CHAPTER THREE

3. FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY AND MEASUREMENT

3.1. Understanding the Hunger, Food And Nutritional Insecurity
Hunger is not a disease or a single biological state, but an individual problem caused by
inadequate food intake. For purposes of food policy, which deals with the decisions made by
food consumers and producers, inadequate food intake is defined relative to the individual's
own perception of the food needed to maintain good health, provide for growth, and allow a
choice of physical activity levels, including work levels. Hunger among children too small to
make food intake decisions for themselves is obviously a more complicated question that
must be treated in a general household decision making framework. Hunger as discussed in
this case encompasses the entire range of conditions related to food deficits-from acute
starvation during famines, to elevated morbidity and debilitation, and to milder forms of
energy deficits.
Hunger is caused by restricted choices of basic food quantities available to individual
consumers. Solving hunger involves expanding the available choices, which are a function of
incomes, food prices, food supplies, and consumer knowledge. Although the hunger of any
particular individual can be solved fairly easily by providing more income or more food
directly, solving the problem of hunger for a whole society is much more complicated
because the direct approach is either too expensive or too disruptive to the rest of the
economy in which hungry people function.
The more general problem of hunger is enmeshed in the set of processes that produce (and
consume) agricultural commodities on farms, transform these commodities into food in the
marketing sector, and sell the food to consumers to satisfy nutritional as well as aesthetic and
social needs. These processes make up the food system. The actual functioning of this system
frequently leaves many poor people inadequately fed because of a network of connections that
determine their employment and income status, the prices they must pay for food and other
goods and services, and their ability to move in search of better opportunities. The same food
system, however, offers vehicles for the policy interventions that reach poor people with
sustainable improvements in their access to food. Thus the nutrition issue has increasingly been
used as a lever for mobilizing development efforts to deal with poverty and the basic needs of the
poor.
 3.1.1. Food and Nutrition Insecurity?

Food and nutrition insecurity is a term to describe when someone is unable to access or afford
enough food or enough nutritious food for their overall health and well-being. Food and nutrition
insecurity doesn’t always mean that someone goes without food; it can mean that they’re not
getting the healthiest kind of food. This can be because nutritious foods may be hard to find in
some communities or because they can be too expensive for many to afford. And this problem is
seen among many people who live with health conditions like diabetes.

3.1.2. Causes of Food and Nutrition Insecurity

The causes of food and nutrition insecurity are complicated. Most food and nutrition insecurity
problems are related to social determinants of health, such as:

 Low income or unemployment.

 Lack of access to nutritious foods.
 Lack of affordable housing.
 Lack of access to health care.

These causes make it hard to solve food and nutrition insecurity. The good news is that there are
many programs at the national, state, and local levels that can provide food assistance.

3.1.3. Food security and Nutrition

3.1.3.1. Definition and concepts of Nutrition
Food:-It is any product obtained from plants or animals that can be taken into the body to yield
energy and nutrients for the maintenance of life and the growth and repair of tissues. Includes all
foods and drinks acceptable to be ingested by a certain society.
Diet:-is defined as the sequence of meals in a day. It is concerned with the eating patterns of
individuals or a group. Eg: breakfast and dinner; breakfast, lunch, and dinner; and other may add
snack.
Balanced Diet: - is a diet that contains all the nutrients in the proportion that is optimal for long-
term health and survival.
Nutrients:-Chemical substances that are essential to life which must be supplied by food to yield
energy and nutrients for the maintenance of life and the growth and repair of tissues
Nutrition: - It is the scientific study of food and its nutrients; its functions, actions, interactions
and balance in relation to health and disease.
Malnutrition: - is unbalanced Diet
Under nutrition: - results from inadequate intake of macronutrients and micronutrients or
inability to fully utilize the food they eat due to illness.

Over nutrition: - results from excessive intake and deposit of nutrients (carbohydrate and fats)

Micronutrient deficiency: Deficiency in one or more minerals or vitamins

Type
Acute malnutrition
Chronic malnutrition
Acute and chronic
malnutrition
Appearance Cause
Wasting or thinness Acute inadequate nutrition
leading to rapid weight
loss or failure to gain
weight normally
Stunting or shortness Inhibited linear growth in
height and cognitive
development caused by
under nutrition over long
period of time leading to
failure of linear growth
Underweight A combination measure,
therefore, it could occur as
a result of wasting,
stunting, or both

