : A large mass of earthy or mineral
matter or broken pieces of such a mass.
Rocks are aggregates of minerals. Major
minerals are Feldspars, Quartz, Micas,
Hornblende, Kaolinite, Calcite (CaCO3),
Dolomite (MgCO3)

 Stone : Quarried or smaller pieces of rock

for a specified function such as a building
block.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
 Rocks are classified in following ways, from which
stone can be derived
Geological classification
 It is based on the materials
of which rocks are made, the
structure of the materials and the formation of the rocks.
Physical classification
 It is based on the structure of the rock formations.
Chemical classification
 It is based on the chemical
composition of the rock formations.
 GEOLOGICAL
CLASSIFICATION
OF ROCKS
 IGNEOUS ROCKS
 Formed by cooling and solidifying of molten
magma (lava) on or inside the earth’s surface
during the volcanic eruption.
 Generally Igneous rocks are STRONG and
DURABLE and hence stones used for building
construction are mostly derived from Igneous rocks.
 These rocks are further classified as:
Volcanic
Hypabyssal
Plutonic
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 Volcanic rocks
 Volcanic rocks are formed at the earth’s surface due
to cooling of magma coming out of volcanoes. As
the cooling process is fast these rocks are extremely
fine - grained with NO CRYSTAL STRUCTURE and
GLOSSY [GLASSY].
 Examples include:
Basalt
Rhyolite
Trap rock [DECCAN TRAP OF INDIAN PENINSULA IS A
CLASSICAL EXAMPLE]
 Hypabyssal rocks
 Hypabyssal rocks are formed due to the cooling of
magma at shallow depth in the earth’s surface.
Cooling is relatively slow. Hence these rocks have a
fine grained CRYSTALLINE structure.
 Examples include:
Quartz
Dolerite
Microgranite
Micro diorite
 Plutonic rocks
 Plutonic rocks are formed due to the very slow
cooling of magma at a considerable depth in the
earth’s surface. Cooling is very very slow. Hence
these rocks have a CRYSTALLINE structure which
are visible to the naked eye. These rocks are very
strong.
 Examples include:
Granite
Diorite
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 Rocks exposed on the earth surface degenerate due to
weathering action of water, wind, frost etc.,. The degenerated
material is carried away by wind and flowing water, water
being most powerful medium of transport.
 When flowing water encounters obstacles, the suspended
materials are deposited, gets consolidated over time under
pressure and heat. Chemical action in the deposited materials
also contributes to cementing of deposited material.
 The rocks formed in this manner are known as sedimentary
rocks. These rocks have more UNIFORM and FINE GRAINED
STRUCTURE. They have BEDDED or STRATIFIED STRUCTURE.
 Examples include
Sandstone
Limestone
Shale (Mudstone)
Figure of Sandstone Rock
Figure of Limestone Rock
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks UNDERgo changes
due to metamorphic action of pressure, internal heat
and chemical action of water and a new variety of
rock is formed known as metamorphic rocks.
 The change of structure is called metamorphism.
 For example,
GRANITE / SCHIST changes to GNEISS,
TRAP and BASALT change into SCHIST.
LIMESTONE / DOLOMITE changes to MARBLE
SANDSTONE changes to QUARTZITE
SHALE changes to SLATE
Figure of Slate Rock & Slate stone
 ROCK CYCLE
 The interrelationship between the various types of
rocks can be shown in a pictorial format as below
 Guess the type of rock

