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GEOGRAPHYNOTES
FORM 1SI MPLIFI
EDTUTORI
AL
MrIsaboke0705525657
I
ntr
oduct
iont
oGeogr aphy
Themeani ngofGeogr aphy
 Scient ifi
cst udyoft heear t
hasahomeofman.
 Studyofi nt errelationshi ponnat ur alandhumanphenomenaont he
earth’ssur face.
Env ironment
 Thesur roundi ngs
 Allext ernal condi t
ionssur roundi nganor ganism whi chhasi nfl
uence
overi tsbehav i
our .
Envir
onmentcanbedi vi
dedi nt ot wo:
1.ThePhy sical Env ironment
 Nat ural phy sical condi tionsofweat her ,cli
mat e,veget ati
on,animals,
soil,landf or msanddr ainage.
2.TheHumanEnv i
r onment
 Humanact iviti
essuchasf armi ng, f
orest ry,mining, t
our i
sm,
settlement ,transpor t at i
on, tr
adeandi ndust r
y.
Br anchesofGeogr aphy
The TWO mai n Br anches ar e Phy sicaland Human and Economi c
Geography
1.Physical Geogr aphy-Deal swi tht hest udyofnat ural physical
envir
onmentofhumanki nd.Thear eascov eredi ncl
ude:
a)Geol ogy -studyoft heor igin, str
uct ureandcomposi t
ionoft he
ear th.Iti ncludesst udyofr ocks.
b)Geomor phol ogy -t hest udyofi nternal andext ernal l
andfor ming
processesandl andf or ms.
c)Cl imat ology -t hest udyofcl i
mat eandweat her
d)Pedol ogy -thest udyofsoi ls
e)Bi ogeogr aphy-t hest udyofsoi l
s, vegetationandani mals.
f)Hy dr ology -thest udyofwat erbodi es
g)Spat i
al geogr aphy -studyofspace
2.HumanandEconomi cGeogr aphy-St udyofpeopl eandt heiracti
vi
tieson
theearth’ssur face.Thear eascov eredi nclude:
a)Mi ning
b)For est ry
c)Agr icultur e
d)Fi shi ng
e)Wi l
dl ifeandt our ism
f)I ndust r
y
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g)Ener
gyet
c.

3.Pr actical Geogr aphy-Asmal lerbr anchwhi chequi pst hel ear nerwi th
practical ski l
lsthatenhancet hei runder standi ngandi nter pret ationof
humanandphy sical geogr aphi cal i
nf ormat ion.Thear easar e:
a)St atistical met hods
b)Mapwor k
c)Fi eldwor k
d)Phot ogr aphwor k
Impor tanceofSt udy i
ngGeogr aphy
1.Faci litatesgoodr elat i
onshi pamongnat ionsbyst udy i
nggeogr aphyof
otherr egi onsoft hewor ld.
2.i t’
sacar eersubj ecti nt hati tenabl esonet ogof oradv ancedst udi esi n
speci alisedf ieldse. g.geogr aphyt eacher s, met eor ology ,
sur veyinget c.
3.Enabl esust oappr eci ateot herpeopl e’swayofl ifebyl ear ningeconomi c
act i
viti
esofdi fferentcommuni ti
eswi thinourcount r
yandot herpar t
sof
thewor ld.
4.Enabl esust oconser v
eourenv ironmentwhenwel ear nnegat iveand
posi t
iv eef fectsofhumanact iviti
esont heenv ironment .
5.Enabl esust oconser v
eourr esour ceswhenwel earnwi seuseof
resour cesi nconser vationandmanagementofr esour cese. g.wi l
dlife,
forests, ener gy ,etc.
6.I nculcat esi nusv i
rt uesofcooper ationandpat i
enceaswewor ki n
groups.
7.Makesust oappr eci atemanual wor kaswear ei nvolvedi npr actical
geogr aphywhi chmayl eadt osel fempl oy ment .
8.Pr omot ionofi ndust r
ysuchast our i
sm bygui dingt our istst opl acesof
i
nt erestbyusi ngmaps, calcul ationsofdi stanceset c.
Relationshi pbet weenGeogr aphyandOt herSubj ect s
1.Mat hemat i
cs- mat hemat ical t echni quesar eusedi ndr awi nggr aphsand
piechar tsandmat hemat ical formul aear eusedi ngeogr aphyt o
calculat edi stances, areas, popul at i
ondensi ty,popul ationdensi ties,et c.
2.Hi stor y-historyusesgeogr aphi cal tool sl i
kemaps, char tsandgr aphst o
showwher epastev ent st ookpl acee. g.t hemov ementofpeopl ei nt he
past .
3.Bi ology -Geogr aphyexpl ai nst hedi stribut ionofor gani smsandf actor s
i
nf l
uenci ngt heirdi st ri
but ionont heear th’ssur face.
4.Phy sics- geogr aphyusesphy sicspr inci plesandf ormul aet ocal culate
anddescr ibeaspect ssuchasmagnet i
cf ield,grav i
ty,v ibrationsoft he
ear t
het c.
5.Chemi st ry-
geogr aphyappl i
eschemi st r
yi nst udyingchemi cal
composi ti
onandchemi cal changeswhi cht akepl acei nsoi lsandr ocks.
6.Agr i
cul ture-geogr aphyst udi esf armi ngsy st ems, theirdi str i
but i
onand
factor saf fectingf ar mingact iv i
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7.Meteorol
ogy-geographyusesmeteorol
ogi
cali
nfor
mat
ionint
hest
udyof
weatherandinclassif
yingcl
i
maticregi
onsandmappi
ngthem.
8.Geology-
geographystudiesr
ocks.

TheEar
thandt
heSol
ar
Syst
em
Sol
arsyst em isthegroupofheav enlybodiescompr i
si
ngt hesunandthe
ni
neplanet s.
Theor iginoftheSol arSystem
Theories
Atheoryisasetofr easonedi deasintendedt oexplai
nf actsorev
ent
s
1.Passi ngSt arTheory
 Astarwi t
hagr eatergravit
at i
onalpullpassedneart hesun
I tat
tractedlargequant i
tiesofgaseousmat er
ialsfr
om thesun
 Themat eri
alssplit
,cooledandcondensedt oform planets
 Thepl anetswer esetinor bitbythepassi ngstar

Weaknesses
 Doesn’ texpl ai
nt heor i
ginoft hesunandst ar.
 Mi nimal chanceofast arappr oachi nganother
 Mat erial
swoul ddisper set hancondense
2.Col li
sionTheor y
 Starwi thgr eatergrav i
tati
onal pul lpassedneart hesun
I tat tr
act edl ar
gequant it
iesofgaseousmat eri
als
 Themat er i
alsspl i
tintopor tions
 Lar gepor ti
onscol li
dedwi thsmal l
eronesandsweptt hem tof
orm
planet s.
Theweaknessesar et hesameast hepassi ngstar’sTheory
.
3.Nebul aCl odTheory
 Ther ewasasl owlyr ot
at i
ngcl oudofdustandgascal l
edNebula
I tcool edandbegant ocont act
 Rot ationspeedi ncreasedandsuccessi veringsofgaseousmat er
ial
s
wer ef ormed.
 Ther ingscondensedt of orm pl anets
 Thecent ralgaseousmat erialr emai nedast hesun
Ev idence
 Rot ationandr evolutionofpl anet si nanti
cl
ockwi sedir
ecti
on
Weakness

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Theorigi nofnebul ari snotexpl ained.

4.Super nov a/ expl osi
onTheor y
 Ther ewasav iolentexpl osionofast ar .
 Acl oudofdust( nebul ar)remai nedf rom thest ar.
 Ther ewasf astmov ementoft hecl oudduet ot heforceofexplosion.
 Rotat ionspeedi ncreasedduet ogr avitat
ional attr
acti
on
 Thecl oudf lattenedi ntoadi sc.
 Themat terbegant oaccumul atet owar dsthecent retofor
m apr oto-
sun
whichl at erbegant oshi ne.
 Ther estoft hecl oudcol lapsedt of orm planets.
Weaknesses
 Doesn’ texpl ai ntheor i
ginoft hest ar
 Doesn’ texpl ai nthecauseofexpl osi on
Composi tionoft heSol arSy stem
1.TheSun
I
t’
sthecent r
eoft heuni verse.
Char act eristi
cs
I t
’sast ar.
Astarisaheav enlypossessi ngi tsownl ightwhi chi ttr
ansmits.
Nebula/ gal axyi sacl usterofst ar s.
Theear thi si nagal axycal l
edTheMi lkyWay .
I t
’smadeofv eryhotgasesmai nlyhy drogen( 70%)andhel ium (30%).
 Hasadi amet erof1392000km.
 Surroundedbyal ay erofgaswhi chhasboi l
edf rom itssur
facewhi chis
call
edcor ona.
 Rotat esoni tsownaxi si nant i
cl ockwi sedirection.
 Hasgr av i
tational pul lwhichhol dsal ltheplanet sinor bi
tar
oundi t.
Anorbiti sapat hwhi chapl anetorasat elli
tefoll
owsar oundastarora
pl
anet.
 Temper at ureati tscent r
ei s15m◦candatt hesur faceis5500◦c.
 Radi atessol arener gywhi chisv eryi mpor tantf orallf
ormsofl i
feont he
earth.
2.ThePl anet s

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Planetsar elargespher ical celestial/

heav enlybodi esinspace.
Therear e9pl anet sinoursol arsy stem.
Char acteri
stics
 Spher icalinshape
 Don’ thav et heirownl i
ghtbutr ef l
ectitfrom t hesun.
 Rev olvear oundt hesuni nant iclockwisedi recti
on.
 Hav et heirownf or
ceofgr avi
ty
 Onl yonei sknownt osuppor tlife.
Thef ollowi ngar et heplanet sarrangedi nor derf r
om theonenearestt
othe
sun.
Mer cury
 Near estf r
om t hesun
I t
s58m km f r
om t hesun
 Hasnosat el l
ites
 Takesappr oximat ely88ear t
hday stor ev olvearoundthesun
Venus
nd
 2 pl anetf r
om t hesun
I t
’s108m km f rom t
hesun
 Oneoft hebr ightestpl anet s
 Canbeseencl earl
ywi t hnakedey es
 Takesappr oximat ely225ear t
hday stor ev olvearoundthesun
 Sl i
ght lysmal l
ert hant heear t
h
 Hasnosat el l
ites
 Toget herwi tht heear t
ht heyar ecal l
edt wi nplanetsduetohavi
ngmany
similarit
ies

Ear
th
r
d
 The3 pl
anetf
rom t
hesun

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 Theear t handt heheav enlybodi esmaket heuni ver

se
 Theonl ypl anett hatsuppor tslife
 Thehomeofman
 Appr oxi mat el y149m km f rom t hesun
 Takes365¼day st orev olvear oundt hesun
 Hasonesat elli
te, t
hemoon
Mar s
 Al socal ledTheRedPl anetbecausewheni t’
sobser vedt
hrougha
telescopei tappear sreddi sh.
th
 The4 f rom t hesun
 Slightlysmal lert hant heear th
 Appr oxi mat el y228m km f rom t hesun
 Takes687ear t
hday stor ev olvear oundt hesun
 Bet weenMassandJupi t
ert herear esmal lcelesti
albodi
escall
ed
planet oids.
 Hasnosat ellite.
Jupi ter
t
h
 5 pl anetf rom t hesun
 Appr oxi mat el y778m km f rom t hesun
 Lar gesti nt heuni verse
 Rot atesoni tsownaxi satv eryf astspeed
 Hasf l
at tenedpol esduet oi tsf astspeedofr otat
ion
 Hasv er ythickl ay ersofi ceoni tssur face
t akes12ear thy ear stor ev olvear oundt hesun
 Has16sat ellites
Saturn
t
h
 6 pl anetf rom t hesun
 Secondl argestpl anet
 Appr oxi mat el y1427m km f r om t hesun
 Takes29½ ear thy earst or ev olvear oundt hesun
 Hasar ingar oundi t
 Has18sat ellites
Ur anus
t
h
 7 pl anetf rom t hesun
 About4t i
mesbi ggert hant heear th
 Appr oxi mat el y2870m km f r om t hesun
 Al sorot atesv er yf ast
 Al sohasf latt enedpol esduet of astspeedofr ot
ati
on
I tappear sgr eeni shf oebei ngsur roundedbymet hanegas
 Has8sat ell
ites
 Takes84ear thy earst or evol vear oundt hesun
Nept une

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 Oneoft hef arthestf r

om t hesun
t
h
 8 pl anetf rom t hesun
 Appr oxi mat ely4497m km f r
om t hesun
 Has8sat ellit
es
 Takes165ear thy earst orev olvear oundt hesun
 Ver ysi mi l
ari nsi ze, colourandchar act erwi t
hUr anus
Pl uto
t
h
 9 pl anetf rom t heear t
h
 Farthestf rom t hesun
 Thesmal l
est
 1/6t hesi zeoft heear th
 Appr oxi mat ely5900m km f r
om t hesun
 Takes248ear thy earst orev olvear oundt hesun
 Hasonesat ellit
e
 Ver ylittl
ei sknownabouti t
OtherCel estialBodi es
Nat ural Sat ell
it
es
 Anynat ur al heav enl ybodyt hator bitsar oundapl anete.g.moonf or
earth, tri
tanf orSat urnandTr i
tonf orNept une.
Ast eroids/ Planetoids
 Alsocal ledmi norpl anets.
 Aresmal l f
r agment sofr ocksl ef tgoi ngar oundt hesunwhent hesol ar
system wasf ormed
 Foundbet weenMassandJupi t
er
 Are1500i nnumber
 Theysomet imescol l
idewi theachot herandpl anetsduet oJupi ter
’s
grav i
tat i
onal pul l causi ngt hem t omov einer r
aticor bi
ts.
Comet s
 Heav enlybodi eswhi chappeart ohav eaheadandal ongtail
 Madeofi ce, dustandf rozengas
 Theheadi smadeofmanypar ticlesofdust ,r
ockandf rozengases.
 Thei rt ailismadeofgasesandpoi ntsawayf rom t hesun.
 Mov ear oundt hesuni next r
emel yl ongandov alorbi t
s
 Thei ror bitscr osst heear t
h’sor bi tse. g.Hal l
ey’sCometwhi chappear s
afterev er y76y ear s.
Met eor oid
 Smal lheav enlybodywhi chst ray sf rom itsor biti
nt hesolarsyst em and
enter st heear th’sat mospher eatv eryhi ghspeed.
Met eor
 Amet eor oidwhi chi sbur ningoutduet ofricti
onaf terenteri
ngt he
earth’sat mospher e.
Met eorite
 Remai nsofamet eor oidwhi chhav ereachedt heear th’
ssurfaceor
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i
ncompl etelybur ntupmet eoroid.
 Whent heyf allt
heysi nkint othegr oundf ormingcraters
 Theyar er i
chi niron
TheMoon
 Anat ur alsat ell
it
e
 Receiv esi tslightf r
om t hesunandr eflectsitontotheearth.
I trevolv esar oundt heear th
 Takes29. 5day st ocompl et eoner ev olutionaroundt heearth
I tsorbiti salmostci rcular
 Asi trev olvesar oundt hesuni tappear sinv ar
iousshapesr angi
ngfrom
crescent /
newmoon, hal fmoon, gibbonsmoonandf ullmoon.
 Hasgr av i
tational pullwhi chcausest her i
singandfal l
ingoftheocean
l
ev el
 Ast hemoonor bitsar oundt heear thi tcreatesanev entcall
edecli
pse.
Eclipse
-
Phenomenonoccur r
ingwhent her aysoft hesunar eblockedf r
om
r
eachingt heear thort hemoon.
Solar/SunEcl i
pse

 Themooncomesbet weent heearthandt hesun

 Themoon’sshadowi scastont heearth
 Thesunappearstobecov eredbydar kness
Lunar/moonEcl i
pse
 Theeart
hcomesbet weent hemoonandt hesun
 Theeart
hsshadowi scastont hemoon
 Themoonappearst obecov eredbydar kness
TheOr i
ginoftheear t
h
 Astarwit
hagreatergravit
ationalpul
lpassedneart
hesun
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I tat
tract
edlargequant i
tiesofgaseousmateri
alsfrom t
hesun
 Themat eri
alsspli
t,cooledandcondensed
 Heaviermateri
alscollectedatthecentr
etoformt hecore
 Lessdensemat eri
alscol lect
edaroundthecor
et oformthemant
le
 Thelight
estmat er
ialsformedt hecrust

Theshapeoft
heear
th

Theshapeoft heear t
hiscal ledgeoi d/ov oid/
oblatespher oidduet obeing
animper fectspher ebybei ngwi deatt heequat orandf latatthepol es.
Proofs/EvidenceThatt heEar t
hI sSpher i
cal
1.Ifonemov est owar dstheeasti nast rai
ghtlinehewi llendupwher ehe
star ted.
2.Sat elli
tephot ographst akenf rom spaceshowt hatt
heear t
hi sli
kea
spher e.
3.Pl acesi ntheeastseet hesunear l
i
ert hanthosei nthewest .
4.Whenashi pi sappr oachi ngt hesmokei sseenf i
rst
,thent hemastand
finallythewhol eship.
5.Al lthepl anet sar espher i
cal sot heear thbeingoneoft hem isalso
spher i
cal.
6.Dur ingt hemoonecl i
pset heear thcast saspher i
calshadowont he
moon.
7.Theear t
h’shor i
zonappear scur vedwhenobser vedf rom av eryhigh
poi ntlikeat ower .
Thesi zeoft heearth
 Equat orialdiamet er-12756km
 Equat orialcircumf erence-40085km
 Pol ardi amet er-39995km
 Sur f
acear eaoft heear t
h-510×106km2
 Wat ersur face-73%.
TheMov ementoft heEar t
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Ther ear e2mov ement soft heear thnamel y:

1.Rot ationoft heear t
honi t saxi s
2.Rev olut i
onoft heear thar oundt hesun
Rot ationoft heEar t h
-Mov ementoft heear t
honi t sownaxi s(imagi nar ylinethrought hecentre
from Npol etoSpol e.
 Rot atest hrough360◦.
 Takes24hour s(day )t ocompl ete1r otat i
on.
 Rot atesi nanant i
clockwi sedi rection( westt oeast ).
Effect sofRot ati
onoft heEar th
1.Cr eat esdayandni ghtbecauseatanyonet imeonesi deoft heeart
h
facest hesun( day )andt heot herr emai nsi ndar kness( night
).
2.Causesdef lect ionofwi ndsandoceancur rentsi nt heNhemi spher
et o
thel eftandi nt heShemi spher et other i
ght .
3.I tcausesr i
singandf all
ingofoceant i
des.
4.Causest i
medi fferencebet weenl ongi tudes.
 Takesonehourt ogot hrough15◦.
 4mi nt ogot hrough1◦.
Cal culat i
onofLocal Time
-Thet imer ecordedi npl aceswi thint hesamel ongi tude.
Al ongi tudei sani magi naryl iner unni ngf rom Nt oSwhi chshowshowf arE
orW apl acei sfrom t hepr i
memer idian.
Gr eenwi chMer idian( 0◦)l ongi tudei st hepoi ntofr eferencewhen
cal culat i
ngt ime.
Timei sgai nedt owar dst heEandl ostt owar dst heW.
Exampl es
1.Supposet het imeatGWM i s12noonwhati st hel ocaltimeatWat amu
40◦E?
Timegai ned=40×4=160mi n=2hour s40mi n
Local ti
meatWat amui s12. 00+2. 40=14. 40-1200=2. 40pm.
2.AtDar -es-Salaam 40◦Et imei s12pm whati sthet i
meatEcuador40◦E?
40◦+20◦=60◦
60×4=240mi n=4hour s
Ecuadori sbehi ndi ntime=12. 00-4=8am.
Ifthepl acesar eont hesamesi desubt r
actt hedegr eest ogett he
differenceandaddorsubt ractf rom t her efer encet imedependi ngonwhi ch
sidet hepl acei s.
Cal culationofLongi tude
Whati st helongi tudeofpl acexwhosel ocal timei s8am whenl ocalt
ime
atGWM i snoon?
Timedi fference=12. 00- 8=4hour s
Degr ees=4×15=60◦
Sincexi sbehi ndi nt i
mei t
st hen60◦W.
Standar dTi meandZones

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 Standar dt imei stimer ecor dedbycount rieswi thinthesamet imezone.

 Standar dt imewascomeupwi thduet oconf usionr esulti
ngf r
om time
changi ngatev erylongi tude.
 Thewor ldhas24t imezones.
TheI nternat i
onal Dat eLine
I
t’
sthe180◦ l ongitude.
EffectsofCr ossingI t
 Onegai nst imewhenhecr ossesi tfrom W t oEandhast oadjustthe
clockaheadby24hour s.
 Onel osest imewhenhecr ossesi tfrom Et oW andhast oadjustthe
clockbackwar dsby24hour s.
Rev olutionoft heEar th
 Mov ementoft heear t
hi ni tsor bitaroundt hesun.
I t
’si nant i
clockwi sedi rect i
on.
 Theor bitoft heear th’
sr ev olutioni selli
ptical
.
 Takes365¼day si nay earor366day sinal eapy ear( every4y ear
s).
 Thesunmov esfrom t het r
opi cofcancert otheequat orandt hen
towar dst ropicofCapr icor nandbackt othet ropicofcancer .
st r
d
 21 mar chand23 Sept emberar ecal l
edequi noxesbecauset helength
ofdayandni ghtisequal .Thesuni sv ert
icall
yov erheadatnoonatt he
equat or.
st
 21 Junei scal l
edsummersol sti
cebecausei tssummeri ntheN
hemi spher e.Thesuni sv er
ticallyov erheadatnoonatt hetropicof
cancer .
nd
 22 Decemberi scal l
edwi nt ersolsticebecausei t
swi nterintheS.
hemi spher e.Thesuni sv er
ticallyov erheadatnoonatnoonatt hetropi
c
ofCapr i
cor n.
 Sol sticei stheper i
odofmaxi mum t i
lti
ngoft heear thtowar dsthesun.

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EffectsoftheRev oluti
onoft heearth
1.Causest
hef ourseasonssummer ,autumn,wi nt
erandspri
ngduet ot
he
movementofov erheadsuncausi ngchangesi ntheheatbel
t.
2.Causesvari
ati
onofdayandni ght’slengthsduet otheeart
h’saxi
sbei
ng
i
ncli
nedtothepathofr evol
utionatanangl eof60◦.
 Equinoxeshav eequal lengthsofdayandni ght.
 Summer shav el ongerday sandshor ternight
s.
 Wintershavel ongernightsandshor t
erday s.

3.Causeschangesi nt
heal t
it
udeoft hemi ddaysunduetot
heear
th’
sorbi
t
bei
ngelli
ptical
.
 Highestalti
tudeduringequinox
 Lowestal ti
tudeduringsolst
ices
4.Causeslunarecl i
pseduet orevolut
ionbringi
ngtheear
thi
nli
newit
hthe
sunandt hemoon.
TheStructureoftheEarth

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Internal Struct ur
eoft heEar t
h
Theevi
denceusedt ost udyt heear th’sinteri
orare
1.mining
2.dri
ll
ing
3.quar r
ying/excav ation
A.Cr ust /Lit
hosphere
 Outermostl ay eroft heear th
 Madeofsoi lsandot herloosedeposi tsofsand
 Thedomi nantr ocksar egr anites.
 Extends0- 50km
 Has2l ayers
1.Sial
 Alsocal l
edcont i
nent alcr ust
 Madeofl ightcol ouredr ocks
 Calledsial becausei t’
smadeupofsi l
icaandal umini
um.
2.Si ma
 Alsocal l
edoceani ccr ust
 Mainlymadeofbasal ti
cr ockswhi char ebrit
tl
e.
 Calledsimabecausei tismadeofsi li
camagnesi um andir
on.
Mohor ovicicDi scontinuit
y( Moho)
 Adef init
ezoneofdi scont inuitybet weent hecrustandthemantl
e.
 Wasdi scov eredbyDr .Andr ij
aMohor ovi
cicin1909.

B.TheMant
le/Ast
henospher
e
 Lay
erl
yingbet
weenthecr
ustandthecore
 Madeofir
onandmagnesi
um
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 Hast
wol
ayer
s
1.Uppermant l
e
 Rocksar emor eel ast ict hant hoseofsi ma.
 Temper at urei sabout1000◦c.
2.l owermant le
 Rocksar el ikev er yv iscousl i
quid.
 Temper at urer angesbet ween1000◦ct o3000◦c.
Whyt heI nt er i
orofEar thIsVer yHot
a)Duer adio- act ivedecaycausi ngmostoft heheat i
ng.
b)Duet ogr eatpr essur easar esul tofov erl
y ingcrustal
mat eri
als.
c)Theor i
ginal heatr esul tingf rom sl owcool i
ngoft hemat eri
alswhich
wer epul l
edof ft hesun
Gut enber gDi scontinuity
 Adef init
ezoneofdi scont i
nui tybet weenmant l
eandcor e.
C.Cor e/ bar yspher e/Cent r
ospher e
 Thei nner most /cent r al lay eroft heear th.
 Has2l ay ers
OuterCor e
 Composedofv erydenser ocks
 Madeupofni ckel andi ron
 Temper at uresar eupt o3700◦c.
InnerCor e
 Asol idmassofmai nlyi ron
 Temper at uresar eest imat edt obe4500◦ct o5000◦c.
Ext er nal Structur eoftheEar th
a)TheAt mospher e
 Lay erofgasessur roundi ngt heear t
h.
 Theear t
hr ev olv eswi thi tbecausei tsheldont oitbygravi
ty
I t’sabout330km t hi ck.
Composi ti
onoft heAtmospher e
a)Gases- exi stasami xt ure
b)Smokepar t
icles
c)Dustpar ticles
d)Wat erv apour
Thest r uct ureoft heAt mospher e
I
t’
sdividedi nto4l ay ers/ zonesnamel y:
1.Tr opospher e
Lowestl ayeroft heat mospher e
Cont ains90%ofwat erv apour
Rainfallisgotf r om i t
Temper aturedecr easeswi thi ncr easei naltitude(lapserate)
Airistur bulentduet omi xi ngofai r
Cont ainsdustpar ticles

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Ther eisazoneoft ransi tionbet weent r opospher eandst r

at osphere
call
edt ropopause.
2.St rat ospher e/ozonospher e
Lay erlyingnextt ot ropospher e
Hasl ay ers
Loweri sother mal lay eri nwhi cht emper aturei sconst ant
Upperl ayeroft emper at urei nv ersioni nwhi cht emper ature
incr easeswi thi ncr easi ngal titude
Hasozonel ay erwhi chabsor bshar mf ul ultrav i
oletr adiati
on.
Airiscal m soi t
susedbypassengerj et s
Li
mi t
edamount sofwat erv apour
Ther eisazoneoft ransi tionbet weenst ratospher eandmesospher e
call
edst ratopause.
3.Mesospher e
Middl elay eroft heat mospher e.
Temper at uredecr easeswi thi ncr easi ngal ti
tude.
Ther eisazoneoft ransi tionbet weenmesospher eandt hermospher e
call
edmesopausewhi chi sani nv ersi onl ay er.
4.Ther mospher e/ i
onospher e
 Hi ghr adi ati
oni spr esent .
 Thepr essur eisv er ylow.
 Gasesandmol ecul esi nt hisl ay erexi stasi onsduet ohighr adi
at i
on.
 Hasnodef i
nitet opbutmer gesgr adual lyint ot heout ermostpar tof
theat mospher ecal ledex ospher e.
 Exospher econsi stsofr ar egasesl ikehy dr ogenandhel ium.
 Bey ondt heat mospher et her ei st heout erspace.
 Out erspacei st heuni ver sebey ondt heat mospher einwhi chot her
planet sandst arsexi st.
Signi f
icanceofAt mospher e
a)Ani mal sandpl ant sbr eat hei nf rom i toxy genf orr espir
at i
on.
b)Pl ant susecar bondi oxi def r
om i tforphot osy nt hesi s.
c)Wat erv apouri nt heat mospher econdensest of or m cloudswhi ch
giveusr ain.
d)Ozonel ay erinthest rat ospher eshi el dsusf rom ul travi
oletradiation
whichmaycausecancer s.
e)Car bondi oxideandmet hanei nt heat mospher ecausegl obal
war mi ngt hrought hegr eenhouseef fect.
b)TheHy dr ospher e
 Par toft heear th’ssur facecov er edbywat ermassese. g.oceans,
seas, lakes, ri
ver sandev enunder groundwat er.
I tcompr i
ses73%oft heear th’ssur f acear ea.
 Theat mospher eandhy dr ospher ear er elatedi nt hatatmospher ic
gasespenet ratet ot heoceandept hi nsol utionf orm.
 Thel owerat mospher e, hy drospher eandt heupperpar toft heear ths
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cr
ustarecall
edbiospher
emeani
ngt
hespher
eoft
heear
thi
nwhi
ch
or
ganicli
feexi
sts.

-
Dai
WEATHER
l
yat mospher iccondi tionsofapl aceatapar t
icularti
meandchanges
fr
pm placet ppl aceandt imet ot i
me.
Conditi
onoft heat mospher ei sdet erminedbyt heelement sofweat her
.
Element sofWeat her
1.Temper ature
2.Humi ditypr ecipitation
3.Pr ecipitati
on
4.At mospher icpr essur e
5.Wi nd
6.Sunshi ne
7.Cl oudcov er
AWeat herStati
on
-
Aplacewher eobser vation, measur ingandrecordingofweat herelements
i
sdone
Fact orst oBeTakenI ntoAccountWhenSi tt
ingaWeat herStati
on
1.Anopenpl acewher et herei slitt
leobstr
uctionofweat herelements.
2.Accessi bleplacesot hatr ecordingcanbedoneeasi ly.
3.Af air
lylevel orgent lyslopi nggr ound(5◦)sot hatit
’seasyt o
positi
onweat heri nst r
ument s.
4.Thepl aceshoul dpr ov i
deawi dev i
ewoft hesur r
oundinglandscape
andt hesky .
5.Thesi teshoul dbef reef rom f l
ooding.
6.Thepl aceshoul dhav esecur ity.

Instrument sforMeasur
ingElementsofWeather
1.Thermomet er -
temperatur
e
2.Hygrometer -
humi dit
y
3.Raingauge-rainfall
4.Barometer-airpressure
5.Sunshi
ner ecor der-
sunshi
nedurat
ionandintensi
ty
6.Windvane–wi nddir
ecti
on
7.Anemomet er -windspeed
8.Evapori
met er-rateandamountofevapor
ation.

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TheSt
evensonScr
een

-Awhitewoodenboxmount edon4legsusedtohouset
her
momet
ersand
hygr
omet er
s.
Theinstrumentswhi char
ef oundi
nitare:
1.Maxi mum thermometer
2.mi nimum t hermometer
3.Six’st her
momet er
4.hy gromet er-
wetbul
banddr ybul
bt her
mometer

I
mportance
1.Provi
deshadecondi
ti
onsf
oraccurat
etemperat
urer
ecordi
ng.
2.Ensuresaf
etyoft
her
mometersbecausetheyar
edel
icat
e.

Quali
ficati
onsWhi chMakeStevensonScr eenSuitableForItsWork
1.Paintedwhi t
ef orli
tt
leabsor
ptionofsol arheatener gy.
2.Madeofwoodwhi chisabadconduct orofheat .
3.Thef ourlegsar eusuall
ymetall
ictoprev entter
mi tesfrom dest
royi
ng
thewood
4.Wellv enti
lat
edt oall
oweasierflowofai rinsi
deit.
5.Raisedt opreventcontactwit
ht er
restr
ial r
adiat
ion.
6.Hasdoubl eroofwhichactsasani nsulatortoprev entdir
ectheati
ng
from thesun.

Recordi
ngandCal culat
ingWeatherCondi
ti
ons
Temper at
ure
-
Degreeofhot nessofanobj ectorapl ace.
I
t’
smeasur edusing3t ypesoft hermomet er
snamely:
1.Maxi mum thermomet er
2.Mi ni
mum t her
momet er
3.Six’sthermometer

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Maxi
mum Ther
momet
er

I
t’
susedt omeasur ethehighesttemperaturereachedinaday .
I
tusesmer cury
.
HowI t
’sUsed/Wor ks
 Temper atur
er i
sescausingmer curytoexpand.
 Mer cur
ypushest heindexup.
 Whent emper at
urefallsmercurycontracts.
 Themaxi mum t emper at
ureisreadfrom thescaleatthelowerendof
theindex.
 Ther mometerisresetbyshakingittof orcemercurybackint
othe
bulb.
Mi ni
mum Ther momet er

I
t’
susedt orecordt hel owesttemperatur
er eachedinaday.
I
tusesalcohol .
Howi t
’sUsed/Wor ks
 Temper at
ur efall
scausingalcoholtocont r
act.
 Alcohol pullstheindexdown.
 Whent emper atureri
sesalcoholexpandsandr isesi
nthetube.
 Thei ndexr emai nswhereitwaspulled.
 Minimum t emper at
urereadi
ngi sobtainedfrom t
hescal
eatthelower
endoft heindex.

Cal
cul
ati
ngTemper ature
1.Diur
nal
/dail
yTemper atur
er ange
-Di
ff
erencebet
weenthemaximum andmi ni
mum t emper at
ureforanyone
day.
2.MeanDai l
yTemper ature
-Av
erageofthemaxi
mum andthemi ni
mum dai l
ytemper at
ures.
3.MeanMont hlytemperature

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-
Sum ofmeandai l
yt emper at
uresi namont hdivi
dedbyt henumberofdays
i
nthatmont h.
4.MeanMont hlymi ni
mum Temper at
ure
-
Sum ofdailymini
mum t emper atur esdividedbyt henumberofdaysinthat
month.
5.MeanMont hl
yMaxi mum Temper at
ure
-
Sum ofdailymaximum t emper aturesdi vi
dedbyt henumberofday si
nthat
month.
6.MeanAnnual Temper atur
e
-
Sum ofmeanmont hlytemper aturesdi vi
dedby12.
7.MeanAnnual Temper atur
eRange
-
Dif
ferencebetweent hehighestandt helowestmeanmont hly
t
emper at
uresinayear .
8.◦k=◦c+273
9.◦F=( ◦c×1. 8)+32der i
vet herestfrom t
heformul
as.
Rai nfal
l

Raingaugei stheinstrumentusedt omeasur et heamountofr ai

nfal
lina
day .
I
tshouldbemadeofi mper meablemat eri
al whichcan’ tabsor bwater.
HowIt’
sUsed/ Wor ks
I t’
st akent oanopenspacet opr eventwat erf rom droppingintothe
funnel .
I tssunki ntot hegr oundt opr
ev entev aporation
 Thef unneltopi sleft30cm abov ethegr oundt opreventsplashesof
wat erandr unof f.
 Af t
er24hour swat erisemptiedi nt
ot hemeasur i
ngcy l
inder.
 Ther eadingoft heamountofr ainfalli
sgotf r om themeasur ing
cy l
i
nderi nmi lli
met res.
 Thef i
gurer epresent sthemil
limet r
esofwat erf al
li
ngoneachsquar e
mi l
li
met r
eoft hegr ound.
I tcoul dbeusedt omeasur esnowf al
l bymel tingitbeforethe

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r
eadi
ngsar
egot
ten.