3.2. Types of food insecurity

Food insecurity can be transitory (seasonal) or chronic. Transitory food insecurity is common
during the period just before harvest. It includes temporary food insecurity resulting from natural
disasters or other negative shocks. In contrast, chronic food insecurity is associated with
enduring conditions such as poverty or complex emergencies. In transitory food insecurity, food
may be unavailable during certain periods of time. At the food production level, natural disasters
and drought result in crop failure and decreased food availability. Civil conflicts can also
decrease access to food. Instability in markets resulting in food-price spikes can cause transitory
food insecurity. Other factors that can temporarily cause food insecurity are loss of employment
or productivity, which can be caused by illness. Seasonal food insecurity can result from the
regular pattern of growing seasons in food production.
Chronic (or permanent) food insecurity is defined as the long-term, persistent lack of adequate
food. In this case, households are constantly at risk of being unable to acquire food to meet the
needs of all members. Chronic and transitory food insecurity is linked, since the reoccurrence of
transitory food security can make households more vulnerable to chronic food insecurity.

3.2.1. Food Security Indicators

There Is No One Single Indicator to Measure Food Security but a Number of Proxy Indicators
-Focus On Food Security Outcomes (Food Consumption, Food Access, Nutrition, Etc.) In Order
To Assess the Food Security Status of Households
-Several Indicators Are Looked At Together As Food Security Is A Multidimensional Issue.
Food Security Indicators
 Food Consumption
 Food Access
 Nutrition
1. Food Consumption Indicator
Food Consumption Score (FCS)
Proxy Indicator for Current household Food Access Based On:-
 Dietary Diversity: Number of Individual Foods Consumed Over a Reference Period
 Food Frequency: Number of Days (In the Past Week) That a Specific Food Item Has
Been Consumed.
 Nutritional importance: food groups are weighted to reflect their nutritional importance

The higher the FCS, the higher the dietary diversity and the frequency of those foods
consumed. A high food consumption score increases the possibility that a household
achieves nutrient adequacy.
 2. Food Access Indicators

Coping Strategy Index (CSI)

The CSI is providing an insight into how households manage and cope in times of limited access
to food. The CSI is based on the frequency and severity of different types of coping strategies.
The higher the CSI score, the more likely it is that the household is affected by food insecurity.

3. Nutrition indicators

Nutrition indicators these are Acute malnutrition (wasting), Chronic malnutrition (stunting),
Underweight.

Acute Malnutrition: - Wasting (and oedema)

Result of deficiencies in any or all nutrients (includes micronutrients, as well as macronutrients)

Chronic Malnutrition:-Stunting

Result of long-term nutrient deficiencies and/or repeated infections with insufficient catch-up
growth

Underweight Wasting + stunting

An ideal daily intake of calories varies depending on age, metabolism and levels of physical
activity, among other things.

Generally, the recommended daily calorie intake is 2,000 calories a day for women and 2,500 for
men.

3.3. Aggregate and micro level food security indicators

3.3.1 Individual, household, and macro level

FNS outcomes are ultimately a product of decisions at the household level. At the household
level, research has revealed the effects of intra-household bias on food distribution (Haddad et al.
1996) and pro-male and pro-adult biases have been found to affect food intake (Senauer et al.
1988, Quisumbing and Maluccio 2003). Combined with the physiological requirements of the
different groups (women of reproductive age and children require more micronutrients per
calories consumed), such bias can lead to a higher prevalence of micronutrient deficiency among
women and children. Other work has suggested that parents tend to protect their children from
shortfalls in food intake, and that men are actually more affected by seasonal undernutrition than
women (Ferro-Luzzi et al. 2001).
In the macro context, the basic goals of developing countries are related to productivity growth
and to achieving a more equal distribution of consumption. The nutritional status as represented
by height and body mass index (BMI) is found to be a significant covariate of economic success
(Thomas and Frankenberg, 2002.
Food and nutrition security, as well as its drivers, risks and interventions, are manifest at
different Scales or levels. for instance food prices which can be affected by macro variables such
as inflation in food transport costs (due to high fuel prices or enhanced competition from the
increased trade in other products such as biofuels Specifically to the sub-levels of the micro
analysis, namely household and individual, whilst referring generically to the macro level of
FNS (food nutrition and security) and its indicators for any higher level of aggregation.
FNS by Levels

