Risk Assessment Through Ieubk Model in an

Inhabited Area Contaminated with Lead

M.R. Delgado-Caballero,a M.C. Valles-Arag on ,b R. Millan,c and M.T. Alarc on-Herreraa
a
Advanced Materials Research Center (CIMAV), Miguel de Cervantes 120, Industrial Chihuahua, Chih, Chihuahua 31109, Mexico;
teresa.alarcon@cimav.edu.mx (for correspondence)
b
Autonomous University of Chihuahua, Faculty of Agrotechnological Science, Pascual Orozco and Universidad, Campus I, Chih,
Chihuahua 31200, Mexico
c
Research Center of Energy, Environment and Technology (CIEMAT), Avenida Complutense 40, Madrid 28040, Spain
Published online 00 Month 2017 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI 10.1002/ep.12692

Over centuries the mining industry has been accumulat-
ing a great quantity of wastes. The main potentially toxic ele-
ments present in the mining wastes are metals and
metalloids. Due to its effects on human health, lead is one of
the metals in wastes of more concern. Children are the most
vulnerable to inorganic-Pb exposure, due to their behavior
and physiology. Therefore, the objective of this research was
to determinate lead concentration and dispersion in an
inhabited area, also to estimate the risk for children popula-
tion in the site through the model IEUBK (Integrated Expo-
sure Uptake Biokinetic model). The inorganic lead in dust
present in the inhabited area was analytically determined.
The risk assessment of lead exposure for children, predicted
that is a probability from 31.68 to 90.61% of have lead in
blood above of 10 lg dL21. Remediation actions are recom-
mended in order to mitigate the population exposure. A risk
assessment is an important research tool to evaluate the level
of population exposure to contaminant sources that can be
dangerous for its health and quality of life. This research is
significant due to the fact that tailing damps are multiconta-
minated wastes; moreover Pb is a pollutant that can generate
harsh effects in people, especially in children. The lack of
urban planning and awareness encouraged that settlements
with new families were developed next to tailing damps with-
out concern about the inhabitant’s exposure to Pb and other
metals. This manuscript proposes the use of models like the
IEUBK, as a tool for risk assessment and studies related with
urban planning in mining sites. V C 2017 American Institute
of Chemical Engineers Environ Prog, 00: 000–000, 2017
Keywords: lead, risk assessment, mining sites, IEUBK
INTRODUCTION
The mining industry has generated the accumulation of a
great quantity of solid waste for centuries (mining slag and
tailings). Such wastes proceed from the beneficiation pro-
cess; its composition varies according to the conditions of
each process, causing polluted sites. The main potentially
toxic elements (PTE) that are present in mining wastes are:
Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Zinc (Zn), Arsenic (As), Selenium
(Se), Mercury (Hg) [1,2]; being Pb and Cd the pollutants that
are frequently found in mining zones of Mexico [3].
C 2017 American Institute of Chemical Engineers
V IEUBK.
The chemical forms of metals present in the environment
have a major influence on the effects in human beings. The
toxicokinetics and the toxicodynamics of the PTE depend on
the metal, the compounds with other elements, and the
organism’s capacity to regulate and store the metal [4].
Due to the effects on human beings caused by the con-
stant exposure to high levels of Pb, the International Agency
for Research on Cancer has classified inorganic Pb and its
compounds as probably carcinogenic (group 2A) [5]. Chil-
dren are most vulnerable to the exposure to Pb, due to their
behavior and physiology [6].
In order to know the risk caused by the pollutants pre-
sent in a site, an evaluation of environmental risk must be
done. Mexican regulation NOM-147-SEMARNAT/SSA1 estab-
lishes the criteria to determine the maximum permissible lev-
els of the PTE in soil [7].
Furthermore, the United States Environmental Protection
Agency developed the Integrated Exposure Uptake Bioki-
netic Model (IEUBK) to evaluate the risk of Pb exposure [8].
IEUBK is a predictive model, which is useful to apply in pla-
ces with environmental studies of Pb, and blood studies are
less feasible to develop. The IEUBK use values and equa-
tions that represent Pb exposition, absorption and biokinetics
in children’s population. Rates of children’s intake of dust,
water, air and food, are considered, based on environmental
information of the site (Pb concentration in soil, dust, water,
air, and diet) [9].
The present study refers specifically to a small town (San
Guillermo), located at the north of Mexico. As a result of
more than fifty years of operation of a beneficiation plant,
that used froth flotation process to concentrates separation.
The concentrates were gold (Au), silver (Ag), lead (Pb), cop-
per (Cu), zinc (Zn), and the impurities in the mineral were
arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), tin (Sn), and vanadium (V)
[10,11]. The minerals that were extracted and processed from
the plant were specially: argentiferous, argentiferous lead,
and argentiferous lead-copper, these had gold ore and sul-
phurous forms [galena (PbS), sphalerite (ZnS), greenockite
(CdS), carbonates and oxides] [11].
The objective of this research was to know the Pb con-
centration and dispersion in a habited area, and to esti-
mate the risk for children population in the site through

Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.00, No.00) DOI 10.1002/ep Month 2017 1
Figure 1. Geographical location of inactive beneficiation plants in the state of Chihuahua. [Color figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Figure 2. Aerial view of residential area adjacent to mining
waste. [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.
com]
METHODOLOGY
Location and Features of the Site
The area of analysis was located in San Guillermo,
Aquiles Serdan, in Chihuahua State, at an elevation of 1,512
masl (Figure 1).
The mining waste deposits (tailing dams) were located at
400 m away from a residential area. These are deposits of a
thin material of an approximate total volume of 7,500,000 m3
(Figure 2). According to K€oppen0 s classification, the weather
2 Month 2017 Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.00, No.00) DOI 10.1002/ep
in the research area is cold and semidesert (BSk), with a
maximum average temperature of 1048F and a minimum
temperature of 6.88F, medium precipitation of 350 mm per
year, and an average of 60 days of rainfall.
Sampling
The sampling was in the inhabited area adjacent to the
tailing dams, it was systematic in a radial grid (spiral) with
100 m circles of arrangement and angles of 158 according to
Mexican regulation NMX-AA-132-SCFI-2006 (Figure 3) [12].
The samples location was done through a GPS, Thales model
2004. 52 samples of surface dust from sidewalks, recreation
areas, corners, and street edges were collected according to
the procedures of the Environmental Protection Agency of
the United States AP-42 appendix C.1 y C.2 [13].
Mineral Composition
In order to identify the mineral composition of the
wastes, the following analyses where done in an integrated
sample of 75 mm of particle size: X-ray diffraction (XRD) by
SIEMENS equipment modelD5000, Energy dispersive spec-
troscopy (EDS) with scanning electron microscope JEOL
JSM-5800 LV tungsten filament and EDX2AF software, and
quantitative analysis by optical plasma spectrometry (ICP-
OES) Thermo Jarrell Ash IRIS/APDIV equipment.
Dust Characterization
An analytical evaluation of pH, CE (electric conductivity),
CEC (cation exchange capacity), and OM (organic matter)
was don from dust samples made with a particle size of
75 mm [13]. pH and CE measurements were done accord-
ing to Mexican regulation [14]. The CEC was determined
Figure 3. Residential area and sampling points. [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

Table 1. Parameters used in USA and Latin America. Statistical Analysis

Parameters
Time (h) passing outside a
child 3–7 years
Diet (mg Pb/day)
Daily water intake (L/day)
child 6–7 years
Daily intake of soil
(mg/day) unpaved street
Daily intake of soil
(mg/day) paved street
Factor weight soil/dust (%)
Air concentration
(mg Pb/m3)
Concentration in water Site
(average) (mg Pb/L)
Pb concentration in the site
(mg kg21)
In order to estimate the risk in the residential area and
USEPA, Latin adjacent site, first a normativity analysis was done, through
1994 America the Anderson-Darling test, with concentration data of dust.
4 6 The statistical analysis was done with software Minitab 16.
Median values, minimum (25%) and maximum (75%) quar-
7 9.3 tiles of the data were determinate.
0.59 max. 1
Risk Analysis IEUBK Model
350 Data of the pollution source in the site were considered.
The concentrations of total Pb in dust of the residential area,
85–135 200 were pondered into model. The parameters considered for
the risk analysis as Pb intake and inhalation, were supported
45 66 by Diaz Barriga et al., for places located near mining sites in
0.15 [6] 1.92 Latin America [9] and by the Environmental Protection
Agency for places in United States [8]. In Table 1, are shown
– 2.3 the parameters applied into the IEUBK model.
Three scenarios were set up in order to the Pb concentra-
Actual values tion in dust. Scenario A was for minimum value, scenario B
for median value and scenario C for maximum value.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

