Ground Rupture

John Bert Mazo

Iverson Calvin Arnaiz
Jovenelle Aine Cabaluna
Cyril Capahi
Richel Mae Cesneros
Cristy Singson
Carlo Capillo
Jade Rick Nudalo
Lucille Mae Hitgano
What is Ground Rupture?
 Ground ruptures are earthquake faults that have reached the surface. No opening or
fissuring happens during movement of the fault, so it should remain closed. These are
distinct from the liquefaction cracks and fissures. Ground rupture is a deformation on the
ground that marks the intersection of the earth’s surface.

How, when, and where ruptures form?

 When an earthquake is strong enough, faulting initiated at depths may breach the earth’s
surface to form a ground rupture. Faulting tends to occur along zones of weakness such
as old or pre-existing faults, fracture, or along bedding planes. Stresses acting on broken
rock masses need only to overcome fictional resistance along these old planes of
weakness. It takes a lot more amount of stress to form new faults within stronger parts of
the lithosphere.

Characteristics of Ground Ruptures

 Length
- The ground rupture length depends on the magnitude of the earthquake.
Earthquakes with magnitude 6.5 or greater are generally strong enough to produce
large scale ground ruptures.
 Width
- The width of deformation along the length of the ground rupture also largely
depend on the type of faulting. It may form more complex fault pattern.

Distinguish ground ruptures from other deformation features on the earth’s surface
 Aside from ground rupture, faulting causes movement of the ground in many ways
depending on the type of faulting involved. It may cause lateral shifting uplift,
subsidence, extension or compression. In addition to variation in size and orientation,
different faults can accommodate different styles of rock deformation, such as
compression and extension. Not all faults intersect Earth’s surface, and most earthquakes
do no rupture the surface. When a fault does intersect the surface, objects may be offset
or the ground may crack or raised, or lowered.

- Uplift – in geology, vertical evolution of the earth’s surface in response to natural

causes. Broad, relatively slow and gentle uplift is termed warping in contrast to
the more concentrated and severe orogeny, the uplift associated with earthquakes
and mountain building.
 - Subsidence - is the motion of a surface as it shifts downward relative to a datum
such as sea level. The opposite of subsidence is uplift, which results in an increase
in elevation.
- Extension – refers to the pulling apart of the earth’s crust and lithosphere.
- Compression – refers to a set of stress directed toward the center of a rock mass,
or the squishing of rocks in the lithosphere.

Effects of ground ruptures on man-made and natural structures

 Manmade
- Rupturing the Pipelines, tunnels, aqueducts, railways, and roads.
 Natural
- Fissuring, displacement of the ground due to the movement of the fault.

Ways to minimize or avoid the damage of ground rupture may cause

 Constructing Seismic Hazard Map. In many regions, seismic expectancy maps or hazard
are now available for planning purposes. The anticipated intensity of ground shaking is
represented by a number called the peak acceleration. To avoid weaknesses found in
earlier earthquake hazard maps, the following general principles are usually adopted
today:
- The map should take into account not only the size but also the frequency of the
earthquake.
- The broad regionalization pattern should use historical seismicity as a database,
including the following factors: major tectonic trends, acceleration attenuation
curves, and intensity reports.
- Regionalization should be defined by means of contour lines with design
parameters referred to ordered numbers on neighboring contour lines.
- The map should be simple ad not attempt to micro zone the region.
- The mapped contoured surface should not contain discontinuities, so that the level
of hazard progresses gradually and in order across any profile drawn on the map.
 The key is avoidance of active fault traces and high risk zones when planning any
construction.
 Ground Rupture

John Bert Mazo

Iverson Calvin Arnaiz
Jovenelle Aine Cabaluna
Cyril Capahi
Richel Mae Cesneros
Cristy Singson
Carlo Capillo
Jade Rick Nudalo
Lucille Mae Hitgano
What is Lava Flow?
 A lava flow or simply lava is a product of the quiet effusion of molten rock or magma
from beneath a volcano. Lava flows are streams of molten rock that pour or ooze from an
erupting vent or volcano.

How lava flows are generated by volcanoes?

 Lava flow forms when magma erupts from a volcano. As pressure is released gases,
dissolved in the magma, bubble out so the composition of lava changes. Some molten
materials come out to the surface almost unnoticed while others come out with a bang.
Gas content of the magma has something to do with this. As magma rises to the surface
where the pressure is less, gasses dissolved in the magma expand.

Differentiate Lava Flow types based on Composition and Form

Types of Lava Flow
Basaltic Lava
- Basaltic lava is the fastest flowing lava because of its relatively low viscosity. It
usually associated with the broad landforms of shield volcanoes such as those in
Hawaii. Lava flow styles are Pahoehoe and A’a. Pahoehoe is composed of thin
and flows with smooth surface that sometimes feature ropy folds. A’a flows have
sharp spiny surfaces. This is the result when the lava hardens more quickly than it
flows. Both Pahoehoe and A’a flow types are associated with lava fountains.
Andesitic Lava
- Andesitic lava are typically associated with stato volcanoes and commonly form
lava domes. The volumes of Andesitic lavas is small, so they do not usually go
beyond the foot of the volcano. Because of their viscous nature, the surface of
Andesitic flows is comprised of smooth sided fragments. These flows are called
block lava flows as the surface fragments are loosely termed blocks. Traveling
only at a speed of no more than 5 m per day, andesitic flow are slow by lava flow
standard.
Rhyolitic Lava
- Rhyolitic lava flows have relatively higher viscosity that is why these are a lot
slower than andesitic lava flow and basaltic flows. Rhyolites are usually
associated with violent eruptions involving pyroclastic flow and with very steep
landforms such as lava domes and lava spines. Rhyolitics lava flow out of a
volcano after the pyroclastic flow event.
 Other types of lava include Sheet Lava and Pillow Lava
- Sheet flows are thicker than pahoehoe and have a surface texture ranging from
ropy to striated. These are associated with violent eruptions. Sheet flows usually
collapse as a result of the emptying of lava below the hardened surface.
- Pillow lavas are pillow-shaped rocks formed by the sudden cooling of lava that is
deposited underwater. Undersea volcanoes including mid-oceanic ridges are the
usual sources of lavas that form pillows. Volcanoes on land may also directly
deposit into water its lava to be quenched and form pillow lavas.