At the macro level, FNS generally refers to the

capacity of a country (region) to provide food and
Nutrition for its population. At this scale, FNS is a
combined interaction between demographic,
socioeconomic, biophysical, and political factors and the international environment.
Food provision can be achieved through self-sufficient production, imports, and food aid.
Naturally, these three elements are interdependent and their determinants are multiple. In terms
of global food trade, the interaction between energy and agricultural markets remains highly
relevant. Agricultural production in developing countries is significantly affected by the
emergence of biofuels in the US, Brazil, and the EU. Price changes due to the global biofuels
expansion will also change the world agricultural production and trade (Huang et al. 2012), as
food and biofuels compete for a constrained input base. Finally, food aid both for emergency
relief or addressing food deficits is one of the major components of food security strategies in
developing countries (del Ninno et al., 2007). Nevertheless, it is argued that food aid as
alternative strategy of food supply has some drawbacks and minimal impact on development.
Food aid is generally subject to high cost of procurement (including high storage, transport and
distribution costs) and poor targeting (Jayne et al., 2001; Francken et al., 2012). More
importantly, food aid might become a Source of food insecurity as it may create disincentives for
domestic production through the low Price competitiveness of domestic food commodities,
leading to unfavorable public and private investment (del Ninno et al., 2007).
For all the reasons, macro indicators of trade openness, price transmission mechanisms,
demographic change, political stability, climate variability are also pertinent as indicators of
macro-level FNS risks.
How is BMI calculated?
BMI is calculated the same way for both adults and children. The calculation is based on the
following formulas:-

BMI is calculated the same way for both adults and children. The calculation is based on the
following formulas:

Measurement
Units Formula and Calculation

Kilograms Formula: weight =(kg) / [height (m)]2

and meters
With the metric system, the formula for BMI is weight in kilograms divided by height
(or
in meters squared. Because height is commonly measured in centimeters, divide height
centimeters)
in centimeters by 100 to obtain height in meters.

Example: Weight = 68 kg, Height = 165 cm (1.65 m)

Calculation: 68 ÷ (1.65)2 = 24.98
 How is BMI interpreted for adults?
For adults 20 years old and older, BMI is interpreted using standard weight status categories.
These categories are the same for men and women of all body types and ages.

For example, here are the weight ranges, the corresponding BMI ranges, and the
weight status categories.

BMI Weight Status

Below 18.5 Underweight

18.5 to 24.9 Healthy Weight

25.0 to 29.9 Overweight

30 or higher Obesity

Methods of measuring food security

1. Calories

Calories are a measure of how much energy food or drink contains. The amount of energy you
need will depend on:

 your age – for example, growing children and teenagers may need more energy
 your lifestyle – for example, how active you are
 your size – your height and weight can affect how quickly you use energy
2. Coping strategy index

The Coping Strategies Index (CSI) measures behavior, in particular the things people do when
they cannot access enough food, which is converted into a single index. There are a number of
regular behavioral responses to food insecurity that people use to manage household food
shortage.
The Coping Strategy Index (CSI) is an indicator of a household's food security assessing the
extent to which households use harmful coping strategies when they do not have enough food or
enough money to buy food. The result is reported by a numeric score.

3. Hunger scale

The Household Hunger Scale (HHS) is an individual indicator; it is a household food deprivation
scale based on the idea that the experience of household food deprivation causes predictable
reactions that can be captured by a survey and summarized in a scale.

The Household Hunger Scale (HHS) is a simple indicator used to measure household hunger
within food-insecure areas. It has been developed and validated for cross-cultural use.

The Hunger Scale encourages you to pay careful attention to your body and what it is telling you.
Here are some ideas about how to use the scale to help you know when to start and stop eating.
Repeating these over time will help you become more tuned into and able to manage your hunger
so you feel more in control of your eating habits.

Hunger is a completely natural sensation and not something to be feared. The Hunger Scale
we’ve created for you to use is a way to describe your level of hunger and help you to recognize
when the best times to start and stop eating occur during your day.

4. Consumption preference score.

Consumer preferences are defined as the subjective (individual) tastes, as measured by utility, of
various bundles of goods. They permit the consumer to rank these bundles of goods according to
the levels of utility they give the consumer.

5. Deitary Diversity Index

The Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) indicator assesses a household's economic
access to food (i.e. its ability to produce, purchase or otherwise secure food for consumption by
all household members). It does not provide data on the nutritional quality of a person's diet.

6. Cost of Basic Needs approach

The way in which statistical offices set absolute poverty lines varies considerably. Most begin
with a .cost of basic needs approach. The basic approach begins with a nutritional threshold
chosen to reflect minimal needs for a healthy life, and adjustments are then made for non-food
expenses (e.g., housing and clothing). To set a poverty line, statisticians typically identify a
basket of foods that will deliver the minimal nutritional requirements. Assumptions about the
underlying nutritional requirements vary considerably around the world, though. Of 29 statistical
offices giving relevant information on the .expanded. UNSD survey of poverty measurement
practices, two-thirds adopted international standards in setting the food threshold, almost all
adopting nutritional standards set by the World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture
Organization (WHO/FAO).
The others set standards based on inputs from national experts. Even when using the WHO/FAO
standards, however, there is considerable variation.
In Kenya, the standard is 2,250 calories for adult men, with lower thresholds for others. In Sierra
Leone and the Gambia, the minimum for adult men is 2,700 calories Differences arise in part
because the WHO/FAO standards are specified by age, gender, weight, and activity level. But
only age and gender are collected in typical household surveys. There is then considerable scope
for variation in choices since different assumptions about the activity levels and average weights
of the population will lead to different calorie standards. An individual’s weight is important to
calorie requirements since it determines their basal metabolic rate (BMR).