according to 9081-EPA method [15]. Total determination of Mineral Composition

C and inorganic C was done in a LECO CS-244 analyzer
with infrared detection in concordance to method 415.1
[16]. The OM was calculated from organic C using the fac-
tor 1.724 of Van Bemmelen [17]. Total organic carbon
(TOC) was obtained by means of the difference between
inorganic and total C.
Total Metal Quantification
Total metal determination of Pb, Fe, As, and Cd was done
for dust, according to the general procedure of Mexican reg-
ulation [7]. Samples were digested according to EPA method
3051 [18]. An uncontaminated soil-sample was considered for
the analysis, triplicate samples were taken and analyzed by
atomic absorption (AAS) with hydride generator GBC brand
AVANTA SIGMA.
In order to obtain the isoconcentration and dispersion of
Pb in the researched area, data of total concentration of Pb
were evaluated using the software ArcGIS 10.1.
The mineral composition of the integrated sample, deter-
mined by DRX is present in Figure 4, the waste was consti-
tuted by sulfur (S6), quartz (SiO2), sphalerite (ZnS), selenite
(CaSO4-2H2O), hematite (Fe2O3), jarosite (K(Fe3(SO4)2
(OH)6)), and goethite (Fe31O(OH)).
The main element composition obtained by EDS from the
mining waste sample was (Figure 5): Fe (53.42%), S
(19.81%), O (16.17%), Ca (6.57%), Si (3.33%), and Al (0.70%).
The elements in the mining waste sample set up through
a quantitative chemical analysis with ICP-OES are present in
Table 2.
Quantitative and EDS analyses (Figure 5; Table 2) con-
firmed the Pb presence in the mining waste. This pollutant
can be dispersing by the wind, water overflow, solubilizing
and its mobilization capacity [1]. The mineralogy by DRX
demonstrated the presence of sulfur (S6), sphalerite (ZnS),
hematite (Fe2O3), jarosite (K (Fe3 (SO4)2(OH) 6)), and goe-
thite (Fe31O (OH)). This indicates that the present Pb may

Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.00, No.00) DOI 10.1002/ep Month 2017 3
Figure 4. Mineralogical composition of mining waste. [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

Table 2. Analysis of the mining waste by ICP-OES.

Element mg kg21
As 1183 6 195.2
Ba 48.9 6 8.9
Ca 28232.1 6 1322
Cd 44.5 6 2.4
Cr 3.8 6 0.7
Cu 63.1 6 2.9
Fe 115127.6 6 6173.2
K 2029.7 6 5.79
Mg 837 6 58
Mn 894.3 6 36.8
Na 242.8 6 15.5
P 192.1 6 35.8
Pb 3449.1 6 165
S 26662 6 3488
Si 16.5 6 2
Figure 5. EDS analysis and image mining waste sample dif- Sr 28 6 1.4
fraction. [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary. Ti 63 6 7.4
com] V 15.1 6 1.7
Zn 1984.9 6 53.2
Zr 12.2 6 0.5
be reacting with them to form leachable or stable complexes,
according to the physicochemical characterization of the dust
samples as sulfates (Pb(SO4)2), oxyhydroxides (Pb2O3),
correlation between pH and fractions silt/clay, indicating the
(Pb(OH)2) y carbonates (PbCO3) This pollutant can be dis-
ability to hold and exchange with metal minerals (Fe, S) and
persing by the wind, water overflow, solubilizing, and its
thus the possible formation of compounds such as sulfates,
mobilization capacity [19,20].
carbonates and oxyhydroxides shaped-scabs or efflorescence
[19].
Dust Characterization According to the CE values in dust, it was classified as
The physicochemical parameters of the unpolluted sam- nonsaline [14]. The CEC (5.3 C mol(1)kg21 – 19.8 Cmol (1)
ple and dust of the inhabited area are present in Table 3. kg21) and the contents of OMw/w (0.3–1.7%) in the dust are
The dust classification, according to its pH was from moder- considered low, less than the reference unpolluted soils
ately alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH  7.7). If the pH is (32.3 Cmol(1)kg21 and 4.7%). This indicates that the soil
alkaline, Pb is adsorbed by the soil colloids, which explains has been deteriorating throughout time, caused possibly by
the high contents of Pb in dust (Table 3) [21]. There is a the dispersion of the mining wastes. Also, it indicates that