Volcanic Plutonic
Metamorphic
Rock Rock

Basalt Diorite Quartzite

Sedimentary
Metamorphic
rock

Gneiss Limestone
Guess what rock has been used

Taj Mahal Red Fort

Marble – Sandstone –
METAMORPHIC SEDIMENTARY
ROCK ROCK
Guess the feature

DYKE

SILL

LACCOLITH

BATHOLITH
 PHYSICAL
CLASSIFICATION
OF ROCKS
 STRATIFIED ROCKS
 Stratified rocks have layered structure and possess
planes of formation. They can be easily split along
these planes to get slabs.
 Examples Include:
Sandstone
Limestone
Slate
 UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS
 Un-Stratified rocks do not posses planes of
stratification. They posses crystalline structure and
compact grains. They cannot be split into slabs
easily.
 Examples Include:
Granite
Marble
Basalt
Figure of Granite Rock
Figure of Sandstone Rock
Figure of Limestone Rock
Figure of Slate Rock & Slate stone
 FOLIATED ROCKS
 Foliated rocks have a tendency to split along a
definite direction.
 These directions however are not parallel to each
other unlike STRATIFIED rocks. These are
directions of weak planes along which rock
breaks.
 They are mostly metamorphic rocks.
 Examples Include:
Schist rocks (contains mostly MICA mineral)
Figure of Mica Schist
 CHEMICAL
CLASSIFICATION
OF ROCKS
 SILICEOUS ROCKS
 The main constituent of siliceous rocks is SILICA
(SiO2).
 These rocks are hard and durable.
 Examples include:
Granite
Sandstone
 ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS
 The main constituent of argillaceous rocks is ARGIL
that is clay (Al2O3).
 These rocks are brittle. Thus they cannot
withstand shock.
 Examples include:
Slate
Laterite
Figure of Laterite stones
 CALCAREOUS ROCKS
 The main constituent of calcareous rocks is Calcium
carbonate / Lime (CaO).
 These rocks are mostly soluble in water and not
DURable as fOUNDAtion rocks, however they have
good application as BUILDING STONE due to its
appearance.
 Examples include:
Limestone
Marl
Marble
 Sequence of obtaining Stones
 Ok, till now we have seen what are the types of
rocks from which stones are obtained. Now we will
see the sequence in which stones are derived.

Quarrying Dressing Seasoning

 QUARRYING - BASICS
 Quarry is the place from where stones are extracted
from the rocks.
 Quarrying refers to the process of extracting stones
from the rock bed.
Then what is the difference between a QUARRY and
MINE ???
 Quarry is near to earth’s surface and mine is underground
&atgreater depth.
 The stones, thus obtained via quarrying, are used for
various engineering purposes.
 The loose soil and soft rock present at the surface of a
quarry are removed to expose the hard and durable
rocks from underneath.
 QUARRYING – SITE SELECTION
 The selection of site for a quarry of stones should be
done after studying carefully the following aspects:
1) Availability of tools, power, materials and labour for
the efficient working of quarry.
2) Easy availability of clean water in sufficient quantity
all the year round.
3) Economy in quarrying.
4) Drainage of quarrying pit.
5) Facility of carrying and conveying stones from quarry.
6) Quality of stone available from quarry.
QUARRYING – METHODS OF QUARRYING

 Following are the three methods of quarrying:

1) Quarrying with hand tools.