CalculatingRainf all
1.Mont hl
yRai nfallTotal
-
Sum ofr
ainf
all
recordedinamont h.
2.Annual Rainf allTot
al
-
Sum ofmonthl
yrainfal
ltot
alsfor12mont hs.
3.MeanMont hlyRai nfal
l
-
Sum ofr
ainf
all
totalsforaparti
cul armonthov erseveral
year
sdi
vi
dedby
t
henumberofthey earsofobserv ati
on.
4.MeanAnnual Rainf
all
-
Sum ofmeanmont hlyrai
nfal
l f
or12mont hsoft heyear.
Sunshine

Durat
ionofsunshi nei smeasur edusi ngCampbel lstokessunshi
ne
recor
der.
HowI tWor ks
 Spherical l
ensf ocuseslightonsensi t
izedpaper .
 Thepaperbur nswhent hesuni sshining.
 Thetot alhoursofsunshi neisgotbyaddi ngall t
heburntsecti
ons
fr
om cal ibrati
onsont hesi deofsensi tizedpaper .
 Thesensi t
izedpaperischangedev eryday .
Humi dity
Humidityisthecondi ti
onofat mospher ewithr eferencetoitswatercont
ent
.
I
t’smeasur edwi thhy grometerorpsy chromet erwhi chconsist
sofwetand
drybulbthermomet erskeptinSt evensonscr een.
Drybulbthermomet erisathermomet ercov eredwi t
hmusl i
nbagi mmersed
i
nwat erwhi l
edr ybul bthermomet erhasnomusl in.
HowI tWor ks
 Whenai risdryt her
eisal otofev apor ati
onf rom themusl i
n.
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 Evaporati
oncool sthebulbofthermomet err
esult
inginal ow
temperatur
er eading.
 Whenhumi di
tyishighthereisli
tt
leevaporat
ionfr
om t hemusli
n.
 Thewetbul bthermomet eriscooledataslowerrateandbot h
thermomet er
sshowal mostt hesamet emperatur
er eading.
 Thedi f
fer
encei nreadi
ngsbet weenthetwothermomet ersi
susedt
o
determinerel
ativehumidit
y.

InterpretationofHy gromet erReadings

 Whent he2r eadingsar et hesame, relativehumidityi
s100%i .
e.t
he
airissaturated.
I fthedifferencei ssmal l
,humi dityishi gh.
I fthedifferencei sbig, humi dityisv eryl ow.
Cal culatingHumi dity
Absol uteHumi dit
y
-Act
ual amountofwat erv apouragi v env olumeofai rcanhold.I
t’
s
expresseding/ m3.
Speci fi
cHumi di
ty
-Massofwat ervapouri nagi venmassofai r.It
’sexpresseding/km.
Rel at i
veHumi di
ty
-Rat
iobet weent heabsol ut ehumi di tyandt hemaxi mum amountofwat er
theaircanhol dexpr essedi naper cent age.
R.H.=A.H/Maximum amountofwat ert heaircanhol datthesame
temper at
ure.
Exampl e
I ftheairat20◦ccont ains10g/ m3andgi venaircanholda
maxi mum of20g/ m3. calculatet her elativehumidity.
10×100/ 20=50%
Wi nd
Di rect i
on

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Wi
nddi
recti
oni sdeterminedusingwi ndv ane.
HowI tWor ks
 Asthewi ndbl owst hearr
owswi ngs.
 Thear r
owpoi ntsint heopposit
edi r
ectionofthewindflow.
 Thedirectionisreadf r
om thecar di
nalcompasspoi nt
s.
 Thear r
owwi l
lpointinthedir
ectionfrom whichthewindisblowi
ng.
 ForinstanceifitpointsSthewindi sblowingfrom StowardsN.
WindSock

-
Usedtoindi
catethegeneraldir
ectionofwi ndfl
ow.
-
Notkeptinaweatherstat
ionbecausei tdoesn’
tgi
vetheaccurat
edirecti
on
ofwi
ndflow.
-
Seennearai
rstr
ipsfort
hebenef itofpilots.
Howi tWor ks
 Whenwi ndblowsthebasst retchesoutinthedi
rect
ionthatthewind
i
sblowing.
Wi ndspeed/ Veloci
ty

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-Measuredusinganemomet er.
HowI tWor ks
 Whenwi ndbl owshemi spheri
cal cupsr otat
e.
 Thenumberofr otat
ionsi sobtainedf rom themetreonthel
owerpart
oftheanemomet er.
 Theunitsf ormeasuringwi ndar ecalledknot s.
At mospher i
cPr essur e
-Theforceexertedbygasesi ntheat mospher eonsomear eaorbodyon
theeart
hssur f
ace.
-Measuredusingbar ometersoft hr
eet ypesnamel ymer
cury
,aner
oidand
Forti
nBaromet ers.
Mer cur
yBar omet er

HowI tWorks
 Airexertspressur
eont hemer curyint
hebeaker
.
 Thehei ghtofmercuryinthetubei spr
opor
ti
onaltot
heat
mospher
ic
pressure.
 Ther eadingsaretakeninmmHg.
Its760mmHgatseal ev
el
Advantage
Quiteaccurat
e

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Disadv ant age

1.Cumber somet ocarryaround.
2.Canbedamagedqui teeasi lywhi lebei ngcarri
edaround.
Aner oidBar omet er
-Measur eschangesinatmospher icpr essur e.
HowI tWor ks
 Hasai rti
ghtcompartment( vacuum) .
 Compar tmentexpandswhenpr essur edecreases.
I tcoll
apseswhenpr essurei ncreases.
 Themov ementistr
ansmi ttedbyl ev ertoapointeronadial
.
 Ther eadingsar
einkg/ cm3.
Evapor ation
Ther ateandamountofev apor ati
oni smeasur edusingpicheandtank
evaporimeters.
PicheEv apor imeter

 Whent herei
sal otofsunshinewaterevapor
atesfr
om theblot
ti
ng
paper.
 Thelevelofwaterintheglasstubereduces.
 Therateandamountofev aporat
ionisgotbylooki
ngatthescal
eon
theoutsi
deofthegl asstube.
 Theunitsarei
nmm.
TankEvapori
met er

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HowI tWor ks
 Thet ankwi thwat eri sputi nt heopen.
 Wat erev apor at eswhent her ei sal otofsunshi ne.
 Wat eri nt het ankr educes.
 Ther at eandamountofev apor at ioni sgotf rom cal ibrationsi nt he
i
nnersi deoft het anki nmm.
Cl oudCov er
Theamountofcl oudcov eri sobser vedusi ngey es.
It’
sgi veni nokt as.
Okt a=appr oximat ely1/ 8ofskyi scov er edwi thcl ouds.
Weat herFor ecast i
ng
-Predictionoft hecondi tionsoft heat mospher ef oragi venpl acef ora
certainper iod.
Met hodsofWeat herFor ecast ing
Tr adi tional Met hods
-Predictionofweat herbasedont radi t
ional bel ief sandf acts.
 Pl ant ssheddi ngl eav esi ndi cat esper iodofdr ought .
 Saf ar iant si ndicat ei twi llrai n.
 Mi grat ionofbut ter fl
iesal soi ndicat esi twi llrain.
 Cr oaki ngoff rogsdur i
ngdr yseasoni ndi cat ei t’sgoi ngt or ain.
 Fl ower ingofcer tainpl ant si ndi cat est heonsetofr ainf all
.
 Changesi nt hei ntensi tyofsunshi nei ndi cat ei t’
sgoi ngt or ai
n.
Moder nMet hods
-Predictionofweat herusi ngmoder ni nst rument sandnewt echnol ogyof
collecting, transmi t
ting, processi ngandanal ysingweat herdat a.
Inst rument sUsed
1.Sat ellit
es- elect roni cdev iceswhi chor bitt heear thwhi chcol l
ectand
transmi tweat herdat awhi chi sint er pr et edbycomput ers.
2.Radar -ani nstrumentusedt oseecl oudf or mat ion.
3.Sensor s/ radi osodes- inst rumentf ixedonabal loonusedt omeasur e
atmospher i
cpr essur e, temper at ur eandhumi dity.
4.Comput ers-el ectr oni cdev iceusedt ost ore, anal yseanddi splay
weat heri nf ormat ion.
Si gnificance/ Impor tanceofWeat herFor ecasting
1.Hel psust obeawar eofnat ural cal ami ti
esr el atedt oweat herbef ore
theyoccursoast ot akepr ecaut ionar ymeasur es.
2.Gui dingt our istsonwhent ov isitnat ional par ks.
3.Hel psf armer st opl ant hei ract iviti
essuchaspl anting, harv esting,etc.
4.Ensur esai randwat ert ranspor tiscar riedoutsaf ely.
5.Hel psspor t
ingpeopl et opl ant hei rt rai ningandcompet it
ion
schedul es.
6.Hel pspeopl et opl anmanyot heract iv iti
essuchasmi ning, electri
cit
y
gener ation, hol idayev ent s, et c.
7.Hel psf i
shi ngcommuni tiest opl ant hei ract iviti
es.
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Fact or sHi nder i

ngWeat herFor ecast i
ng
1.Lackofski lledmanpowerduet ol imi t
edt rainingf acilities.
2.Lackofmoder nequi pmentl eadi ngt owr ongf orecast s.
3.Nat ur al calami ti
essuchasst or msandear thquakes.
4.Ext remeweat hercondi t
ionswhi chmaydamageordi spl ace
i
nst r ument s.
5.Useoff aultyi nstrument s.
6.Humaner ror .
7.Poorsi tti
ngofi nstrument s.
Fact orsInf l
uenci ngWeat her
Temper at ur e
Fact orsinfluenci ngt emper atur e
1.Al titude
-
Heightabov eseal ev el.
 Temper atur edecr easeswi thi ncr easei nhei ghtduet oai rathigher
altitudebei ngt hinnerandhencet her ei sl esspar ti
clese. g.gases,
dust ,smokeandwat erv apourt ost or eheatsoi tsr api dlyl osttot he
out erspace.
2.Lat itude
-
Distancef rom t heequat or .
Temper at uredecr easeswi thincr easei nl at i
tude.
 Pl acesneart heequat orexper iencehi ght emper atureduet other ays
oft hesunt rav ell
ingashor terdi st ancef aci ngl essi nter fer encef rom
atmospher iccondi ti
onshencemor esol arener gyr eachest heear th’s
sur face.Al sot he`r ay soft hesunst riket heear t
hatr ightangl es
hencesol arener gyi sconcent ratedov erasmal larea.
 Athi gherl at it
udest her aysoft hesunt r
av el alongerdi stancef acing
mor ei nter ferencef rom at mospher iccondi ti
onshencel esssol ar
ener gyr eachest heear th’ssur face.Al sot her aysoft hesunst ri
ket he
ear thatanacut eangl ehencesol arener gyi sspr eadov eral argear ea.
3.Aspect
-
Directi
onofsl ope.
 Athi gherl at it
udessl opesf aci ngt heequat orhav ehi ghert emper ature
becauset heyf acet hesunwhi let hosef aci ngt hepol eshav elower
temper atur ebecauset heyf aceawayf rom t hesun.
4.Wi nds
-
Transf erheatf rom onepl acet oanot her .
 Whent heybl owf rom cool ar east heyt aket hecool i
ngef fecttot he
ar east heybl owov erandwhent heybl owf r om war m ar east heyt ake
war mi ngi nf l
uencet ot hepl acest heybl owov er.
5.Di stancef rom aLar geWat erBody
 Ar easnearal argewat erbodyexper iencel owert emper at uredur ing
thehotseasonandhi ghert emper at uredur ingt hecool seasonduet o
seabr eezes, war m andcol doceancur rent sandwi ndbl owi ngov er

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wat erwhi chcoul dbeei t

herwar merorcool ert hant headj acentl and.
6.Cl oudCov er
 Cloudsr educet heamountofsol arener gyr eachi ngt hesur f
aceby
absor bing, scat ter ingandr eflect ingsol arr adi ation.
 Whent her earecl earski esdur ingt hedayt het emper atur eishi gher
duet ot heear thr ecei vingmaxi mum sol ari nsol ation.
 Dur ingcl earni ght st herear ev er yl owt emper atur esduet oal otof
terrest rial r
adiat ionbei ngl ostt ot heout erspace.
 Cloudyni ght sont heot herhandar ewar merduet ocloudsr adiating
tot heear thheatabsor beddur ingt heday .
7.Lengt hofDay
 Thel ongert heper iodofsol ari nsol at i
ont hegr eat erthequant ityof
radi ationapl acer ecei vesandhencet hemor et heheatt hatwi llbe
gener at edbyt heear thandv icev er sa.
8.Sol arAl titude
 Atequi noxwhent heear thi sf ar thestf r om t hesunt het emper ature
ont heear thisl owerduet ol esssol arr adi at ionr eachi ngt heear th’
s
sur faceduet ot rav elli
ngal ongerdi st anceandhencef acinggr eat
i
nt er f
er encef r
om at mospher i
ccondi tions.
 Atsol st icest heear t
hr ecei vesmor esol arener gyduet ot ravelli
nga
shor t
erdi stanceandhencef aci ngl essi nter ferencef rom
atmospher iccondi ti
ons.
9.Sol arI nput
 Somet imest hesungi v esoutmor eheatduet or eact i
onsbei ng
violentcausi ngt emper atur eont heear tht obehi gher.
 Wheni tgi vesoutl essheatt het emper at ureont heear thislower .
10. Sur faceCondi tions
 Lightsur f acese. g.smoot hsur facesr ef lectsunl i
ghtandhencel ess
sol arener gyr eachest heear th’ssur face.
 Dar kandi rregul arsur facessuchaswi t hv eget ationabsor bmor e
heatl eadi ngt ohi ghersur facet emper at ur es.
Humi dit y
Fact or sI nf luenci ngHumi dity
1.Temper atur e
 Placeswi thhight emper at ureexper i
encehi ghhumi di
tyduet ohi gh
ev apor at ion andai rhav inghi ghcapaci tyt ohol dmoi st ure.
 Placeswi thlowt emper atur ehav el owhumi dityduet ol ow
ev apor at ionandai rhav ingl owcapaci t yt ohol dmoi sture.
2.Sour ceofMoi st ure
 Areasnearwat erbodi ese. g.Ki sumuandMombasaexper i
encehi gh
humi dityduet oev apor ationofwat erf rom t hewat erbody .
 Placesneart hickv eget ational sohav ehi ghhumi dityduet o
ev apot ranspi rat i
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 Ar easf arawayf rom wat erbodi essuchast hemi ddleofdeser tshav e

lowhumi dity .
 Ar easr ecei vingheav yr ainf all alsohav ehi ghhumi dit
y.
3.Ai rPr essur e
 Ther ei shi ghhumi dityatl owal titudesbecausehi ghpr essur e
compr essesai rwar mi ngi ti ncr easi ngi tscapaci tyt oholdmoi sture
andal socauseshi ghev apor at i
on.
 Ther ei sl owpr essur eathi ghal titudesbecauseai rexpandsandcool s
thusr educi ngi tscapaci tyt ohol dmoi stur e.
4.Lat itude
 Lowl at i
tudesexper iencehi ghhumi dityduet ohi ght emper atures
resultingi nt ohi ghr atesofev apor ationandai rhav inghighcapaci ty
tohol dmoi stur e.
 Hi ghlat itudesexper i
encel owhumi di tyduet olowt emper atures
resultingi nt ol owr atesofev apor ationandai rhav inglowcapaci t
yt o
hol dmoi st ur e.
Si gnificanceofHumi di ty/Moi sture
1.Af fect srai nf or mat ioni nsuchaswayt hatpl aceswi thhighhumi dityare
li
kelyt oexper iencehi gherr ai nfal lthant hosewi thlowhumi dit
y.
2.Regul atest heheatl ossf rom t heear th’ ssur facebyabsor bingt err
estrial
radiat i
on( processi nwhi cht heear thgi vesof fheati ntotheat mospher e).
3.I taffectssensi blet emper at urei nt hatt hehi ghert hehumi ditythemor e
weexper iencesensi blet emper at ur e.
Pr eci pitat ion
-Thef ormsi nwhi cht heear t
h’ ssur facer ecei v esmoi stur e.
1.Snow
Solidpr ecipitat ionf ormedwhent inywat erdr opl et
sf reezeandf ormi ce
crystals.
Thecr ystalsmayf uset of ormf lakes.
2.Sl eet
-Precipitati
onwhi chi sami xt ureofr ainandsnow.
3.Hai l
Roughl yspher i
cal lumpsofi cef ormedwhensupercool edclouddr oplet
s
moul dt hemsel vesar oundi cecr yst alsbef orecool ing.I tdestroyscr opsl if
e
andhouser oof s.
4.Dew
-Precipitati
onconsi stingofwat erdr opl etsf ormedoncol dsurfacesatni ght
e.g.ironr oof sandgl assbl ades.
HowI t’sFor med
I nacl earni ghtt her ei sahi ghgr oundr adi ati
on.
 Temper at ureoft heear th’ssur f
acef all bel owdewpoi nt(temper at
ur e
atwhi chai rbei ngcool edbecomessat ur ated).
 Excesswat ercondensesoncol dsur f
aces.
5.r ain
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-Precipitat ionconsi stingofwat erdrops/dr opletsf ormedwhent inywat er