4 Month 2017 Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.00, No.00) DOI 10.1002/ep
the predominant clays are kaolinite (almost zero CEC) and
mica (low CEC) as well as low fertility [14].
The analyses specify that the kind of dust according to
the unified system of soil classification is silty clay loam [22].
Therefore, it tends to have a low water retention and high
permeability; they are very easily eroded due to climatic
phenomena (wind and water). Due to its composition, the
dust tends to adsorb and transport heavy metals that were
kept in the clay surface [23,24].
Dispersion of Total Pb
In Figure 6, the dispersion of total Pb in the study area is
presented. Pb concentrations on dust samples corresponding
to the residential area were compared with the reference
concentration (Rc) for residential soil (400 mg kg21) denoted
in the Ref. 7, this because in Mexico there is not a Rc for Pb
in dust. 78.8% of the samples exceed the Rc. Pb concentra-
tion on samples was between 88.4 6 2.6 and 7,242 6 100.4 mg
kg21 (18 times above Rc) this registered at 400 m away from
the wastes in the 25 point (Figure 6). At 800 m of mining
wastes, the concentrations decrease to 2397 mg kg21 (6
times above Rc).
Total Pb concentrations in dust collected from sidewalks,
corners and boundaries of paved streets in the residential
area adjacent to the mining wastes, confirm the existence of
the dispersion and mobility of Pb present in the mining resi-
dues, transported mainly by the wind. The direction of the
dominants winds comes from the South and the East (from
tailing dams to the residential area) [25].
Polluted material is transported from the air by the rain,
and falls to the soil or superficial water. Furthermore, by
the surface runoff in the tailing dams that have a down-
ward inclination of 17.5% towards the residential area.

Table 3. Physicochemical parameters of the samples. Table 4. Pb concentrations obtained in dust.

Physicochemical Unpolluted Dust (mg kg21)

parameters soil inhabited area Statistical range (95% confidence)
pH 1:2 6.1 7.7–10.8 Minimum Maximum
CE1:5 (dS/m) 42.7 0.27–1.06 Area N (Q1) Median (Q2)
CIC (Cmol(1)kg21) 32.3 5.3–19.8 Inhabited 52 375 709 1363
MO (%w/w) 4.7 1.0–1.7 (Dust)

Figure 6. Dispersion of total Pb in the study area. [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

Table 5. Pb concentrations in blood and the probability percentage >10 mg dL21.

Parameters
Latin American United States
Pb in Probability Pb in Probability
Pb in dust blood % blood %
(mg kg21) (mg dL21) 10 mg dL21 (mg dL21) 10 mg dL21
Scenario 375 8.00 31.68 4.18 3.19
A
Scenario 709 12.15 66.08 6.83 20.82
B
Scenario 1363 18.57 90.61 11.18 59.42
C

Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.00, No.00) DOI 10.1002/ep Month 2017 5
Released Pb in the environment is kept in the soil, it is
commonly found as oxides, hydroxides, and complex oxya-
nionic metals [1].
Pb is one of the main pollution problems in Latin America
[26], such type of pollution affects marginalized areas. Some
of the factors, such as sparse vegetation cover in child recre-
ation areas, allow that the route floor/dust be one of the
main exposure source [27].
The Pb dispersion proved that the effect of the wind and
hydraulic events contribute to diffuse the metal through the
inhabited area, being higher concentration at the middle of
the place, and decreasing towards either side.
Risk Analysis IEBUK Model
Concentrations of Pb in dust obtained in the statistical
analysis are present in Table 4. There were considered three
scenarios with such values (A 5 minimum, B 5 median,
C 5 maximum) to evaluate risk analysis in the research area.
This model estimated the Pb level in childrens blood from
ages of 0 to 7 years old. Levels higher than 10 mg dL21, can
cause health problems in people NOM-199-SSA1–2000 [28].
The results of estimated Pb-concentrations in blood (mg
Pb dL21) are presented in Table 5, also the probability per-
centage of concentrations higher than 10 mg dL21. This about
two runs (parameters of Latin America and United States) in
the three scenarios.
In the Scenario A with the minimum concentration of Pb
in dust (375 mg kg21), the risk probability of having Pb in
blood stream above 10 mg dL21 was 31.68% considering
parameters for Latin America (LA), with paved streets. In the
same scenario A, but considering the living conditions in
United States (USA), the risk probability was 3.19%. With a
median concentration of Pb in dust (709 mg kg21) in sce-
nario B, the probability increased up to 66.08% for LA and
20.82% for USA. Under maximum critical conditions of Pb
concentration in dust (1,396 mg kg21), the probability of
having Pb concentration in blood above 10 mg dL21 was
90.61% in LA and 59.42% in USA (Table 5).
The probability of Pb in blood above 10 mg dL21 is higher
for LA places than in USA in the three scenarios, also this
probability increases with the rise of Pb in dust. However, in
scenario C the probability for both cases (LA and USA) is
considerably high.