2) Quarrying with channelling machine.
3) Quarrying with blasting.
 DRESSING

 After Quarrying, stones are cut to suitable sizes and

are given suitable finishes. This process is called
DRESSING.
Preliminary dressing is invariably done at quarry site,
while final dressing may be done at the quarry or
Construction site or at workshops.
Further the advantage of dressing at quarry site is that,
freshly quarried stones contain QUARRY SAP, and
hence they are soft. Dressing thus becomes very easy.
 Quarry Sap: All stone contains varying amounts of
 DRESSING
moisture, or pore water, when freshly quarried. This moisture
is called QUARRy sap.
 SEASONING
 Stones obtained from the quarry contains moisture
in the pores. This moisture is known as sap. Before,
the stone is USed, it shoULD be allowed to dry.
 The process of removal of sap from fresh stones is
known as seasoning.
 Natural seasoning period for stones varies from 6 to
12 months. Seasoned stones show better strength and
DURability.
 Laterite stones generally need seasoning.
Figure of Laterite stones
 Properties /Characteristics of Good
building stones
 Appearance
Stones with uniform and attractive colour and having uniform and
homogeneously distributed grains are durable. They also take
good polish. Marble and granite are examples. For face-work it
should have fine, compact texture; light-colored stone is
preferred as dark colors (Red, Black color) are likely to fade out
in due course of time.
 StrUCTURE
A broken stone should not be dull in appearance and should have
uniform texture free from cavities, cracks, and patches of loose or
soft material. Stratifications should not be visible to naked eye.
[REMEMBER REDFORT]
 Strength
A stone should be strong and durable to withstand the
disintegrating action of weather. Compressive strength of building
stones in practice range between 60 to 200 N/mm2 (MPa).
 Properties /Characteristics of Good
building stones
 Weight / Density:
It is an indication of the porosity and density. For stability of
structures such as dams. retaining walls, etc. heavier stones
are required, whereas for arches, vaults, domes, etc. light
stones may be the choice.
 Hardness:
Hardness is the resistance to abrasion or scratching. This
property is important for floors, Pavements, etc. The
Hardness is determined by the Mohs scale.
Talc, Gypsum, calcite are useless as Flooring materials.
 Properties /Characteristics of Good
building stones
 TOUGHNESs:
The measure of impact that a stone can withstand is defined
as toughness (OR) the resistance towards impact is known
as toughness. The stone used should be tough when
vibratory or moving loads are anticipated.
 Weathering:
The resistance of stone against the wear and tear due to
natural agencies should be high.
 Workability:
Stone should be workable so that cutting, dressing and
bringing it out in the required shape and size may not be
uneconomical.
 Properties /Characteristics of Good
building stones
 Seasoning:
The stone should be well seasoned. [NO MOISTURE]
 Porosity and abosorption
Porosity depends on the mineral constituents, cooling
time and structural formation. A porous stone
disintegrates as the absorbed rain water freezes,
expands, and causes cracking. Permissible water
absorption for some of the stones is given in the
following table.
Water absorption of stones
 Properties /Characteristics of Good
building stones
 Fire resistance:
Stones should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of
iron, and minerals having different coefficients of thermal
expansion. Igneous rock show marked disintegration
principally because of quartz which disintegrates into small
particles [BUT NOT POWEDERED] at a temperature of
about 575°C. Limestone, however, can withstand a little
higher temperature; i.e. up to 800°C after which they
disintegrate.
 Specific gravity:
The specific gravity of most of the stones lies between 2.3 to
2.5. So heavier stones cannot be easily quarried, put in
place [EXAMPLE MAGNETITE] and lighter stones will not
serve the purpose of load bearing. [EXAMPLE PUMICE]
PUMICE ROCK (VERY LOW SP. GRAVITY
 TESTS ON STONE
The various tests carried on stone are as follows:
FIELD TESTS
1) Smith’s test [DUrability test] For quick ascertaining
2) Hardness test the quality of stones.
3) Toughness test
LABORATORY TESTS
1) Crushing test or Compressive strength test
2) Water absorption test
3) Acid test
4) Attrition test
5) Crystallization test [Durability test recommended by IS
CODE]
6) Impact test
FIELD
TESTS
 Smith’s test
 Purpose: To determine the durability of stones at
field.
 Test procedure:
Break off the freshly quarried stone chippings to about the
size of a rupee coin and put them in a glass of clean
water, one-third full.
If the water becomes slightly cloudy, the stone is good and
durable.
If water becomes dirty, it indicates that the stone contains
too much of earthy and mineral matter.
 Toughness’s test
 Purpose: To determine the stones can be used for
building works.
 Test procedure:
This test is performed by breaking the stone with a
hammer. Toughness is indicated by resistance to
hammering.
 Hardness Test
 Purpose: To find the abrasion resistance of the stones
 This test is performed by scratching a stone with pen knife on
Mohs scale. [NOT BY FINGER NAIL]
 Mohs scale of hardness is given as follows
LABORATORY
TESTS
 Crushing Test or Compressive
strength test
Purpose: Tested to find out compressive strength of stone. Needed
for stones used at bottom of heavy structure like bridge piers .
The test is carried out as follows
i. Stone is cut in to cubes of size 50mm x 50mm x 50mm and
sides of cube are finely dressed and finished.
ii. Specimen are placed in water for 72 hours prior to test and
tested in saturated condition.
iii. Load is applied axially on the cube at the rate of
14 N/mm2 per minute with Universal testing machine (UTM).
iv. Crushing strength per unit area is maximum load at which
sample crushes divided by area of bearing face of specimen.
Crushing strength of various types of
stones
 Water absorption Test
 Purpose: To check absorption of water by stones under
specific immersion conditions.
The test pieces in dry condition of size 20 to 10mm, weighing
about 1 kg (W1) is washed to remove particles of dust and
immersed in distilled water in a glass vessel at room temperature
20 to 30° C for 24 hours.
Then the test pieces are removed and placed on a dry cloth and
gently surface dried with the cloth, so that the surface of test
pieces are dry. (W2).
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����� ���������� =
��

A good stone should not absorb more than 5% of water by

weight if immersed in water for 24 hrs.
 Acid Test
 Purpose: To check weather resistance
To confirm the power of stones to withstand the
atmospheric conditions. 100 g of stone chips are kept
in a 5 per cent solution of H2SO4 or HCI for 3 days.
Then the chips are taken out and dried. The sharp and
firm corners and edges are indication of sound stone.
This test is used to test the cementing material of sand
stone. This test is carried out to understand the
presence of CALCIUm carbonate (cementing material) in
building stone.
Acid Test demonstration on rock sample
(Limestone)
 Attrition test
 Purpose: To determine the resistance of stones to
surface wear usually caused by grinding action of
traffic.
Any of the following three tests can be conducted for this
purpose.
 Los Angeles test
 Deval test
 Dorry’s test
However Los Angeles test gives good correlations with
the field performance.
 Attrition test
 The Los angeles testing machine consists of 0.5m long hollow cylinder
of 0.7m inner diameter with both ends closed.
 It is mounted on a frame so that it can be rotated about the
horizontal axis.
 With the specified weight of specimen, a specified number of cast
iron balls of 48mm diameter are placed in cylinder.
 Then the DRUm is rotated at a speed of 30-33 rpm for a specified
NUMBEr of rotations (500-1000). The aggregate which gets CRUshed is
then removed and sieved on 1.7mm IS sieve. The weight of aggregates
is found and the Los Angeles value is found as