droplet smer ge ar oundpar ti
clesofmat terandbecomeheav yandf al l
downt ot heear th.
Condensat ion
Turningofwat erv apouri ntot i
nywat erdropl etsascool ingcont i
nuesbel ow
dewpoi nt .
Thedr opl et sj ointof orm cl ouds.
CausesofCondensat ion
1.Adi abat iccool ing-cool ingofmoi stai rasi trisesv ertically
.
2.Or ogr aphi ccool ing-cool ingofmoi stairasi tcli
mbsahi l
lormount ai
n.
3.Fr ont al cool ing- cool i
ngofwar m airmasswheni tblowst owar dsa
col dai rmass.
4.Adv ect ioncool i
ng- cool i
ngasar esultofmoi stairmov i
ngov eracool
l
andorsea.
HowCondensat ionTakesPl ace/ CloudFor mat ion
 Moi stai rr i
sest othecondensat i
onl evel (
al t
itudewher etemper ature
i
sbel owdewpoi nt.
I t’
scool edbel owdewpoi nt.
 Ti nywat erdr opletscondensear oundt inypar ti
clessuchasdust ,
smokepar ti
clesandpol lengr ai
nsandsal tpar t
icles( condensat ion
nucl ei ).
 Thedr opl etsmer geandev entuall
ybecomebi ggerandf allasr ain.
I fmoi stur erisest oanal titudewher et emper aturei sbel ow0◦ct he
condensedwat erdr opl etsf r
eezef ormi ngi cepar ticlesorsuper
cool edwat er( wat erwhi chhasr emai nedi nal i
quidst ateat
temper aturesbel owf reezi ngpointduet ol ackofsuf fi
cient
condensat i
onnucl ei.
 Supercool edcl ouddr opletsmaymoul dt hemsel vesar oundi ce
cry st alsbef or ef r
eezi ngt of orm hail
.

Ty
pesofrai
nfal
l
1.Rel
i
ef/Or
ogr
aphic/Mount
ainr
ainf
all

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Rai
nexper i
encedont hewi ndwar dslopesofmount ainsorhi l
lsf ormed
whenmoi stairisforcedtor iseov eramount ai
norahi l
l.
Howi tForms
 Moi stairisforcedtor iseov erahi l
lormount ain.
 Thet emper atureandai rpressuredecr easesmaki ngittoexpand.
 Aircoolsduet odecr easedt emper atureanddecr easedpr essure
causingi ttoexpand.
 Moi sturecondensesf ormi ngtinywat erdroplets(clouds).
 Thet inywat erdropletsi ncloudsmer geandbecomet ooheav yt
obe
suspendedi nairandf all asrain.
 Airproceedst ot heleewar dsidewithl owmoi stur
econt ent .
 Sincei t
sheav ierduet obei ngcool itdescendsov erthatsideandget s
warmedmaki ngi tt
ohol dont othelitt
lemoist ureithadcausi ngthat
si
det or eceivelowr ainfall(rai
nshadow) .
1.Conv ectionalRainfall

Typeofr ainf
allcommonnearl argewat erbodiesformedasar esul
tof
convecti
v eri
singandcoolingofmoi stair.
It
’saccompani edbythunder storms.
Howi tforms
 Groundorwat erbodyi sheat edcausi ngevaporati
on.
 Ther eisconvecti
ver i
singandcool i
ngofmoi stair.
 Condensat i
ontakespl aceformi ngtinywaterdroplets(cl
ouds).
 Thedr oplet
smer geandf al
lasr ai
n.
 Thecool eddryairdescendst othesur f
acewher eitsheatedandit
s
capacitytoholdmoi st
ur eisincreased.
 Thepr ocessisrepeated.
2.Fr ontal/
CyclonicRai
nfall

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Typeofr ainf al lcommoni nmi d-lat it

udesf ormedwhenwar m airbl ows
towardsacol dar eaorwhenwar m ai rmassmeet swi thacol dai rmass.
I
t’saccompani edbycy cl ones( viol entwi nds) .
Howi tFor ms
 War m moi stai rmassmeet swi thacol dai rmass.
 Thewar m ai risf or cedt or iseasi t
’sl essdense.
I tcool sasi trisesatt hel ineofcont actwi thcol dai r.
 Themoi stur econdensesf ormi ngcl oudsr esultingi nf r
ont alrain.
Fact or sI nf l
uenci ngRai nfall TypesandAmount s
1.Rel i
ef/ Topogr aphy
Reli
effeat ur essuchasmount ainsandhi l
lsr esul tsint her isi
ngandcool ing
ofmoi stwi ndst of ormr eliefr ainf all.
2.Aspect
Wi ndwar dsl opeswhi char eont hepat hofr ainbear ingwi ndsr ecei v
e
heavierrainf al lt
hanl eewar dsl opeswhi chf aceaway .
3.For est sandWat erBodi es
Areasnearf or estsandl argewat erbodi esexper iencehi gherr ainfalland
mor eof t
enduet ohi ghr ateofev apor ati
on.
4.ai rpr essur e
Highpr essur ear easr ecei vel owr ai nfallthanl owpr essur eareasduet o
pushingofai rmassesf rom hi ghpr essur et ol owpr essur e.Thehi gh
pressurear eashav edescendi ngdr yai r
.
5.ai rmasses
Whenwar m andcol dai rmassesmeetf ront alrai nfallisf ormed.
6.OceanCur rent s
I tinfluencesr ai nf allwher ebycoast swashedbywar m oceancur rents
exper ienceheav yr ainf all whenmoi stonshor ewi ndsar ewar medby
thecur r entandmadet ohol dont omoi stur ewhi cht heyr eleaseon
reachi ngt hel and.
 Thecoast swashedbycol doceancur r
ent sont heot herhand
exper iencel owr ai nfallasar esul tofmoi stwi ndsbei ngcool edand
moi st ur eint hem condensedr esultingi nr ai nfallingov ert heocean
therebybr ingi ngl ittleornor ai nt ot hecoast alar eas.Thi si sthecause
ofwest er nmar gindeser tse. g.Kal ahar iandNami bdeser ts.
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Atmospher icpr essur e

Fact orsI nf l
uenci ngAt mospher i
cPr essur e
1.Al titude
 Pr essur edecr easeswi thi ncr easei nal t i
tudebecauset hecol umnof
ai rbecomesshor terhencei texer tsl esswei ght .
1.Temper at ure
 Whenai risheat edi texpandsandexer tspr essur eov eralar gear ea
resul tingi nreducedpr essur e.
 Wheni t ’
scool edi tcont ract sandexer t
spr essur eov erasmal l area
resul tingi nincr easedpr essur e.
2.Rot at ionoft heear th
 Rot at i
onpushesai rmassesf rom pol est owar dst heequat orcausi ng
ai rtospr eadoutandoccupymor espacecausi ngi ttoexpandmaki ng
pr essur etodecr ease.
 Whenai rfrom t heequat ormov est owar dsthepol esitoccupi esless
spacecausi ngi ttocont ractr esul ti
ngi nt ohi ghpr essure.
Mi standFog
Mistandf ogar eamassoft inywat erdr opl etssuspendedi nthel ower
l
ayersoft heat mospher e.
Fogisdensert hanmi sti .e.hasmor emoi stur e.
Bothhi nderv isibi
li
tyal thoughf ogr educesv i
si bil
itytol esst hanaki lomet re.
Whenf ogmi xeswi thsmokei tscal ledsmog.
HowTheyFor m
 Moi staircool sbel owdewpoi nt .
 Condensat iontakespl ace.
 Ther esul tantwat erdr opl etsr emai nsuspendedi nt heai r.
Ty pesofFog
1.Radi at ionFog
 Ty pef ormedwhenmoi stai riscool edbel owdewpoi ntasar esul tof
intenser adi ati
onont hegr oundatni ght .
1.Adv ect ionFog
 Ty pef ormedwhenmoi stai rfr om t heseamov eshor i
zontall
yov eracol d
sur facee. g.snowcov er edgr ound.
2.Or ogr aphi c/Hi ll/Upsl opeFog
 Ty pef ormedwhenmoi stai riscool edaf tercl imbi ngahi llormount ai
n.
3.Ev apor at i
onFog
 Ty pef ormedwhenwat erv apouri saddedt ocol dai rt hati
sal readynear
sat urationcausi ngexcesswat erv apourt ocondenseandf ormf og.
4.Fr ont al Fog
 Ty pef ormedwhenwar m moi stai ri scool edf rom bel owasi trisesov er
acol dai rmass.
5.St eam Fog
 Ty pef ormedwhenmoi stai rpassesov ert hesur faceofamuchwar mer
freshwat erbody .
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 Thewar m wat eriscool edf rom abov eandcondensi ngwat erv apour
formsf og.I tappear st obest eami ng.
6.I ceFog
 Ty pef ormedwhenwat erv apouri sconv er teddi rectl
yintoicecr ystals
whent emper aturesar ebel owf reezi ngpoi nt .
Clouds
-Areamassoft i
nydr opletsori cepar t i
cl esf or medwhenwat ervapour
condenses.
Thr eeCl oudFor ms
1.Ci rrofor m
-Thinandwi spycl oudscomposedofi cecr y stals.
2.st r ati
f orm
-Appearasgr eyishsheet scov er ingmostoft heskyandar erarelybr oken
i
ntouni ts.
3.Cumul ifor m
-Aremassi ver oundedwi thaf latbaseandl i
mi tedhor i
zontalextentand
bil
lowupwar dst ogr eathei ght s.
Basi cCl oudTy pes
1.St r atusCl ouds
-Aref oundi nlay ers,areflati nshapeandr esembl ef og.
2.Ni mbusCl ouds
-aredar katt hebaseandsomet imeswhi teatt hesi desandcauser ainand
thunder stor ms.
3.Ci rro- cumul us
-Arewhi tecl oudsconsi sti
ngofwhi t
ei cecr y stal s.
4.Ni mbost ratus
-Ar aincloudwhi chi sdar kgr eyandspr eadsov ertheskyi nlowuni form
l
ay ers.
5.Cumul usCl ouds
-Cloudswi t
haf lathor i
zont al base, massi v
e, roundedandl esshor izontal
extent .
6.Al t ocumul us
-Highcl oudscomposedofi cecr y stalswhi chi ndi catefairweather .
Wor l
ddi stri
but ionofPr essur eZonesandt hePl anet ar
ywi ndSy stem/ World
Prev ail
i
ngWi nds
TheEquat orial Lowpr essur eZone( ITCZ-low)
 Foundbet ween23½◦Nand23◦N
 Exper ienceshi ght emper at ur es.
 Azoneofl owpr essureanddol drums( l
ightandi ntermediatewi nds).
 Zonewher eS. EandN. ETr adeWi ndsconv erge.
 Associ atedwi t
hconv ectional rainandt hunder storms.
 Mi gratest otheNandwi t ht heappar entmov ementoft heov erheadsun.
TheSub- tropi cal Hi ghPr essur eZone
 Foundwi thin30◦Nand30◦S.

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 Azoneofhi ghpr essure.

 Aregionofcal m descendi ngair
.
 SourceofTr adeWi ndsandWest er
ies.
 Zoneofdi vergenceofT.Wi ndsandWest eri
es.
TheTemper ateLowPr essureZone
 Foundwi t
hin60◦Nand60◦S.
 Alowpr essur ezone.
 Zoneofconv ergenceofwest eri
esandpol areast
eri
es.

ThePol arHi ghPr essureZone

 Foundov erthepol es90◦Nand90◦S.
 Ahi ghpr essureZone.
 Zoneofdescendi ngcal m ai roflowt emper ature.
 Sour ceofpol areasteries.
TheWor l
dsPr ev ai
li
ngWi nds
Thesear ethemaj orwi ndsbl owingov ert heearthf r
equent
lyand
consi
stentlyandwhi chinfluencet hewor l
dweat her.
1.Tr adeWi nds
 Blowf rom sub- t
ropical highpr essur ezoneandbl owtotheequat
ori
al
lowpr essurebel t
.
2.West eri
es
 Originatefrom sub- t
ropi calhighpr essur ezoneandbl owtothe
temper atelowpr essur ebel t.
3.ThePol arEasteri
es
 Originatefrom polarhighpr essur ezoneandbl owt otemperat
elow
pressurezone.
MonsoonWi nds

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 Seasonal wi ndswhi chr ev er sei nt hedi rectionoff low.

 Theybl owt owar dst hel anddur ingsummer( onshor e)andf rom theland
dur i
ngwi nter( offshor e).
 Bringheav yr ainswhenonshor ewhi chcancausesev ereflooding.
 Wel ldev elopedi ntheI ndianSun- cont inent ,china,JapanandS. EAsi a.
Ai rMasses
-Di
sti
nctl ar gepar celsofai rmov ingi nonedi recti
on
-Or
igi
nat ef rom ar easofuni for m weat herandt opogr aphyfrom wher ethey
der
ivet heirchar act eri
sticse. g.f latar eas, forests, desert
s,andsnow
coveredar eas.
Char act eristicsofAi rMasses
 Al argev ol umeofai r.
 Cov er sanext ensivear ea.
 Hasuni for mt emper at ur eandhumi di ty.
 Dist i
nctf rom t hesur roundi ngai r.
 Ret ainsi tschar acterist i
cswheni tmov esaway .
Ty pesofai rMasses
1.Equat or ial AirMass
 Originat ef rom equat or ialoceans.
I t’
shotandunst able.
1.Sub- tropi cal AirMass
 For msnearsub- tr
opi cal highpr essur ebel t.
2.Pol arAi rMass
 For msneart hepol esort emper at el owpr essur ezone.
I t’
scool .
3.Ar ct icandAnt ar cticairMasses
 For msov ert hei cesheet sofGr eenl andandAnt arcti
carespect i
v el
y.
4.Ef fectofai rmassesonWeat her
 Whenwar m moi stairmassandcool airmassmeetcy clonicrainfal
lis
formede. g.t ropical mar i
timeandpol armar iti
me.
 Cool airmassest akecool ingef fectt ot hear east heymov et oe.g.polar
cont i
nent al .
I ftheyar ewar mt heyt akewar mi ngi nfluencet othear eatheymov et o
e.g.tropi cal cont inent al.
Pr essur eSy st emsi nt heWor ld
1.Cy cl one

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I t
’salowpr essuresy stem char acteri
sedbyl owpr essureatt hecentr
e
andincreasesout war ds.
 Start
sinar easwher eai rascendsf rom thegr oundt otheatmospher e
anddescendsathi ghal t
it
ude.
I t
’softwot ypes.Tropi calcy cl
onese. g.hur r
icane,typhoonandwi ll
y
will
i
esanddepr essionswhi char echaracter
isedbyt emper at
el at
it
udes.
 Themov ementofwi ndi sant i
clockwi seintheN.hemi sphereand
cl
ockwi seintheS.hemi sphere.
2.Ant icycl
one
 Ahighpr essuresyst em char act eri
sedbyhi ghpr essureatthecentreand
decreasesout wards.