Pb in Dust and Blood Association

Figure 7. Curve of the relationship between soil Pb concen-
trations and blood Pb concentrations. [Color figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Pb concentrations in dust <100 mg kg21 predicted that Pb
concentration in children’s blood will be by the order of 3.86
mg dL21 according to the parameters from LA, and 1.74 mg
dL21 according to parameters for USA. Responses obtained
with the model in every scenario with both parameters indicate
a curvilinear relationship between Pb levels in children’s blood
and Pb concentration in dust (Figure 7). This data matches
with Mielke et al. and Mielke et al. in Luisiana, New Orleans,
Syracuse, and New York, from the United States. Also matches
with Valles-Aragon et al. in a research made in an ex-foundry
close to the place of this research. They obtained the same
behavior considering IEBUK parameters [29–31]. Furthermore,
Romieu et al. determined that IEUBK for Pb-contaminated sites
in LA have a high potential to predict Pb in children’s blood if
the real data of the site are used [26].

Table 6. Toxicity and Health effects in children from exposure to Pb in soil and dust.

Pb concentration
Pb concentration in dust in blood Health effects in children References
The first few mg of Pb Multiple studies have shown [34–36]
the strongest effects on the
intelligence quotient (IQ)
8 a 500 mg kg21 1 a 10 mg/dL The IQ decreased 7.4 point [35]
<172 mg kg21 <5 mg/dL The IQ decreased 4.9 point. [37]
172–500 mg kg21 5–9.9 mg/dL IQ (91.3 vs. 86.4)
172–500 mg kg21 5–10 mg/dL The IQ decreased 5.0 points [38]
compared with children with
levels of 1.2 mg/dL
500 mg kg21 <10 mg/dL (ADDH) Attention Deficit Dis- [6,33,39–44]
order and Hyperactivity
–Half a reduction in testing:
Reading 5 0.51
Writing 5 0.49
Mathematics
–Kidney damage
–Dental caries
–Delay at puberty;
Men
Women

6 Month 2017 Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.00, No.00) DOI 10.1002/ep
Health Effects of Pb
Toxicity caused by Pb and its effects on children’s health,
displays that they are more vulnerable. Children generally
eat polluted dirt and dust because of their compulsive
behavior of taking their hands into their mouths. Children
inhale dust that is contaminated with Pb more easily due to
their physiology [6].
The exposure of children to inorganic Pb has been mainly
associated to problems of neurological nature, impairment of
the psychomotor development, reduced IQ, learning prob-
lems, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) o
behavior and/or socio-behavioral problems as juvenile delin-
quency and violent crimes. Furthermore, Pb can produce
abortion in pregnant women, and in men it can affect the
sperm production [32,33].
In scenario A for both conditions (LA and USA), as well
as in scenario B in USA, children can present health effects
listed on Table 6, problems related with the nervous system
and intellectual development.
Young families constitute the population of the site, this
people are constantly exposed to the pollutants in the envi-
ronment. So, it is imperative stabilize the contaminants and
reduce the exposition to the inhabitants of the place. Reme-
dial actions like chemical stabilization followed by fitoreme-
diation of mining wastes are highly recommended to
minimize the dust dispersion in the site. These actions will
contribute to reduce the Pb population exposure.
A risk assessment study can provide useful information
for urban development in mining sites.
CONCLUSIONS
The research confirms that Pb is present in the mining
residues. Moreover, Pb is dispersing towards the residential
area in San Guillermo, Aquiles Serdan. The lack of environ-
mental control in the area, where the mining waste is depos-
ited, represents an environmental pollution problem. This
mainly caused by the wind and hydraulic erosion of the
wastes. In addition, the main exposure route is dust, which
access into humans through intake and inhalation.
According to the biokinetic modeling IEBUK, there is a
high risk of health in infant population of the area associated
to Pb exposure, related especially with problems in the ner-
vous system.
Remedial actions are required in the site to minimize the
dust dispersion towards the populated area. These actions
will contribute to reduce the Pb population exposure.
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