This is the amount of energy consumed merely to get through the day, before extra calories are
spent for specific activities. Experts estimate that the basal metabolic rate accounts for 45 to 70
percent of total energy expenditures for a person of a given age and gender.

7. Food Consumption Patterns

Assembling food consumption data could provide a scholar a lifetime's work, but most food
policy analysts will think in terms of days or weeks. Shortcuts are inevitably necessary, and
fortunately most countries have a surprising wealth of information about food consumption
patterns scattered among various ministries. Food is not the province of any single sector or
government agency. It is important to statistical bureaus which calculate cost of living indices, to
commerce bureaus which monitor and regulate trade, to agricultural departments which project
food requirements to justify agricultural investments and intensification programs, and to health
departments which frequently establish a relationship between the size and character of their
patient load and the diets of those patients. Nurses in clinics dealing with sick children often
know a great deal about what those children eat.

3.4. The Food Balance Sheet

The food balance sheet is the primary device for showing average food consumption levels. It
can also be used to determine the representative ness of sample surveys. If the per capita intakes
measured by sample surveys (when "blown up" to national levels by multiplying by total
population) do not correspond to food balance sheet data, then something is amiss. In the past,
food balance sheets tended to understate the average level of food consumption because of biases
against full measurement of food production for household use and the tendency to tax farmers
on the basis of output. But with recent heavy pressures on government agencies to increase
domestic food production, it is no longer clear that all the biases in reported food production
statistics are downward. Some upward biases, especially for basic food grains which supply the
bulk of calories in most developing countries, might also be present as local officials try to show
positive results from government agricultural development efforts.
The information in food balance sheets identifies the general priorities for consumption analysis
and overall food policy attention. Disaggregation by income class sharpens these priorities and
brings the hunger problem into clearer focus, primarily because the poor are so much more
sensitive to changes in incomes and prices than are the better-off groups in the society.
Constructing the equivalent of food balance sheets by income class is the next step. Household
budget surveys are the main source of information. In recent years they have used improved
methodologies and field techniques to measure expenditures more accurately.
3.5. Measurement approaches of poverty
Poverty measures is huge and technical in nature, it deals with the choice of the functional form
of a suitable poverty index and also Poverty measures aggregate information.

An absolute poverty:- line is one which is fixed in terms of living standards (or welfare).
Relative poverty lines: - is one which is vary in terms of average living standards.

Assume that information is available on a welfare measure such as income per capita, and a
poverty line, for each household or individual.

In practice, three measures of poverty indices:-

1). the headcount ratio

2). the poverty gap index

3). the poverty gap squared index

The headcount index (P0) measures the proportion of the population that is poor. It is popular
because it is easy to understand and measure. But it does not indicate how poor the poor are.

q
PO= , where, N= total population q = peoples below the poverty line
N

E.g .1. assume the headcount index of poverty line is 30, compute the headcount index or ratio?

person 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Income 8 10 14 20 25 27 35 45 60 100
(monthly
)

E.g .2. Assume the headcount index of poverty line of both country is 125, compute the
headcount index?

Income of 100 100 150 150

Country A
Income of 124 124 150 150
Country B
The poverty gap index (P1) measures the extent to which individuals fall below the poverty line
(the poverty gaps) as a proportion of the poverty line. The sum of these poverty gaps gives the
minimum cost of eliminating poverty, if transfers were perfectly targeted. The measure does not
reflect changes in inequality among the poor.

This can be computed as:

Whre, N=total p[opulation, Z= povertiy line ,xi= income.

e.g.Asuume four individuale with 250 povertiy line ,show the poverity gap index?

Person 1 2 3 4

Income 200 220 300 320

The squared poverty gap (“poverty severity”) index (P2):- averages the squares of the poverty
gaps relative to the poverty line. The squared poverty gap index attributes more weight to the
poorest among the poor:-

q
1 (z−xi) 2
SPGI =
N ∑ z
xi< z

Where, N=total population, Z= povertiy line ,xi= income.q=peopls below the poverty line.

e.g. asuume monthely per capita comsumption of 10 households in region is given ,assume the
poverty line is 200
income 280 3000 1200 3500 1400 2500 4000 1000 900 1300
0
household 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Based on the information shoe the squared poverty gap index?