I tstar
tsinareaswher eairisdescendi ngfr
om theat mospher
eont
othe
groundandt henblowsout war dsontheground.
 Themov ementofwindi scl ockwiseintheN.hemi spher
eand
anticl
ockwiseintheS.hemi sphere.
LocalWinds
-
Whi choccurregular
lyf
orashor tperi
odoftimeaffecti
ngal i
mit
edar
ea.
-
Modi f
ytheweat herofthear eat heyblowto.
1.SeaBr eeze

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-
Alightandgent l
ewi ndwhichbl owsf rom theseat otheadjacentland.
Howi tFor ms
 Dur i
ngt hedaylandi sheatedf asterthant hesea.
 Airov erthelandiswar medandr ises.
 Airfrom theseamov estot helandt or eplacetheri
singair
.
 Ther isi
ngai rf
rom thelandcool sanddescendsov ertheseaathi gh
alt
itude.
 Circulati
oncont i
nuesunt i
lthepr essuredi ff
erencei
sr ev
ersedatni ght.
Effectsonweat her
I
ttakescool ingeffectonlandonahotaf ternoon.
2.LandBr eeze
-
Alightandgent l
ewi ndwhichbl owsf rom landt otheseaduringtheni ght
.
Howi tFor ms

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 Atnightlandlosesheatfast
erthant hesea.
 Ai
rov ertheseai swarmedandr i
ses.
 Ai
rfrom thelandmov est
otheseat or eplacetherisi
ngair.
 Ri
singairfrom theseadescendsov erlandathi ghalti
tude.
 Ci
rculati
oncont i
nuesunti
lpressuredifferenceisrever
sedduri
ngt
heday.
Eff
ectsonweat her
I
tcausesear l
ymor ningshowersthroughmoi st
urebroughttowar
dsl
andat
hi
ghalti
tude.
3.Anabati
cwi nds( Vall
eyBreeze)

-Coollocalwindswhi chblowfrom thev al

leytot hehil
ltopsduri
ngsummer
after
noons.
Howi tForms
 Dur i
ngt hedayhilltopsareheatedmor et hanv al
leybottoms.
 Airov erthehi
lltopsi swarmedandr i
ses.
 Cool airoverthevalleymov euptot hehil
l t
or epl
acet heri
si
ngair
.
Effectonweat her
-Causeaf t
ernoonshower sonhill
ygrounds.
4.Katabati
c/Descendi ngWi nds

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-Coldl ocal wi ndswhi chbl owf rom hillt

opst ot hev all
eydur ingt henight .
 Dur ingt heni ghthi lltopsl oseheatf astert hant hev all
ey .
 Ai rov erthev all
eyi swar medandr i
ses.
 Cool airov ert hehi l
l t
opsmov et othev al
leybygr avitytor eplacet he
risingai r.
Ef f
ectonWeat her
-Takeschi l
lycondi ti
onsonv all
eybot toms.
5.Har mat t
anWi nds
-N.Ewi ndswhi chor iginatef rom Sahar aandbl owacr ossW.Af ri
cabet ween
Nov emberandMar cht akingdr ycondi t
ionst her e.
6.FohnWi nds( Alps)
-Local coldwi ndswhi chsl idedownt hel eewar dsi deoft hemount ai
nat
highspeedandar ewar medpr oducingat emper aturerise.
Duet ot hehi ghspeedandt emper at
uret heyar eassoci atedwi thwi l
df ires.
Theyar eknownasChi nooki nRockyMount ai ns, SantaAnasi nCal i
fornia
andMi stralinFr ance.
Fact orsinfluenci ngWi ndFlow( Speedanddi rection)
1.Pr essur eGr adi ent
Ifthepr essur edi ff
erencebet weenhi ghandl owpr essur eareasi shight he
windsbl owathi ghspeed( strong)buti fi t
’slowt heyblowathi ghspeed
(aregent l
e).
2.di stancebet weenPl acesofHi ghandLowPr essur e
i
ft hehi ghandl owpr essur ear easar eneareachot herwi ndsbl owathi gh
speedbuti fdi stantfrom eachot herwindsbl owatl owspeed.
3.Rot ati
onoft heear t
h
Rot ationoft heear thdef l
ect swi ndst other ighti ntheN.hemi sphereandt o
thel efti ntheS.hemi spher e.
4.Fr i
ctional For ce
Ifthesur faceoft heear t
hi sr uggedorhasobst aclessuchashi l
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mount
ains,
val
l
eysorveget
ati
onthewi
ndisblockedcausi
ngspeed
r
educt
ionandi
tsdi
rect
ionoff
lowisal
sochanged.

Weatherforecasti
ng
Predi
cti
onoft hestateoft heatmospher
einaparti
cul
arregi
onov era
peri
odof24t o48hour s.
Topredictweather,elementsofweathersuchaswinddi
rect
ion,
atmospheri
cpr essure,temperat
ureandcloudcov
erareobserved.

Methodsofweatherforecasti
ng
a.Anci
entmethods
I
twasbasedonast rol
ogi cal
,l
ocal
,tr
adit
ional
andr el
igi
oust
heor
ies.
Showedcaref
ulobservationsexpr
essedinform ofpoemsandji
nglest
hat
werepassedfr
om gener ati
ontogenerat
ion

b.Weatherlore
Referstoabodyoft radit
ionalfact
sandbel ief
sr el
ati
ngt oweatherli
kea
hal
oar oundthemoon, arainbow,croakingoffrogs,butt
erflyf
li
ghts,
migrati
onofbirds,
changesi nwinddirecti
on,cl
ouds, posit
ionofthemoon
andintensi
tyofsun’sradiation

c.Modernmethods
Advancedequipmentl
ikeel
ect
roni
ccomputer
s,sat
ell
i
tes,
rocket
s,r
adar
s,
ai
rcraf
ts,
ball
oons,shi
psandsubmari
neshavebeendevel
opedandarei
n
use.

Si
gni
fi
canceofweat herforecasting
 Enablesfarmer stoplant heirfarmingact i
v i
ti
esaccor dingly
 Peoplearef or
ewar nedthuscandr essappr opri
ately,plantheir
acti
vit
iese.g.sports,andot hersoci alacti
v i
ti
es
 Aviati
onweat herforecastingisi mpor t
antasai rcrafttake-of
fsand
l
andingscanbeaf fectedbyweat her
 Forecasti
ngal sohelpingui dingtour i
sts’acti
vit
iessuchasv isi
ting
gamepar ks
 Mili
tarypersonnelcanpl ant heirmilit
aryactivi
tiesbasedont he
expectedweat herconditions
 Knowi ngbeforehandaboutpossi blecal amiti
esr elat
edt oweat her
canhel puscopebet terbyt akingpr ecautionarymeasur es.

Fact
orshi
nderingweatherforecast
ing
Inadequatedata-dataonsomeel ement
sisl
i
mit
edsuchasonsoi
l
,
t
emperatureandev aporat
ion

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I naccurate/unreli
abledat abroughtbypr oblemsofexposur eof
sensors,theiraccur acy,sensit
ivi
tyandthepr ecisi
ont heycanber ead
 Otherinterveningfact orssuchassl ope,natureofveget ati
onand
windsleadt ogr eatv ari
ati
onsint emperatureatdiff
er entareas
adjacenttoeachot her
I nadequat epersonnel inthedev el
opingwor ldwhol ackt heskil
l
sdue
tolimit
edt rai
ningf acili
ti
es
 Useofdef ecti
veandobsol eteequipmentt hatleadtoi naccurat
e
result
s
 Vagariesofnat uresuchasst ormsandear thquakes

St
STATI
ati
STI
sti
CS
cs-numer icalfigurescol lect
edsy stemat ical l
yandar r
angedf ora
particul
arpur pose.
Statisti
caldata- i
nformat ionpr esentedi nform ofnumber se.g.
1.No.ofst udent sinaschool
2.Meandai l
yt emper at ureofapl ace
3.Amountofmi lkpr oduceddai lyf r
om af ar m
4.Amountofmoneyear nedf rom expor tsannual ly.
Statisti
calmet hods- techni quesofcol l
ect i
ng, recor ding, analy
sing,
present i
ngandi nterpreti
ngst atisti
caldat a.
Si gni fi
canceofSt ati
stics
Il
l
ust r
atesr elati
onshi pbet ween2ormor ev aryingquant i
tiese.g.
beanspr oduct i
onandacr eageundercul t
ivation.
Summar isesgeogr aphi cal i
nformat ionwhi chsav estimeandspace.
Makescompar i
sonbet weencomponent se. g.pr ov i
ncewi tht
he
hi
ghestnumberofpeopl e.
Predicti
onoff uturet rendsofweat herandcl imat e.
Predicti
onofnat ural di sast erse.g.dr ought sandf l
oods.
Planningf orprov i
sionofsoci alameni t
iese. g.hospi t
alsandschools.
Ty pesofSt atisticalDat a
pri
mar yDat a
-Fir
sthandoror i
ginal i
nfor mat ionfrom t hef i
elde. g.
Meandai l
yt emper at uref r
om aweat herst ati
on
Enumer ation/census
Secondar y /DerivedDat a
nd
-2 handi nformat ionav ailabl ei nstoredsour cescompi l
edbyot her
researcher se.g.
 Text books
 Ref erencebooks
 Maps
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 Video/audiot apes
 Textbooks
 Newspaper s
 Magazi nes
 Censusr eports
 Slides
 Censusr eports
Nat ureofStatisti
cal
Data
1.Discr et
eData
-
Whichisgiveninwhol enumber se.g.
16elephants
1093tonnesofwheat
2.ContinuousData
-
Factsandfigureswhichcant akeanyv aluee.g.
 Fracti
onse. g.23¼
 Decimal se.g.6.20mm
 Valueswi t
hinr angee.g.0-30◦c
3.GroupedDat a
-
Whichisnonpr ecise/exactbutv al
uesr angeingroupse.
g.

Agegr oup Numberofboy s

15- 19 32
20- 24 8
Sour cesofSt ati
st ical Data
1.Pr i
mar ySour ces
st
-Peopl
eorpl aceswhi chhav e1 handoror iginal information.
Theinformat ioncanbecol lect edbyobser vat ion,measur i
ng, counti
ng,
photographinget c.
Adv ant ages
 Gi vef i
rsthandi nfor mat ion
 Thei nformat ioncantbegotf rom ot hersour ces
2.Secondar ysour ces
-Materi
alsinwhi chinf ormat ioncol l
ect edbyot her swasst or ede.g.text
books,referencebooks, etc.
Met hodsofCol lectingDat a( stat istical Techni
ques)
1.Obser vat i
on
-Useofey est oobser vefeat uresorweat hert heni nf ormat
ioni srecorded
i
mmedi atelye. g.cloudcov er ,rocks, soil,landf orms, v
egetation,et
c.
Adv ant ages
st
Gives1 handi nformat ionwhi chi sr eliabl e.
Relevantmat er i
al t
ot hest udyi scol lect ed.
Timesav ingsi nceonedoesn’ thav et ol ookf ordatainmanypl aces.
Disadv antages
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a)Dat aonpastact i
vi
tiesi sn’ tav ailable.
b)Maybehi nder edbyweat hercondi t
ionse. g.mi standdustst orms.
c)I neffectivef orpeopl ewi thv isual disabi lit
ies.
d)Ti resomeandexpensi veasi tinv olvesal otoft ravelli
ngbecause
phy sicalpr esencei sr equi red.
2.i nt er viewing
-Gatheri
ngi nformat i
onf rom peopl ebydi rectdi scussi onst henanswer sare
recorded.Itmaybef acet ofaceoronat elephone.Aquest ionnaire
preparedi nadv ancei sused.
Gui del ines
Oneshoul dbepol ite
War m andf riendly
Respondent s/inter vi
eweesshoul dbeassur edi nfor
mat i
oni s
conf idential.
Respondentshoul dnotbei nt er r
upt edwhenanswer i
ng
quest i
ons.
Theyshoul dnotbegi v encl uesbutanswer sshoul dcomef rom
them.
Adv ant ages
Reliablef i
rsthandi nformat ioni scol l
ected.
Interviewercanseekcl ar i
fi
cat i
oni ncaseofambi gui t
yofanswer s.
Canbeusedoni l
li
terate.
Interviewercangauget heaccur acyofr esponses.
Disadv ant ages
a)Ti meconsumi ngsi nceoneper soncanbehandl edatat i
me.
b)Ex pensiv eandt i
resomeasext ensi vet rav ell
i
ngi sr equir
edt omeet
ther espondent s.
c)Mayencount erlanguagebar rieri fther espondentdoesn’ tspeak
thesamel anguageast hei nt erv iewer .
d)Ar espondentmayl ie, exagger at eordi st ortfact sleadingto
collectionofwr ongi nf ormat ion.
3.Admi nist er i
ngquest ionnaires
-Setofsy stemat icallystructur edquest ionspr intedonpaperusedon
i
nterviewsorsentt or espondent st of illanswer s.
Ty pes
 Open- endedquest ionnai re- inwhi chr espondenti sgivena
chancet oexpr esshi sv iews.Thedi sadv antagei sthat
differentanswer sar egi venwhi char edifficulttoanalyse.
 Cl osed- ended( rigid)quest ionnai re- i
nwhi chr espondent sare
givenanswer st ochoosef rom.
Char acteri
st icsofagoodquest ionnai re
 Shor t
 Usessi mpl elanguage
 Sy stemat icall
yar r
angedf rom si mpl etodi ff
icult

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 Cl earquest ions
 Doesn’ ttouchonr espondent ’
spr ivacy
Adv antages
a)Compar isonscanbemadesi ncequest ionsar esimilar
.
b)Firsthandi nformat i
onwhi chi sr elevantt ocur renttr
endsand
situati
oni scollected.
c)Sav esmoneyont ravelli
ngasphy sicalpr esencei sn’
trequi r
ed.
d)Sav est imeasal lrespondent sar ehandl edatt hesamet i
me.
e)Al otofi nf ormat ioncanbecol lect ed.
Disadv ant ages
a)Diffi
cul tanal ysisduet odi fferentanswer s.
b)Somequest i
onnai resmaybesentbackwhi l
ebl ankbyl azy
respondent s.
c)Can’ tbeusedoni l
lit
erat erespondent s.
d)Somer espondent smaywr itewr ongi nfor mation.
4.Cont entanal ysis
-
Techni
queofcol lecti
ngdat af rom secondar ysour ces.
Thi
sisbyreadi ng, watchingf i
lms, viewi ngphot ogr aphsandl isteningtoget
whati
srelevant .
Adv antages
a)Easyt ogetdat aifanal ysed.
b)Cheapast her eisn’text ensi v
et rav elli
ng
c)Sav est imeasal linformat i
oni si nonepl ace.
d)Possi blet ogetol ddat a

Disadv antages
a)Di f
ficulttoverif
yaccur acyofdat a
b)Dat amaybei rrelevantt ocur rentt rends
c)Upt odat edatamaynotber eadilyav ai
lable
5.Measur i
ng
-Determi ni
ngdi stances,areas, hei ghtordept husi nginstr
ument sand
recording.
Distancecanbeest imatedbypaci ngort akingst epsofequal andunknown
l
engt h.
6.Col lecti
ngSampl es
-Getti
ngasmal lparte.g.ofsoi l,rockorv egetationt orepresentthewhole
tobeusedt ocar r
youtt estsint hel aborat ory.
7.Count i
ng/ censust aki
ng
-Ari
thmet i
calcount i
ngandr ecor ding.
8.Phot ogr aphing
-Capturingonf i
lm orvideoandst il
l photogr aphs.
9.Di ggi ng
-Usingt oolssuchashoepi ckaxe, spadeorsoi laugertogetsampl esof
soilandr ocks.

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10. Feel ingandt ouchi ng

-Usingf inger stof eel thesur f acesofsoi lsandr ockst ogett heirtext ur
es.
11. sampl ing
-Exami ningbyt aki ngasampl e- apar tr epr esent ingt hewhol e( populati
on).
Ty pesofSampl ing
1.Random Sampl ing
-Selectionofmember sofagr ouphaphaz ardl ywher eev eryitem hasan
equal chanceofbei ngsel ect ede. g.t osel ect5st udent stogof orat our
from acl ass:
 Cl assmember swr itethei rnamesonpi ecesofpaper
 Theyar efoldedandputi nabasket
 Thebasketi sshakenandf i
v espaper sar et akenout
2.Sy st emat i
cSampl i
ng
-Selectionofmember sofasampl ef rom anev enlydi stri
butedphenomena
atregul ari nt ervalse. g.af terev ery10i tems/ member s.
3.St r
at ifiedsampl i
ng
-Selectionofmember sofasampl ebybr eaki ngt hepopul ationi nto
homogenousgr oupse. g.tosel ect6st udent st ogof orat our:
 Br eakt hecl assi nt oboy sandgi rls
 Sel ect3st udentf rom eachgr oupbyr andom orsy stemat i
csampl i
ng
 Combi neuni tsf rom eachgr oupt of ormt her equi r
edsampl e.
4.Cl ust erSampl i
ng
-Selectionofsampl ebydi vi
di ngt hesampl ei ntocl ust erswithsi mi l
ar
char acter i
st icsthenasampl ei stakenf r
om eachcl ust erandr epr esentati
ve
choicesf rom eachcl ust erar ecombi nedt of or m asampl ee. g.tosampl e
thehousi ngcostanest atei schosent or epr esenteachgr oupand
represent ativ echoi cesar echosenf rom eachest ateandcombi nedt oform
asampl e.
Adv ant ages
a)I t’
sl essexpensi ve
b)I tsav est i
me
c)I tav oi dsbi as
Disadv ant ages
a)Apoorsel ect edsampl ecanl eadt omi sleadi ngi nformat ion
b)Sy stemat icsampl ingt oanev enl ydi stribut edpopul ati
on
Exper iment at i
on
–Conduct ingat estori nv estigat iont opr ov i
deev idencef ororagai nsta
theor ye.g.t odet er minet hechemi cal composi ti
onofr ocksandsoi l
s.
Adv ant ages
a)Fi rsthanddat ai sobt ained
b)Gi v esaccur ater esul tsi fpr oper lyconduct ed.
c)I tcanl eadt of urtherdi scov er ies
Disadv ant ages
a)Maybeexpensi v easi tinv olv esuseofexpensi v eequi pment .

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b)Maybet i
meconsumi ng
c)Useofdef ecti
veinstr ument smayl eadt oinaccurateresults
d)I mproperhandl ingofequi pmentandchemi calsmayl eadto
accidents
Met hodsofRecor dingDat a
-Methodsof fstoringinformat iont oavoidlosingi t.
1.NoteTaki ng
-Wri
tinginanot ebookwhati sbei ngobserved, answer sduringintervi
ews
andthennot esar ecompi l
edi nschool orof fi
cewhenwr i
tingrepor t
.
2.Fi ll
ingInQuest i
onnai res
-Fi
l
li
nganswer sinquest i
onnai reswhichar er esponsesf rom arespondent
byani nt
erviewerorr espondenthi mselfwhichhe/ shethensendsback.
3.Tall
yi
ng
-Making4v erti
cal orslantingst rokesandt he5thacr ossthe4t orecord
dataobtainedbycount ingormeasur i
ngsimi laritems.