Effects of Lava Flow

 Deaths attributed to lava flows are often due to related causes, such as explosive shower
of molten splatter over a wide area when lava interacts with water, explosion of methane
gas produced by lava burial vegetation, asphyxiation due to accompanying toxic gases,
pyroclastic flows from a collapsing dome of thick viscous lava flows, and floods and
lahars from ice and snow meltwater or from the damming of tributaries. Lava flows bring
damage or total destruction to land and property by burying, crushing or burning
everything in their paths. Lava flows cannot only bury homes and cars but also vegetation.

Ways to be safe from Lava Flow

 There are different methods to avoids the ravaging effects of lava flow. One of these is the
diversion of lava flow in Italy in 1983 by using explosives and barriers. In places like
Hawaii, people had been tinkering with the use of engineered barriers and diversion
channels. Spraying and advancing lava flow with water may stop it by increasing the
viscosity, causing the flow to thicken. The best way to avoid the effects of lava flows is to
stay away from lava flow danger zones.
 Ground Rupture

John Bert Mazo

Iverson Calvin Arnaiz
Jovenelle Aine Cabaluna
Cyril Capahi
Richel Mae Cesneros
Cristy Singson
Carlo Capillo
Jade Rick Nudalo
Lucille Mae Hitgano
What is Volcanic Gases?
 Volcanic gases are gases given off by an active volcano. These include gases trapped in
cavities in volcanic rocks, dissolved or dissociated gases in magma and lava, or gases
emanating from lava, from volcanic craters or vents.

Formation & Escape to the surface of Volcanic Gases

 Gas is what really makes volcanic eruptions work. How violent an eruption would become
depends on a number of factors. Magma is composed not only of melted minerals. It also
has volatile fraction – substances that may become gaseous or give off gases when heated.
As magma rises toward the surface, these come out of solution in much the same way as
bubbles of carbon dioxide gas come out of carbonated drinks. The rapid expansion of the
gas as magma rises toward the surface can lead to explosive eruption. Volcanic gases
expand enormously when magma rises to the earth’s surface and erupts. One cubic meter
of magma under great pressure at depth can expand 670 times as a mixture of water vapor
and magma at atmospheric pressure. This tremendous expansion of volcanic gases, mainly
water, drives explosive eruptions. Gas bubbles that survives eruptions form as vesicles in
solidified lava. Example of these bubble specked volcanic rocks are scoria and pumice.
 During Eruption, gases are forced out through the vent along with ash and aerosol
droplets. The gases spread from an erupting vent primarily as acid rain, sulfuric acid
aerosols, compounds attached to tephra particles, and microscopic salt particles. Not only
during eruptions are gases released from magma. Gases are also released from magma that
remains below ground as intrusion or from magma lurking just beneath an active volcano
during period of quiescence.

Differentiate the different kinds of hazardous volcanic gases

 Carbon Dioxide – carbon dioxide is abundant in the atmosphere and is a natural product
of respiration. Volcanic CO2 emissions over the entire globe amount to less than 1
percent of human emission. Locally, CO2 can be hazardous when the concentration is
high.
 Carbon Monoxide – an odorless, colorless gas formed by incomplete combustion of
fuels.
 Sulfur Dioxide – is a colorless gas with a strong odor. It is the gas that smells from
lighting a kitchen match.
 Hydrogen Sulfide – is a colorless, flammable gas which smells like rotten egg. Like
SO2, it causes irritation f the eyes at low concentration.
 Sulfuric Acid – it is a colorless, odorless and viscous liquid that is miscible with water.
 Ammonia – A colorless highly irritating gas with a sharp suffocating odor.
  Fluorine – is a pale yellow gas that occurs in volcanic gas a hydrogen fluoride. Fluorine
attaches to fine ash particles which coat grass that can be ingested by animals.
 Hydro-fluoric Acid – it is a colorless, acidic and highly corrosive gas.
 Hydro-chloric Acid – hydro-chloric acid irritates the mucous membranes of the eyes and
respiratory tract. At concentration of over 35 ppm, HCI causes irritation of the throat. At
>100 ppm, HCI causes pulmonary ederna and laryngeal spasm.

Effects of Volcanic Gases

 Volcanic gases can cause unconsciousness and death. Other volcanic gases like Sulphur
can irritate your skin, eyes, nose and throat. Large eruptions can produce such enormous
amount of gas that the world’s climate can be affected for years, as the gas acts to block
out some of the sun’s energy. It can also cause long term damage to agriculture and
people’s health.

Various Volcanic gases mitigation measures