 The recommended values for road works are

For bitumen mixes: 30 %
For Base course: 50 %
Los Angeles testing machine, cast iron
charges and 1.7mm sieve (figures)
Attrition test demonstration
(Los Angeles)
 Crystallization test
 Purpose: To determine the durability of stones at laboratory.
Three cylindrical test pieces of 50 mm diameter and 50 mm height
are dried for 24 hours and are weighed (W1).
The specimens are suspended in 14 per cent sodium sulphate
solution for 16 to 18 hours at room temperature (20° to 30°C). The
specimens are then taken out of the solution and kept in air for 4
hours.
They are then oven dried at a temperature of 105° ± 5°C for 24
hours and then cooled at room temperature. This process is repeated
for 30 cycles. The specimens are weighed (W2) and the difference in
weight is found. This test is repeated thirty times and the loss in
weight after every five cycles is obtained.
The change in weight indicates the degree of decay of stone.
Durability should be expressed in percentage as change in the
weight. The average of three test results should be reported as
durability value.
 Impact test
 Purpose: To determine the resistance of stones to impact.
The impact testing machine consists of a frame with
guides in which a metal hammer weighing 13.5 – 15 kg
can fall freely from a height of 350mm.
Aggregate of size 10 – 12.5mm are filled in a cylindrical
cup in three equal layers, each layer being tamped 25
times.
Then the cup is kept is kept in the machine and the
hammer is allowed to fall freely on the specimen 15
times.
The specimen is then sieved through a 2.36mm sieve.
Low impact values are good to be used for civil engineering purposes.
For stones used as road metal the Impact value should be less than
40%.
Figure of Impact testing machine
Demonstration of Impact Value Test
COMMON BUILDING STONES (TYPES)
 The following are some of the commonly used building
stones:
Granite
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Basalt and Trap
Sandstone SEDIMENTARY
Limestone ROCKS
Quartzite
Gneiss
Marble METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
Laterite
Slate
 The important properties and uses of the above stones
will now be seen in detail.
 GRANITE
 Granite is an IGNEOUS rock. The structure is crystalline and
it has fine grains.
 The hardest and most durable granites contain a greater
proportion of quartz and a smaller proportion of felspar
and mica. [REASON FELSPAR / MICA ARE WEAK MINERALS]
 Because of its uniform structure, granite can be quarried in
large blocks.
 It takes good polish and its specific gravity is about 2.6.
 Compressive strength varies from 100 – 250 Mpa.
 It is used for heavy structures like Bridge piers, River training
works and dams. They are also used as kerb stones and
pedestals.
 Polished stones is used for cladding columns and walls.
 Types of Granite

Crystalline Fine grained

 Granite uses

Bridge Pier River Training work Kerb Stones

Wall Cladding Pedestal

 BASALT AND TRAP
 These are IGNEOUS rock. The structure is fine
grained and compact. Their color is dark grey to
black.
 Their specific gravity varies from 1.8 to 2.9.
 Compressive strength varies from 200 – 350 MPa.
 Joints and fractures are common features. Hence
they can be easily quarried.
 These stones are used as road metals, railway
ballast and as aggregates for making concrete.
They are also used for rubble masonry works of
bridges, river training works and dams.
 Basalt and trap