4.Tabulati
on
-Drawingoftablesandfil
l
ingindatasystemati
cal
lye.
g.weat
herrecordi
ng
sheets.
Mont h J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp( ◦c) 24 24 23 22 19 17 17 18 19 20 22 23
Rainfal
l(
mm) 109 122 130 76 52 34 28 38 70 108 121 120
5.Fiel
dSketching
-Summar i
singinformat
ionobservedinthefi
eldbymakingaroughdrawing
oflandscapeandl abel
l
ingtheessenti
alinf
ormati
on.

6.Mappi
ng/Dr
awingMaps
-Dr
awingofaroughmapofanareaofst
udyandl
abel
li
ngi
nwor
dsor
symbolsaccompani
edbykey
.

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7.TapeRecor ding
-Recor di
ngimageofanobj ectorl andscapeonaf il
m whi chisprocessedto
getaphot ographthent hephot ographsar el abell
edt oav oi
dmi xupdur i
ng
storage.
8.Label li
ngsampl es
-Recor di
ngconv ersati
onsdur i
ngi nt erviewsonaudi otapesusingat ape
recorder.
Permi ssi
onshoul dbegotf rom t her espondentt orecordhis/herresponses.
Adv ant ages
I t’
susedi fresponsesar etoomanyt ober ecordedonanot ebook.
I tall
owssmoot hfl
owofdi scussionasaski ngr espondentsto
repeatanswer swoul di rr
itat ethem.
Anal ysi sofDat a
-Exami ni
ngt henumer icalfi
gur esi ndet ail
.
Techni quesofanal ysingDat a
1.Cal culationofPer centages
-I
finthest udyofaf ar
m 10hect aresar edev otedt ocoffee,whatisthe%of
thear eaundercof fee?
10/ 100×10%
Thet ablebelowshowst henumberoft ouri
st swhov i
sit
edKeny af r
om
vari
ouspar t
soft hewor ldin2006.

No.oftouri
stsperyear
Pl
aceofOr i
gin 2005 2006
Europe 942000 965000
Af r
ica 120000 154000
Asia 97000 128000
Total 1159000 1247000
a)Cal
culateper
centageincr
easeoft our
ist
sf r
om Afri
cabetween2005
and2006.
2.Measur esofCent ralTendency
-
Outst
andinggener
alcharacter
ist
icsoft hedata.

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a)Ar
it
hmet
icMean
-
Theav
erage

Adv antages
 Easyt ocal culatef orasmal ldat a
 Summar i
sesdat ausi ngasi ngledi git
 Easyt ounder standandi nter pret
Disadv ant ages
 Diff
iculttocal culatef orgr oupeddat a
 Affectedbyext remev al
ues
b)Medi an
-
Themiddl ev al
uei nasetofdat aar rangedi nor der
.
M=( N+1) /2
(I
) 20, 50, 90, 100, 150, 180, 200, 220,240,300,360.
(I
I) 20, 50, 90, 100, 150, 180, 200, 220,240,300.
Adv ant ages
 Easyt ocal culateinasmal l dataset
 Easyt ounder standasi t’
st hev al ueatt hemi ddl
e
Disadv ant ages
 Diff
iculttocal culatei nal argedat aset
 Doesn’ tshowdat adi st r
ibut i
on
b)Cal culat ionofRanges
-
Dif
fer
encebet weent hel argestandsmal l
estv al
ues.Calcul
atet
her
angeof
f
orthedataabov e.
c)Mode
-
Mostfrequent l
yr ecurringv aluei nasetofdat a.
10, 2, 5,9,10, 11, 20,15, 18,10.
Themodei s10.
Adv ant ages
 Easyt of i
ndasnocal culationi si nvolved
 Easyt ounder stand
Disadv ant age
 Rarelyusedasameasur eofcent ral t
endency

Stati
stical
Presentati
onofData
Graphs
-
2di mensional dr
awingswhichshowrelat
ionshipsbet
ween2t ypesofdata
representi
ngtwoi t
emsalsocall
edv ar
iabl
es.Thesearedependentvari
abl
e
whichi saff
ectedbytheothere.
g.temperatur
e( onyaxi
s)andindependent
vari
ablewhosechangei snotaffect
edbyt heothere.
g.al
ti
tude(onxaxis).
Steps

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 Drawxandyaxi s.
 Choosesui tablescalet oaccommodat ethehi ghestandl owestv alue.
 Plotthev aluesaccur atelyusi ngf ai
ntdot s.
 Jointhedot susingcur vedl ine.Ifit
’sabargr apht hedot sshouldbe
atthemi ddl eoft hetopl ine.Year sshoul dal sobeatt hemi ddle.You
shouldhav ealsodeci dedont hewi dt hoft hebar s.
 Indat awi thoutcont i
nuitye. g.croppr oduct iont her eshouldbegaps
betweenbar sandf oronewi thcont i
nuitye. g.rainfallbarsshouldnot
havegaps.
 Drawv ertical l
i
nesonei thersi deoft hedott hendr awhor i
zontall
ine
tojointhem wi t
ht hedot .
 Shadeuni for mlyiftheyar er epresentingonl yonet ypeofdataand
diff
erentl
yi frepresentingonet y
peofdat a.
 Incombi nedl i
neandbargr apht emper at
ur ef i
gur esareplottedon
therighthandsi deofy -axiswhi lerainfallont hel eft
 Don’tstartexact lyatzer o.
I ncl
udet emper atureandr ai
nfallscales.
 Startwher et helongestbarends.

WhataWel lDrawnGr aphShouldHave

 Tit
le
 Scale/
scal es
 Labell
edandmar kedxandyaxisstar
ti
ngatzero.
 Keyifrequi r
ede.g.i
ncomparati
vebargr
aph.
 Accuratelyplot
tedandli
nes,cur
vesorbar
sproperl
ydr
awn.

1.Si
mpl
eLi
negr
aph
Advantages
 Easyt oconst ruct
 Easyt ointerpret
 Easyt oread/ estimateex actvalues.
 Showst r
endormov ementov ert
ime.
Di
sadv antages
 Doesn’ tgiv eacl earimpr essionont hequantit
yofdata.
 Maygi vef alseimpr essionont hequantit
yespecial
lywhentherewas
nopr oduction.
 Poorchoi ceofv ert
icalscal emayexagger atefl
uctuat
ionsi
nv al
ues.
 Di ff
iculttofindexactv aluesbyi nter
polat
ion.
2.Simpl eBarGr aph/hist
ogram
Advantages
 Easyt oconst ruct.
 Easyt ointerpret.
 Easyt oread.
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 Gi vesacl earv i
sual impressionont hequant i
tyofdata.
Di
sadv antages
 Poorchoi ceofv er t
icalscalemaycauseexagger ationofbar
s.
 Doesn’ tshowcont i
nuity/variati
onofdat aovert
ime.
 Unsui tabletechni quewhenv aluesexi stinconti
nuity.
 Notpossi bletoobt ainintermedi atev al
uesfrom thegraph.
3.Combi nedLi neandbarGr aph
Advantages
Easyt oconst r
uct .
Easyt or ead.
I
tshowsr elati
onshi pbet weent woset sofdat a.
Di
sadv antages
 Di ff
icul tt
ochoosesui tablescalewhenv al
uesofv ari
abl
esdif
ferby
greatmagni tude.
 Consi derablev ariati
onofdat ar epresentedbyt helinemaycausethe
l
inet hebar st husobscur i
ngt her el
ationshi
p.
 Doesn’ tshowr elati
onshi pbetweent hesameset sofdat aofmore
thanonepl ace.

Temperat
ureandRai
nfal
lforThi
ka
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp(◦c) 24 24 23 22 19 17 17 18 19 20 22 23
Rai
nfal
l(
mm) 109 122 130 76 52 34 28 38 70 108 121 120

-
FI
ELDWORK
Scientif
icstudyofgeographyusi ngtheenvironmentasal aborat
oryor
sour ceofinformation.
Ty pesofFi el
dWor k
1.FieldExcursion
-Visiti
nganar eanearorfarfrom theschool toseegeogr aphical
phenomenat hennotedownanddi scusslat
eri nclass.
Aim
a)Reinforcewhathasbeenl earnti
ncl ass
b)Gainmor egeographicalknowledge
c)I
dent i
fyandappreciategeographicalfeatur
es

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d)I dent if
ypr obl emsofgeogr aphi cal int erest
2.Fi eldResear ch
-Systemat i
cpr obl em sol vi
ngdonebyexper tsi nwhi chsci entifi
cmet hods
ofcol l
ect i
ng, recor dingandanal y singdat aar eused.
3.Fi eldSt udy
-Studyconduct edwi thi nanei ghbour hoodi nwhi chonet hemei spur sued
e.g.‘Ast udyofal ocal far m’ .
I
mpor tanceofFi el dWor k
1.Rei nf orceswhathasbeenl ear nti ncl ass.
2.Enabl esonet ogai nmor egeogr aphi cal knowl edge.
3.I tbr eakst hemonot onyofcl assr oom wor k.
4.I tpr ov i
desl ear nerwi thpr act i
cal skill
sofcol l
ect ing,recordingand
anal ysi
ngdat aandr epor twr i
ting.
5.Gi vesst udent sanoppor tuni tyt ogooutandpr act i
sewhatt heyhav e
l
ear ntincl ass.
6.Enabl esst udent st of ami l
iar iset hemsel veswi tht heenv ironmentand
dev elopaposi tiv eat ti
tudet owar dsi t.
7.Enabl esst udent st odev el opaposi tiv eat t
itudet owar dsmanual wor k.
8.Pr omot esdev elopmentofv i
rtuesl i
kecooper ationbywor ki
ngi n
gr oups.
FieldWor kPr ocedur e( St epsFol l
owed)
1.I dent i
ficat i
onofTopi c/ Theme
-Reasonwhyy ouwantt ocar ryoutf i
eldst udye. g.‘ Ast udyofr ocksar ound
theschool ’
2.I dent ificat ionoft heAr eaofSt udy
-Determi ningt hear eat obeusedf orst udy .
-Shouldbechosencar ef ul
lyt oensur et hatt hef ieldst udyi ssuccessf ul.
Condi t i
onsI tShoul dMeet
a)Shoul dcont ainsuf ficienti nf ormat ion
b)Shoul dbewi thinaconv eni encedi stancet or educeexpenses
3.St at ementofObj ect iv
es
-Stati
ngai msofcar ry ingt hef ieldst udy .
-Actasgui delinest oact iviti
est obeunder takendur i
ngf i
eldwor k.
Theyshoul dbesi mpl e, brief,test abl eandachi ev able.E. g.forthet opic‘A
studyofal ocal farm’ obj ect i
v escoul dbest atedasf ollows:
 Tof indoutmet hodsoff ar mi ngi nal ocal far m
 Toi dent ifyt hecat t
lebr eedsi nt hef arm
 Toi nv estigat et hepr obl emsf aci ngt hef arm.
4.For mul at i
onofHy pot heses
-Assumpt ionssetbef or ef i
eldwor kwhosev alidityoraccept ancei stobe
proved.
Ty pesofHy pot heses
 Nul lHy pot hesi s( Ho)
-Onest atedi nnegat ivef orm e. g.‘ Ther ei snor el ati
onshi pbet weenr ainfal
l

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andcr
opy
iel
d’.
 Al ternat i
v e/ Subst antivehy pot hesis( H1)
-Onest atedposi tivelye. g.‘mostf oodst uffssol di nt henei ghbour hood
comef rom thei mmedi atenei ghbour hood’ .
Quant i
tativewor dsshoul dbeusede. g.mor e, most ,maj orit
y.Itshoul dnot
beobv ious.
5.Pr epar at ionoft heFi el dSt udy
Itinvol
ves:
a)SeekPer missi onf r
om Rel ev antAut horit
ies
-Seekingper mi ssionf r
om school andaut hor ityint hear eay ouarev isit
ing.
Itisimpor tantt o:
 Toav oidbei ngdeni edper mi ssiont oent erther e
 Enabl esi ndi vi
dual st osetear l
yt hesui tabl edat eandt i
meofv isi
t
 Hel pst oar rangef oragui det oconducty ouar ound
b)ConductReconnai ssance( Pre-Visi
t)
-Af amili
arisationt ouroft hei ntendedar eaofst udy .
Itisimpor tantt o:
 Todet ermi neappr opriat er out est obet aken
 Enabl est ogetdocument sf rom of ficials
 Hel psonet oident i
fyt heappr opr i
atemet hodsofdat acoll
ect i
on
 Hel pst oi dent i
fyappr opr i
at eequi pmentt obeused
c)Hol dDi scussi onI nCl ass
-Lookingt hroughf ormul atedobj ect ivesandhy pot heses.
It’
si mportantt o:
 Det ermi net heirsui tabi l
ity
 Makeadj ust ment s
 Deci deupondat ar ecor di ngmet hods
d)Pr epar at ionofaQuest ionnai re
-Importantwher et hei nterv i
eweri snotabl etobewi threspondent sfora
l
ongt i
me.
e)Di v idingI ntoGr oups
 Toeasecongest ioni nt hear eaofst udy
 Tocr eat eor derdur i
ngf ieldwor k
 Tor educef ati
gueamongpar ti
cipant s
 Tohel ppar t i
cipant scol lectdat awi thint het i
megi ven
f)Pr epar at i
onf orDocument s
 Topogr aphi cal mapst oshowt her out esy ouwi ll
follow
 Tabl esf orf il
li
ngi ni nfor mat ion
 Per mi ssi ondocument s
g)Readi ngThr oughRel evantBooks
-Readingaboutt het opicandt hear eaofst udy
Impor t
anti nt hati thel pspar ti
ci pant stoknow:
 Theki ndofdat at heyneedt ocol l
ect

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 Thet echni quest obeempl oy edi nthef ield.

h)Pr epar at ionofaWor kSchedul e
-Atimet ablet obef ollowedont hedayoff iel
dst udy .
Iti
simpor t
antt o:
I ndicat et hespeci fict i
mewheneachact ivityshoul dtakepl ace
 Reducet i
mewast agebyensur i
ngpr opert i
memanagement
 Ensur eal limpor tantar easar ecov eredandnonei sf orgotten
 Pr ov ideanest i
mat eoft ot al timer equi redf orstudy
i)Sel ect ionofI mpor tantTool sandEqui pment
-Tapemeasur eandr ulersf ormeasur i
ng, penci l
sf ordr awi ngsket chmaps,
notebooksf orwr it
ingnot es, pol ythenebagf orsor t
ingandcar ryi
ng
sampl es, camer asf ort aki ngphot ogr aphs, geol ogi cal hammerget tingrock
sampl esandhoef ordi ggi ngt ogetsoi lsampl es, et c.
6.Car ryi
ngOutt heFi eldSt udy
-Sett
ingof ftogot ot hear eaofst udyt ol ookf ordat awher et echniquesof
coll
ectingandr ecor dingdat aar eappl i
ed.
Fol l
owUpAct ivi
ties
-Aft
erdat aiscol lect edandr ecor dedi t
’ssummar isedi nt hef oll
owi ngway s:
 Di scussi ngt hef indi ngsi ncl assgi vi
ngr epor t
st hroughgr oup
l
eader s
 Wr i
tingr epor tsi nessayf or m
 Cal cul at i
onofper cent ages, means, medi ansandmodes
 Labor ator yt est ingofsampl es
 Pr esent at i
onofdat ausi ngmet hodssuchasgr aphs, pi
echar t
s,
etc.
Pr oblemsEncount eredi nFi eldwor k
1.LanguageBar r
ier
-I
nabili
tyt ocommuni cat eduet ot hei nterv i
ewerandt her espondentnot
shari
ngt hesamel anguageorr espondent smaybei ll
i
terateandt hus
unablet of il
lquest i
onnai re.Thepr obl emsar e:
 Dat amaynotbecol lected
I l
li
ter atepeopl emaygi vewr onganswer swhi l
eat tempt i
ng
quest i
onnai res
 Ani nt erpr et ermayhav et obeengageswhowoul dbepai dwhi ch
woul dr aisecost s.
 Answer smaybedi stortedbyt hei nterpr eter
2.Host i
li
ty
Thosebei ngappr oachedt ogi v eanswer smaybecomehar shduet o
feelingt hatt heirt i
mei sbei ngwast edwhi chwoul dcauset hefiel
d
studyt obeunsuccessf ul.
3.Di shonestRespondent s
-Respondent sgi vingwr ongi nformat ionduet osuspi cionf earofshameor
superstition.
4.BadWeat her
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Raini
ngheav i
lymakingi timpossi bletopr oceedwi thdat acoll
ecti
on
anddi f
ficultyinmov ement .
Becomingv eryhotmaki ngpar t
ici
pant suncomf ortableandt hus
unablet opr oceedwithdat acoll
ect i
onsmoot hly.
Becomingmi styorfoggycausi nginvisibil
it
ypr oblems.
5.Acci dentsintheFi eld
Onemayf allandgetinur edwhenwal kingonr uggedar eas.
I
njuri
esmayr esultwhenusi ngt ool
st ogetsampl esbycut ti
ngusi ng
pangasorkni vesanddi ggingusinghoes.
6.At tacksbyWi l
dAni mals
-Parti
cipantsmayencount erwi ldani malswhencar r
yingoutt hestudyin
bushyar ease.g.snakeswhi chmaybi tethem, rhinoswhi chmaychar geat
them, etc.
7.Inaccessi bili
ty
-physicalbarr
ierssuchasswamps, ri
verswi thoutbridges, steepslopesand
thickvegetati
onmayhi nderpar ti
cipantsfrom r eachingar easwi thvit
al
i
nf ormation.

MI
NERALSAND
ROCKS
Mi
ner
als
-I
nor ganicsubst ancesoccur ringnat urall
yatorbelowt heearth’
ssur face.
Char acteristicsofMi neral
s
1.Di ffer
entdegr eesofhar dnesse. g.somear ever
yhar de.g.diamond
whi l
eot hersarev erysof te. g.t
al c.
2.Somehav eatomsar rangedi nanor der
lymannert oform cry
st al
se.g.
quar t
zf orm a6-si dedpr ism.
3.Var yi
ngnumberofel ement se.g.gol dhasone( Av )whil
equar tzhas2
(SiO2).
4.Di ffer
entabi l
iti
est oal l
owl i
ghtt opasst hroughe.g.somear e
transpar ent
,opaqueort ransl ucent .
5.Speci ficcolourse. g.goldi sshi nyy ell
owwhi l
ecopperi sbrown.
6.Hav especi f
icsurfaceappear ance( lustr
e)whent heyrefl
ectlighti
.e.

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met alli
c(shiny )ornon- met all
ic( glasslike).
7.Def i
nitechemi cal composi ti
onorconst antratioofelement se.g.quartz
hasoneat om ofsi li
conandt woat omsofoxy gen.
8.Tendencyt obr eakal ongcer tainl inesorcl eavage)e.g.fl
inthascl eavage
li
ket hatofgl ass.
9.Differentdensi tiese. g.somear ev eryheav ye. g.l
eadwhi l
eot hersare
li
ghte. g.si
licat emi neral
s.
10. Somemi neral sconductel ectricitywhileot hersdon’te.g.copper
conduct swhi ledi amonddoesn’ t.
11. Somecanbepr essedi ntodiff erentshapeswhi l
eotherscan’ te.g.
copperi smal l
eabl ewhi l
ef l
intisn’ t.
Ty pesofMi ner als
Met allicminerals
Ferr
ousMi nerals-li
moni te,magnet i
te, si
der i
teandhaemat it
e.
Non-ferrousMi ner als-copper ,alumi nium, gold,lead,etc.
Non-met all
icMi ner als-graphite,diamond, asbest os,coal,
etc.
Energymi nerals-pet roleum, coal andur anium.
Rocks
-
Aconsol
i
dat
edmat
eri
alcomposedofgr
ainsofoneormor
emi
ner
als.

Classi ficat ionofRocks

1.I gneousRocks
-Rocksf or
medwhenmol tenmat erial fr
om t heear th’sinter
iorcoolsand
solidifi
esonorbeneat ht heear th’ssur f
ace.
TypesofI gneousRocks
a)I ntrusi veIgneousRocks
-Rocksf or
medwhenmagmacool sandsol i
difiesbel owt heearth’
ssur face
e.g.gr anit
e, di
ori
te,gabbr o, per i
dot ite.
-Hav ecoar setextureasar esul tofsl owcool i
nggi vingmi neralsmor etime
tofor ml argecrystals.
-Arecl assifi
edfurtheri ntotwo:
(i)Hy pabyssal r
ocks-i ntrusivei gneousr ockswhi char eneart heearth’s
surface.
(ii
)Plut oni
cr ocks-i
ntrusi veigneousr ockswhi char edeepbel owt he
surface.
b)Ext rusi v
eI gneousRocks
-Rocksf or
medwhenl avasol idifiesont heear th’ssur face.
-Hav ef i
net ext
ureduet of astcool inggi v
ingmi neralslesstimet ocollect
toget hertof or
ml argercr ystal s.
Theyar eoft wotypesnamel y:
(i
) Vol canicEject a
-Extrusiveigneousr ocksf ormedi nt hef oll
owi ngway s:
 Whenashandl av aeject edf rom under groundast heyfallonthe

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ear th’ssur facee. g.pumi ce.

 Whendustandashej ect edset tl
eont hegr oundandgetcompr essed
tof or m ar ocke. g.tuf f.
(ii) Lav aFl ows
-Extrusiv eigneousr ocksf ormedwhenbasi cl avaf l
owsov eraconsi derable
distancet hencool sandsol idifiese. g.basal tandobsi dian.
2.Sedi ment ar yRocks
-Rocksf ormedwhenpar ticlesofot herr ocksar elaiddownand
compr essedi ntol ayer sorwhenpl antandani mal r
emai nsar eburiedand
compr essedandcompact ed.
 Whent heyar el aiddownal ayeri sfor med.
 Asdeposi tioncont i
nuesaddi ti
onal lay er saref ormedwhi ch
compr esst hel owerl ay er sintoahar dmass.
Ty pesofSedi ment ar yRocks
a)Mechani callyFor medSedi ment aryRocks
-Sediment ar yr ocksf or medwhenweat her edi gneousormet amor phicrocks
aredeposi tedandcompact ede. g.sandst oneandshal e.
b)Or gani cal l
yf ormedSedi ment aryRocks
-Sediment ar yr ocksf or medwhenani mal andpl antorani mal remainsar e
bur i
ed, compr essedandcompact ed.
Classi ficationofOr gani callyFor medSedi ment aryRocks
(i)Calcar eousr ocks- richi ncal cium car bonat ee. g.chal kandl i
mest one.
Cor alrocksar ef ormedf rom r emai nsofseapol ypswhi chext r
actlimefrom
thesea, bui ldshel l
sf orpr otect ion, attacht hemsel vestoeachot herand
rockst ol ivei ncol onies, thendi eandshel lst of orm cor alrocks.
(ii
)Fer ruginousRocks- richi ni rone. g.i r
onst one.
(ii
i)Sil
iceousRocks- richi nsi licae. g.di atomi te.
(iv)Car bonaceousRocks- ri
chi ncar bone. g.coal .
c)Chemi callyf ormedSedi ment aryRocks
-Sediment ar yr ocksf or medwhenmat eri
al sdi ssol v
edi nwat erchemi call
y
reactf or mi ngnewsubst ancest henwat erev apor atedleav i
ngl ay
ersof
thosesal ts.
Cl assificationofChemi callyFor medSedi ment ar
yRocks
(i)Carbonat ese. g.t ronaanddol omi te
(ii
)Sulphat es- sulphat ecompounds
(ii
i)Chlor idese. g.hal ite
(iv)Sil
icat ese. g.f l
int
(v)Ironst onese. g.haemat iteandl i
moni te.
3.Met amor phi cRocks
-Rockswhi chhav echangedt hei rphy sical appear anceandchemi cal
pr opertiesasar esul tofsubj ect i
ont ogr eatheatandpr essuree.g.
 Gnei ssf rom gr anite
 Slat ef rom cl ay
 Mar blef rom l imest one

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 Quartzitef r
om sandst ones
Thef
orceinv olvedi nmet amor phi sm i
s
 Compr essi onf or ce
DistributionofMaj orRocksi nKeny a
East er nKeny ar egion
 Themaj orr ocksar emet amor phicr ockse. g.marblei npar t
sof
Machakosandschi standgnei ssinpar t
sofKi t
ui.
 Volcanicr ocksi nYat tapl ateauandKapi tiplans.
 Sediment aryr ockse. g.limest oner ocksusedi nBambur i f
orcement
manuf act uring.
Coast alRegi on
 Majorr ocksar esedi ment ar yr
ockst hisisbecausepar t
icle,f
rom the
ocean, ofot herr ocksandr emainsofpl antandani mal arelaiddown
andcompr essedi ntolay ersorbur iedandcompr essedand
compact edf or mi ngsedi ment aryrocks.e. g.li
mest oneusedi n
Bambur iforcementmanuf actur
e.
 Therear ev ol cani cr ocksi nTsav or ichi ngr oundwat err esources.
Norther nandN. ERegi on
 Domi natedbysedi ment arysands.
 Therear ev ol cani cr ocksi nMt .Mar sabitandar oundRi ftValley.
Ri ftValleyandKeny aHi ghlands
 Domi natedbyv olcani crocks
 Therear emet amor phicr ockswhi chhav er esul
tedf r
om changi ngof
i
gneousr ocks.
L.Vi ctor
iaBasi n
 Graniteandgnei ssdomi nat eWest ernKeny awheret heyf orm high
rockyhi l
lscal ledgr anitict orscommoni nKi si
i,
Mar agoli andBuny ore
areas.
 Sediment aryr ocksdeposi tedbyr i
ver se. g.Nyando, Nzoi a,Yalaand
Sondu.

Signif
icanceofRocks
1.Rocksweat hertoform soi lwhichisimpor t
antinagricul
ture.
2.Form aquiferswhichst or egroundwat erwhi chf
ormsspr ingswhi ch
for
mr iversandwel lswhi chpr ovidewaterfordomest icandi ndustri
al
use.
3.Somer ocksar esour cesofbui ldingmat eri
alse.
g.igneousr ocksar e
usedtomakebal l
astandl i
mest onerocksar eusedasbui ldingblocks
andrawmat er
iali
ncementmanuf act
uring.
4.Phosphat eandni t
rater ocksar eusedt omakef ert
ili
serusedi n
agri
cultur
e.
5.Grani
tictorsofW.Keny aandhi ghv ol
canicpeakssuchast hoseofMt .
Kenyaar eat ouri
stattractionwhi chbri
ngsf orei
gnexchange.
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6.Pumi cei
susedasascr ubbi
ngstone.
7.Ar ocksuchascoalisusedasfuelf
orheat
ing,
smel
ti
ngofi
ronand
thermalelect
ri
cit
ygener
ati
on.
8.

-Processofext
MI
r
NING
act
ingv aluablemi ner al
sf r
om t heear t
hssurface.
Format i
onsinWhi chMi neralsOccur
1.Vei nsandLodes
-Occurr
enceofmi neral
si ncr evi
ces, cracksorf aultsinigneousr ocks.
 Theyaresaidtooccuri nveinsi ftheyoccurt hereinsmal l
quantiti
es.
 Saidtooccurinlodesi ftheyoccurt herei nlargequantit
iese.g.zinc,
copperandsilver
.
2.Reef s
-Vei
nsandl odeswhichar eexposedont hesur face.
3.Seams/ Layers/Beds
-Occurr
enceofmi neral
sassedi ment aryorasar esultofcompr essionof
accumulatedorganicorinor ganicmat eri
ale.g.coal andhalit
e.
4.Alluv ialDeposits
-Occurr
enceofmi neral swhi lemixedwi thmat erialssuchassand, gr
av el
,
sil
t,et
c.
Thesewer emineral
swhi chwer edet achedf r
om t heveinsbyweat hering
andcarri
edawaybyst reamsandr iver sandgotdeposi t
ede.g.gold,

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di
amondandpl
ati
num.
5.Weat heri
ngPr oducts
-Miner alsformedbydeepweat her
ingofrockst henleachingcarr
ied
mi neralsfrom thetoptolowerlayerswheretheyaccumul atede.
g.
alumi nium, ni
ckel
,ironandmanganese.
6.Oilpools/
Wel l
s
-Occur renceofmi neral
sinpoolsorwellsinsedi mentaryrockse.
g.
pet r
oleum andnat uralgas.
Condit
ionsNecessaryforFormationofPet roleum

a)Presenceoff ossi
lsoror ganicremai ns
b)Presenceofsedi ment aryrocksf orbur yi
ngor gani
cremains.
c)Presenceofpr essur etocompr essor ganicremainstocooktheoil
andnat uralgasoutofor ganicmat ter.
d)Presenceofapor ousr eservoirrockt ostoreandt r
ansmitpet
rol
eum
totheoi l
poolse.g.l i
mest oneandsandst one.
e)Presenceofat rapl i
keasy ncli
net ohol dpetrol
eum inareser
voirt
o
preventitsescape.
f)Presenceofi mper meabl erocksbel owt hetraporsy ncl
i
netoprevent
petrol
eum from per colat
ingf urt
herunder ground.

FactorsInfl
uencingExploit
at i
onofMi nerals
1.Val ueofMi neral
Miner alsofhighvaluewi l
lbemi nedev enift
heyoccuri nsmallquant i
ti
es
becauseonesol ditwillbepossi bl
etooffsetmi ningcostsandmakea
profi
tandv i
cev er
sa.
2.Quali
tyofOr e
Miningcanbedonei fthemi neraldeposi
tshav ehi ghmineralcontent
becauset heyar eeconomi caltowor konbutdeposi t
swi t
hlowmi neral
contentar erarel
ywor kedonexcepti fthemi neral i
nthem israree.g.
uranium.
3.SizeofDeposi t
Miner alswhicharen’tofhighv aluehavetooccuri nlargequantiti
esfor
them t obemi nedsot hatitwillbeapossiblet orecoverminingcost sand
makeapr of
it.
4.Capi t
al
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Lackofcapi t
alcausesdev elopi ngcount ri
esnott oexpl oitmi neralsand
l
eav ei ttointernat i
onal compani esbecauseal otofmoneyi sneededf or
explorat i
on, i
nfrast r
ucture, salaries, energyet ce. g.titanium mi ni
ngat
Kwal ei sbeingdonebyTi omi ncompanyf rom Canada.
5.Met hodofMi ning
Ami neral r
equiringopencastmi ningwi llbemi nedev eni fthemi ner al
deposi tislargebutoner equi ri
ngunder groundmi ningwi llbeext r
act edi fi
ts
i
nl argedeposi tori fit
sofhi ghv al
ueorr are.
6.Tr anspor tcost s
Mi neralsoccur ringi nremot ear easf arfrom t hemar ketsar enotl ikel yt obe
exploitedi fthet ransportsy stem i spoor l
ydev elopedsi ncemi neralor eis
heav yandbul kyandt ranspor tingi tbyr oadandr ailwayi sexpensi ve.
7.Mar ketfort heMi neral
Mi ni
ngcanbedonei fthemi ner alisi ndemandandi fthepr icesar e
reasonabl esot hatmi ningcost sar eof fsetandapr ofitisrealised.
8.Pol i
ti
calInfluence
Mi neraldeposi tsatt hebor dersoft wocount riesmaynotbeexpl oitedasa
disputemayar iseconcer ningwhom mi nei te.g.di sput ebetweenI r
aqand
Kuwai tov erRumai l
ashoul doi l fi
eld.
9.Labour
Exploitationofsomemi ner alsr equi r
eski l
ledwor ker sandi ft heyl acki tmay
notbedoneasi st hecasei ndev elopingcount riesbecauseexpat r i
at es
hav etobeengagedandar ev er yexpensi vet opaywhi chmayr educest he
profitsaccr uingf rom mi ning.

MethodsofMi ni
ng
1.OpenCastMi ning
-Methodofext ract i
ngmineralswhi char eneart heearth’
ssurface.
Ty pes
a)St ri
pping
-Str
ippingof foft heunwant edmat eriallyi
ngont opofthemi neraldeposit
andt hendiggingt oremov ethemi neral beari
ngr ockifit
’ssoftorifit
’shard
explosivesmaybeusedt olooseni tandt henhugepowershov elsare
empl oyedtodi gupt hemineraldeposi ts.
b)Hi l
l-
slopeBor ing
-Usi
ngbor i
ngi nstrumentsknownasauger stodr il
loutmineraldepositand
bri
ngi ttothesur face.
2.under groundMi ning
-Methodempl oy edwhent hemi neral li
esv erydeepbel owthesur faceand
theov erburdeni st oot
hicktober emov edbymechani calmeans.
Ty pes
a)Shaf tMet hod
-Methodempl oy edwhent hemi neral bearingrockdoesn’ toutcrop.

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Howi t’
scar ri
edOut
 Verti
cal shaf tsar esunki ntot heear th’scr ustt oreacht helay erwith
themi ner al.
 Horizont al tunnel sar edugf rom t hev ert i
cal shaf ttoreacht he
miner al.
 Propsar eer ect edt osuppor tt her ooft opr ev enti tf
rom collapsing.
 Themi ner al bear i
ngr ocki sbl ast edl oosebyexpl osives.
 Thedeposi tist ranspor t
edonl ightr ail orconv ey orbelttothebot tom
oftheshaf t.
Itist henbr oughtt ot hesur f
acei nacr aneoral i
ftcall
edcage.
a)Dr i
ft/Adi tMi ni ng
-Methodempl oy edwhent hemi neral deposi tcanber eachedf rom the
vall
eysides.
 Horizont al tunnel s(adits)ar econst r uct edf rom t hesideoft hehil
l.
 Rail
wayl inei sconst ructedi ntot hemi net obr i
ngoutt hemi nerale.g.
miningofcopperatKi l
embei nUganda.
b)Sol uti
onMet hod
-Methodusedi nmi ningsol ublemi ner alssuchassul phur,salt,potash,etc.
 Super heat edwat eri
sej ect edi ntosal tdeposi ts.
 Themi ner al dissolvesormel ts.
 Thesol ut i
oni st henpumpedi nt othesur face.
c)Dr ill
ing
-Methodempl oy edi nexploi t
ationofpet roleum.
 Wells( oilder ricks)ar edr il
led.
 Oilandnat ural gasar ebr oughtt ot hesur faceundert heirown
pressur eorbypumpi ng.
3.Al l
uv ial/PlacerMi ning
-Methodusedt oext ractmi neralsoccur ri
ngi nal l
uv ialdeposi t
se. g.gold,ti
n,
diamondsandpl atinum.