Basalt

Deccan Trap rock

 Basalt and Trap uses

Road Metal / Railway Ballast

Concrete aggregate

Basalt rubble
masonry
 SANDSTONE
 Sandstone is a sedimentary rock and hence is stratified.
 It consists of quartz and other cementing materials like
silica, carbonate of lime, magnesia or alumina.
Sandstone is found in various colours like white, grey,
red, brown and dark grey.
 The specific gravity varies from 1.85 – 2.70.
(So you can see that not all varieties of sandstone are
goof building materials)
 Compressive strength from 20 – 170 MPa.
 Its porosity varies from 5 – 25 % [REMEMBER WATER
ABSORPTION = 10 %]
 Sandstones with silicEOUS cement are more USEFUL for
BUILding works. [Remember REDFORT]
 QUARTZITE
 Quartzite's are metamorphic rocks.
 Quartz is the chief constituent with felspars and mica
in small quantities [IF THEY ARE IN LARGE
QUANTITIES then the stone is useless]. The structure is
fine to coarse grained. These stones are available
in different colours like white, grey and yellowish.
 The specific gravity varies from 2.55 – 2.65.
 Compressive strength from 90 – 300 MPa.
 They are used as building blocks, cladding
materials and also as aggregates for concrete
works.
 GNEISS
 Gneiss are metamorphic rocks.
 Quartz is the chief constituent with felspars and mica in
small quantities [If they are in LARGE QUANTITIES then
the stone is useless]. The structure is fine to coarse
grained. These stones are available in different colours
like white, grey and yellowish.
 The specific gravity varies from 2.5 – 3.0.
 Compressive strength from 50 – 100 MPa.
 It contains deleterious materials and hence not
preferred for important buildings. However it can be
used for minor building works. It is used as aggregates
for concrete works and pitching works.
 Gneiss uses

Concrete aggregate Pitching works

 LIMESTONE
 Limestone is a sedimentary rocks.
 It mainly consists of calcium carbonate with small
quantities of magnesium carbonate, as well as siliceous
(silica) and argillaceous materials (clay i.e. Alumina).
[CALCIUM CARBONATE = LIME STONE; MAGNESIUM
CARBONATE = DOLEMITE]
 The specific gravity varies from 2.0 – 2.70.

 Compressive strength from 55 MPa.

 Clayey limestones, known as KANKAR, are used as

aggregates for road work and for making concrete.
 However the most important USE is in the manUFACTURe of
Lime and Cement.
 MARBLE
 Marble is a metamorphic rock with pleasing
colours like white and pink.
 It takes very good polish. [MOST IMPORANT
FEATURE]
 The specific gravity varies from 2.65.
 Compressive strength from 70 – 75 MPa.
 It is used for face work and ornamental work. It is
also used for steps and flooring.
 LATERITE
 Laterite is a metamorphic rock with porous structure.
It gains strength with seasoning. [REMEMBER
SEASONING]
 It contains a high percentage of iron oxide, making
it brownish. It can be easily quarried in blocks.
 The specific gravity varies from 1.85.
 Compressive strength from 1.9 – 2.3 MPa.
 Seasoned blocks are used for building walls.
However its outer surface should be plastered, as
this is a porous stone.
 SLATE
 Slate is a metamorphic rock composed for quartz,
mica and argillaceous materials. It has a fine grained
structure.
 Slate splits easily along planes of original bedding.
It is thus for this reason it is easily quarried. It is
available in various shades of grey.
 The specific gravity varies from 2.6 – 2.7.
 Compressive strength from 100 – 200 MPa.
 Slate is used for slabs, roofing tiles and floors.
Slate Rock uses

Floor tiles
 DETERIORATION OF STONE
 Question is why deterioration of stones takes place?
 Deterioration of stones takes place because of
Temperature variations: Stones are poor conductors of heat.
Hence, variation of temperature causes deterioration of exposed
faces.
Alternate wetting and drying: Alternate wetting and drying
results in deterioration of exposed faces. [Hence we said that
there should not be any openings to the exposed faces of stone
REMEMBER]
Freezing and thawing: In very cold places, moisture enters the
pores, where it freezes and expands. This results in splitting of
stone pieces.
Rainwater: Rain water containing chemicals and flowing over the
stones can cause deterioration. Even simple rain water which
combines with carbon dioxide can cause leaching of LIMESTONE.
Limestone Caves
Limestone Caves
 THANK YOU
&
ALL THtf VERY
BEST
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 Conventional questions
1) It has been recommended to provide sandstone tiles on the facia (EXTERIOR) of a
multistory building. The climate in the region is equatorial. If you agree with the selection,
justify it or otherwise suggest some other stone with the reasons for the selection.
2) Give the characteristics and uses of the following stones: (a) Granite (b) Sandstone (c)
Marble (d) Slate
3) What is meant by ‘hardness of a mineral’? How can it be determined? What is Mohs
scale of hardness?
4) What is meant by rock-cycle? How does it represent the sequence of formation of the
three important types of rocks?
5) Describe briefly the tests you will conduct to assure the quality of stones.
6) Name the various types of stones which are used for building works and give in brief
the specifications for a good building stone.
7) Briefly describe the following tests of stones:
(a) Durability test, (b) Crushing test / Compressive strength test, (c) Attrition test
Also, state the significance of each of them.