Ty
pes

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a)Panni
ng
I
tinvolves:
 Di ggingami xt ureofsand, grav el andmi ner al from t her i
verbed.
 Put tingi ti napanandr ot atingt hepanwhi letilted.
 Thel ight ersandorgr av el iswashedont hesi del eav ingt heheav ier
mi ner al att hebot tom oft hepane. g.gol dmi ni ngi nMi gor iandR.
Mor unBedsi nW.Pokot .
b)Dr edgi ng
 Adr edgerscoopswat erl oggedal luvium f rom t hebedofal ake.
 Theal l
uv ium i spassedov ersl opi ngchannel swi thser iesoft raps.
 Wast esar ewashedawayanddensermat erialsar el eftatt hebot tom
oft het rape. g.mi ningofsodaashatL.Magadi .
c)Hy draulicMi ning
-Methodusedwhenal l
uv i
al deposi toccur sonav alleysi de.
 Apower ful jetofwat eri sdi r
ect edatt hedeposi t.
 Gr avel andmi ner al collectatt hev al l
eybecauseoft hegr eatpr essur e.
 Themi neral gr ainsar er ecov eredandwashedout .
d)Sub- mar i
neMi ning
-Methodempl oy edi next ract ingmi ner alsi nal luvial deposi tsl yingdeep
downt heoceanf loor .
 Asub- mar i
nedr edgergoesdownt heoceanf loor .
I tscoopsmi ner al deposi tandr isest ot hesur face.
 Theal l
uv ium i spassedov ersl opi ngchannel swi thser iesoft raps.
 Wast esar ewashedawayanddensermat erialsar el eftatt hebot tom
oft het rap.
Signi ficanceofMi ner als/Mi ningi nKeny a
1.Keny aear nsf or eignexchangef rom expor tationofmi ner alswhi chi s
usedt oi mpor tgoodsandser vi
cesandf unddev el opmentpr oj ect s.
2.Mi ningi sasour ceofempl oy mentt opeopl esuchast hosewhowor ki n
mi nes, incementf act ories, i
nt ranspor tsect or,etc.
3.Mi ninghasl edt odev elopmentofi ndust ri
esbypr ov idingr awmat erials
usedi nt hosei ndust riese. g.l i
mest oneusedi ncementf act ories, coal
usedi ni ronandst eel i
ndust ries, sodaashusedi ngl assi ndust ry ,etc.
4.Mi ninghasl edt odev elopmentoft ranspor tsy stem t omakemi ning
areasaccessi bl ee. g.Magadi sodami nei sconnect edt ot hemai n
Mombasa- Nai robi railwayl ine.
5.Mi ninghasl edt odev elopmentofset tl
ement se.g.Magadi t
ownwhi ch
originat edf r
om t hemi ningofsodaash.
6.Mi ningi sasour ceofmar ketf orgoodsandser vicese. g.t her ear eshops
andmar kets, banki ngandi nsur anceser vi
cesof feredt opeopl ewor king
inmi nesandr elatedi ndust ries.
7.Hasl edt odev elopmentofsoci al ameni t
iesbypr ov idingsoci al faci l
ities
suchashousi ng, heal th,el ect ri
city ,wat erandeducat ional ongsi de
infrastruct ur e.
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Dist ribut i
onofMi ner alsi nE.Af rica
Phosphat esusedi nt hemanuf act ureoff er ti
liser-Toror oi nUgandaand
Maj i
nguHi ll i
nTanzani a.
Li
mest oneusedi ncementmanuf acturing- Hi mai nN. W Uganda, Tangai n
Tanzani a, At hiRi verandBambur ii
nKeny a.
Fl
uor sparasour ceoff l
uor ineusedi nchemi cal indust ries-KerioVal l
eyi n
Keny a.
Commonsal tusedf orconsumpt ion-KilifiandMagadi inKeny aandL.Ki twe
inUganda.
Diatomi teusedi nmaki ngi nsulat ors–Kar iandusi nearGi lgilandGi cher uin
Ny andar ua.
Stonesi nMachakos, Mut ongaandMbeer e.
Car bondi oxi deusedi nmaki ngdr yiceandi nbeerandsof tdri
nksi ndust ry-
Esagar i inBar ingoandKagwei nKi ambu.
Diamondusedt omakeor nament s,glasscut tersanddr il
ls-Mwadui in
Tanzani a.
Titanium usedi nt hemanuf actur eofi nsul at orsf orai rcraft-Kwal edistr i
ct.
Gemst onesnearVoi andMwat ate.
Soapst oneusedf orscul pt ure-Tabakai nKi sii.
Copperusedt omakeel ect rical wiresandcoi ns- Kil
embei nUganda.
Gol dusedt omakemedal sandj ewel leryandasabasi sofwor ldcurrency -
Musomai nTanzani a, KakamegaandMi gor ii
nKeny a.
coal usedi nsmel tingofi ronandgener at ionoft her mal electri
city-i
n
Ruv umaRi v erBasi nandKi viraSongwei nTanzani a.
Pr obl emsFaci ngMi ningI ndust ryinKeny a
1.I nadequat ecapi tal maki ngKeny anott obenef i
tfrom mi neralresour ces
becausemi ningi sl ef tt omul ti
nat i
onal compani eswhopocketal lthe
moneyt or ecov ermi ningcost .
2.Ar easwher emi ner al deposi t sarei naccessi bleduet opoort r
anspor t
andi nfrast r uctur ewhi chmakespr ospect ingandmi ningdi ffi
cult.
3.I nsufficientski lledper sonnel causi ngdependenceonexpat ri
ateswho
areexpensi v et opaywhi chr educespr of itsaccr uingf rom mi ning.
4.Mostofmi ningi scont rol l
edbyf orei gncompani essomostoft he
mi neral rev enueendsupt ot hem assal ariesanddi vidends.
5.Occur renceofmi ner alsi nv erysmal l deposi tswhi char enot
economi cal lyviabl e.
6.Lackofpowersuppl yespeci allyinr emot ear easwi thmi nerals.
7.Landuseconf l
ictswhi chaf fectmi ni nge. g.inKwal ebet weenTi omi n
andt hel ocal peopl eduet oi nadequat ecompensat i
on.
Ef f
ectofmi ningont heEnv ironment
1.Render sl andusel essf orot hereconomi cact ivit
iessuchasagr i
culture
(dereli
ct ion)duet oopenpi tsl eftonl andandheapsofr ockwast elitter
dumpedonl and.
2.Pol l
utest heenv ir
onmente. g.at mospher icpol l
utionf r
om dustand

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smokef r
om t r
act orsandt rucks, wat erpol l
ut i
onf rom spi ll
ingofoi l from
off
shor eoi ldr ill
ingandsoi lpollut i
onf rom chemi cal sandexpl osives
usedi nmi ning.
3.Leadst ol ossofbi o- diver sityduet odest ructionv eget ati
onwhi chal so
destroy shabi t
at sofv ar iousani mal sl eadi ngt ot hei rdestruct i
onal so.
4.Causessoi l degr adat i
one. g.byl ooseni ngt hesoi lwhi chmakesi t
vul
ner abl et oagent sofer osi onl ikewi ndandwat er, t
ractorsandt r ucks
compactt hesoi l maki ngwat eri nfiltrat iondi fficultandchemi calsused
i
nterferingwi thsoi l chemi cal composi ti
onmaki ngi tunsui tabl efor
agri
cul ture.
5.Causesmasswast i
ngwhenexpl osi v esandheav yequi pmentusedi n
miningshaket hegr oundmaki ngweat her edmat erialstomov ef ast er
downsl opeundert hei nfluenceofgr av i
ty.
Tr onami ningonL.Magadi
Locat ion
L.
Magadi is120km S. W ofNai r
obi ont hef looroft heGr eatRi ftVal l
ey .
Occur rence
Tronadeposi tsoccurasasol utionofsodi um sal t
st hemai nonesbei ng
sodi um sequi car bonat eandsodi um chl oride.
ModeofFor mat i
on
 Rai nwat erdi ssol v essodasal t si nv olcani cr ocks.
 Thesol ut ionper col atest hrought her ocksandsoi landget sbeneat h
thebasi n.
 Theaccumul atedsol ut i
oni sheat edbyt hehotr ocksbeneat h.
 Pr essur ebui ldsupandt heheat edsol utioni spushedt ot hesur f ace.
I tcomesoutoft hegr oundi nf orm ofhotspr i
ngsbel oworont he
sidesoft hel ake.
 Duet ohi ght emper atur ewat erev apor at esl eav i
ngbehi ndcr ystal sof
trona.
Ext ract ionandPr ocessi ng
 Adr edgerscoopst ronaoutoft hel ake.
I tcr ushesi tint osmal lerpi ecesandsepar atesi tf r
om r ockdebr is.
 Themat er ial ismi xedwi t
hwat ert of or m sl ur r
yandt r
anspor tedt o
fact oryont hel ake’ sshor e.
I nt hef act or yt hesl urr yismi xedwi thwat ert owashouti mpur i
ties
suchasmudandsal tanddr i
ed.
I tissentt odesi ccat or sandheat edt or emov emoi st
ureandhy dr ogen
tof or m sodaash.
 Sodaashi scool edandgr oundi nt opowderandsi eved.
I t’
spackedi nt opaperbags, wei ghedandt ranspor tedt ot hemar ket.
UsesofSodaash
Usedi nt he:
a)Gl assi ndust ryint hemanuf act ur eofgl assesandbot tl
es.
b)Manuf act ureofsoapsanddet ergent s.
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c)Softeningwaterinpapermaki ng.
d)Intextil
eindustr
y.
e)Inoilrefi
ning.
Benef it
st otheEconomy
1.Hasledtogr owt hofMagadi t
ownshi p.
2.Hasledtodev elopmentofsoci alameni ti
essuchashospi t
alsand
schoolsandwat erfrom OloibortotoRi v
erwhi chhasbenef i
tedthelocal
people.
3.Hasledtodev elopmentofi nfrastructuree.g.rai
l
wayl i
nef r
om Konzat o
L.Magadi.
12. TheMagadi SodaCompanyempl oysmanyKeny ansincl
udingthe
nomadicMaasai .
13. Exportsofsodaashear nKeny aasubst antialamountoff or
eign
exchange.

Pr obl ems
1.St i
ffcompet iti
onf rom dev elopedcount r
ieswi thlargesodadeposi tse.
g.
U.S.AandI sr ael.
2.Lowv alueofsal tisinsuf ficientt omeeti tsproduct i
oncost .
3.Hi ghl abourcost sduet oi ncent i
v esgi vensot hatwor kersagreet owork
i
nt hehost i
leenv i
ronmentofL.Magadi .
Goldi nS.Af r
ica
Goldoccur sassmal lgr ai
nsi nahar dr ock.
It
’smi nedbyshaf tmi ningsi ncei tsbear ingr ocksaredeepbel owt he
surface.
Themai nmi ningar eai stheWi twat er srandandot hersar eOgendaal rus
andl ydenbur g.
Pr ocessi ng
 Or ei scrushedt oaf inepowder ydust .
 Mi xedwi thwat erunt ilitisfluidmud.
 Cy ani dei saddedt odi ssol vegol d.
 Thef luidi srunof fwi t
hgol ddi ssol v
edl eavingbehi ndwast esalts.
 Zincdusti saddedt of i
ltergol df orsolidif
icati
on.
 Gol dsi nksasi tisdenser .
 Gol di ssmel tedandcasti ntoi ngot s.
Signi f
icancet ot heEconomyofS.Af ri
ca
1.Ear nst hecount ryf oreignexchangeusedf orpayingf orei
gndebt s.
2.Of fersempl oy mentt omanypeopl er aisi
ngt heirli
v i
ngst andards.
3.Hasl edt owi despr eadur bani sat ioncont ri
butingtof ormat i
onof
Witwat ersrandconur bation.
4.Hasf or medabr oadmar ketf orot herindust ri
ese. g.engineeri
ng, f
oot
wear ,electrical andconst ruct i
oni ndust r
ies.
5.Hasl edt oimpr ov ementofi nfrast ructureandsoci alameni ti
ese.g.
roads, school s, hospi tals, etc.

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6.Ledt odev elopmentofagr icul ture.

Pr obl emsFaci ngGol dmi ni ng
1.Expensi vet omi nef orl y ingdeepl y.
2.Lar gecapi talisr equi redt ost ar tmi nes.
3.Compl icationofmi ningbyf ol dsandf aul tsint hecr ust.
4.Lowgol dcont enti nt heor e.
5.Pr obl em ofr emov al ofunder groundwat er .
6.Lackofadequat esuppl yoff reshwat eront hesur faceinmi ningareas.
7.Acci dent sr esultingf rom col lapsi ngofmi ner oof s.
Di amondMi ningi nS.Af rica
Diamondi st hehar destknownsubst ance.
-Minedi nKi mber l
y ,Bloemf ont einandAl exanderBay .
-Minedbyunder groundmi ni ngoral luv ial mi ning.
Pr ocessi ng
 Di amondbear ingki mber lit
ei scr ushed
 Cr ushedr ocki smi xedwi thwat er
 Di amondsi nkst ot hebot tom asi t’sdenser
 Wat erandl essdenser esi duear edr ainedof f
 Remai ni ngmat erial isputonheav il
ygr easedt ray sandwashed
 Di amondr epel swat ersoi tst i
ckst ogr easewhi l
er emnant sar
e
dr ai
nedof f
 Di amondsar et hensor t edoutandgr adedi ntogem di amondsand
i
ndust rialtype( forcut tingpur poses) .
Cont ribut iont ot heEconomy
1.Pr ov idesempl oy mentt ot housandsofpeopl e
2.Ear nst hecount rysubst ant ial forei gnexchange
3.Hasl edt ogr owt hofur bancent rese. g.Pr etor i
aandKi mberly.
4.Hascont ri
but edt odev el opmentofi nf rast r
uct ur e
Pr obl emsFaci ngDi amondMi ning
1.Fluct uati
oni nt hewor l
dmar ketpr i
ces
2.Hi ghcostofmi ningandpr ocessi ngdi amond
3.depl eti
onofmi nes
4.Lowmi ner al i
nt heor emaki ngmi ni ngexpensi v e
5.labourcompet iti
onwi thot hersect orse. g.manuf act uri
ngandgol d
mini ng
Pet rol eum i nt heMi ddl eEast
Oili
sat hickbl ackst ickyl iqui dcal l
edcr udeoi l
I twasf or medf rom smal l creat ur est hatlivedi nshallowlagoons
about100- 200m ago.
 Decay i
ngr emai nsoft hosecr eat ur esmi xedwi thmudatt hebottom
assedi ment s
 Thesedi ment spi ledoneachot herandsl owl yt r
ansf ormedint
o
sedi ment aryr ocks
 Gr adual lyther emai nswer econv er tedi ntooi landgas.
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Maj oroi lpr oducer si nt heMi ddl eEastar eSaudi Ar

abi awi t
ht helargest
reser v es, Iraq, Kuwai tandUni tedAr abEmi rates.
Mi ddl eEastaccount sfor64%ofwor ldoi lr eser v
es.
Ther ear esev eral giantoi l
f ieldsi nGhawari nSaudi ArabiaandKi r
kuki n
I
r aq.
Pr ocessi ng
Cr udeoi l i
spr ocessedbyr ef i
ni ngusi ngat echni quecal ledf racti
onal
dist il
lation.
Thepr ocesst akespl acenearaspossi blet ot hemar ketasi t’scheapert o
transpor tcr udeoi lthant hedi ffer entr efinedpr oducts.
I
t’spr ocessedi ntosecondar ypr oduct ssuchaspet rol,par aff i
n,l
ubr i
cating
oils, dy es, fertil
iser sandpl ast ics.
I mpur i
tiesar er emov edf rom t hecr udeoi l
 Cr udeoi li
sheat edbef or eent eri
ngf luctionatingcol umn
I t’st urnedi nt ov apourorgas
 Di fferenti ngr edientst ur nbackt ol i
qui datdi f
fer entt emper atures.
I ngr edi entsgr aduallycool ,condenseandcol lectinv ar i
oust raysand
al l
owedt oov erflowunt i
l theyr eachanout let
.
Cont ribut iont otheEconomi es
1.Ar ab’ si nv estment sov er seashav eincr easedduet ooil reser v
es.
2.Hi ghi ncomepercapi t
aduet ooi lprofits.
3.Hasl edt odev elopmentofci tiese. g.Tr i
pol iinLiby a.
4.I nvest mentofoi l moneyi not hersect or se. g.powerst at ions,cement
fact oriesandexpl oitati
onofot hermi ner als.
5.Ear nst hecount r
iessubst ant ial foreignexchange
6.I ncreasedpol i
tical andmi li
tar ypower .
7.Ar tesi anwat eri smadeav ailabl ef ordomest icandi r
rigat ionpur poses
e.g.i nLi by a.
8.Oi l compani eshel pi nfi
xi ngdownt hesanddunesandpl ant i
ngt reesin
thedeser ts.

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*LATESTHI
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Comput erform 1- -4
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