Signal Conditioning

Module 1
 Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to
1. Explain the working principles of an integrator and differentiator
using op amp with the support of a circuit diagram
2. Relate the integrator and differentiator with real life applications
3. Perform output calculation using the formulation
4. Plot the output waveform for a given input waveform

2
 Basic Integrator Circuit
Ideal Integrator

The feedback element is a capacitor that forms an RC circuit with input

resistor

3
 Applications
1. They convert acceleration to velocity.
2. They convert velocity to displacement
3. They are widely used in analog circuits
and analog computers
4. They are commonly used in wave
shaping circuits

4
 I/O Formula
Using KCL, the sum of currents at the summing
point is
Vi dVo
C 0
R dt

Rearrange the above equation

dVo Vi
 
dt RC
1
Vo  
RC  V dt
i

The rate of change of the output

Vo V
  i
t RC
5
 Practical Integrator Circuit
• Rf is added in parallel with the integrating capacitor C to prevent the
saturation of the op-amp due to the DC offfset at the op-amp input.
This avoids the distortion of the output waveforms

6
 Frequency Responses
• At DC and low frequencies:
- No integration, C acts as an open circuit
• At high frequencies:
- The circuit integrates
• At very high frequencies:
- The output drops rapidly to zero, C acts as
a short circuit

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I/O waveforms for commonly
occurring signals

8
 Example
RC= 1 second, and this input is a step DC voltage, as shown in below
figure. Determine the output voltage and sketch it.

(a) Input and (b) Output waveforms

• Solution
Vi = 2 V for 0  t  4,
t 4
Vo   2dt
0

=-  2dt   2dt   2dt   2dt 

1 2 3 4

 0 1 2 3 

= -(2 + 2 + 2 + 2) = -8 V

The output voltage waveform is

drawn in figure (b), the waveform is
called a ramp function.
9
Example
Determine the rate of change of the output voltage in response to the
step to the integrator. R= 10kΩ C=0.01uF

+5V

0V

Vo V
 i
t RC

Vo 5v
  50kV / s  50mV / s
t (10k )(0.01 )
10
 Basic Differentiator Circuit
• Differentiator

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 Applications
1. They convert velocity to acceleration.
2. They convert displacement to velocity.
3. They are widely used in digital circuits to
convert triangular waves to square waves to
drive counters and shift registers.
4. They are commonly used in wave-shaping
circuits.

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 I/O Formula
• Since for a capacitor
Q
Vi 
C
where Q is the charge across the capacitor.
• Differentiating with respect to time

dVi 1 dQ i
 
dt C dt C

• where i is the rate of change of charge, that is current

dVi
 i C and Vo = -R i
dt
dVi
Vo   RC
dt 13
 Differentiator Frequency Response
• At DC and very low frequencies:
- the gain of the ideal differentiator is zero because Xc is very high,
C acts as an open circuit.

• As the frequencies increases:

- the gain increases because Xc passes AC and stops DC and low
frequencies and therefore differentiates.

• At very high frequencies:

- C acts as short circuit and therefore amplifies only.

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 Practical Differentiator Circuit
• R1 is added in series with the differentiating capacitor C, to limit the
effect of the high frequency noise or to prevent the passage of the
high frequency noise.

15
I/O waveforms for commonly occurring
input signals

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Example
• For the circuit shown, R= 4.5kΩ and C=470pF. Max output voltage
is ±10v
R

C 4.5kΩ
Vin
Vout
470pF

For the input wave form Vin, draw the output waveform

Calculate the RC value

= 4.5k X 470pF= 2.11us

17
 Learning Outcomes

Students will be able to

1. Explain the working principles of constant voltage source, constant
current source, voltage to current and current to voltage convertor
circuits using op amp with the support of a circuit diagram
2. Identify the constant voltage source, constant current source,
voltage to current and current to voltage convertor circuits
3. Relate these circuits with real life applications
4. Perform output calculation using the formulation

18
 Constant Voltage Source Circuit
Constant Voltage Source

Applications
1. To excite certain passive transducers to produce electrical
voltages.
2. They can be used as a reference sources providing constant and
19
stable voltages.
 I/O Formula
RF
Vo   Vi
RS

• What is the effect of the load resistor RL on the output?

- there is no effect because the current passing in Rs mostly passes

in Rf therefore both Rf and Rs determine the voltage

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 Zener Diode Reference Source

Inverting Type Non-Inverting Type

RF  RF 
Vo   VZ Vo  1   VZ
RS  RS 

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 Constant Current Sources
Constant-current source
gives constant current.

Vi
if 
RS

What is the effect of RL on ίf in a constant current

source? The change of RL does not affect the load current. Only Rs
determines the value of this load current.
Applications
1. To excite certain passive transducers with constant current.
2. They can be used as a constant current sources irrespective of the
22
change in the load.
 Voltage to Current Converters

Inverting type Non-inverting type

In a voltage-to-current converter the load Vi

resistor RL is floating. The current through iL  
the load is, RS 23
 Voltage to Current converter for grounded load
If the load is grounded, the
circuit will be
R1 R3

R2 R4
The load current is given by
Vi
iL 
R1
Applications
1. As current sources supplying the testing circuits in dc/ac low
voltage voltmeters or DMMs.
2. As current sources to energize relay coils.
3. It is used in D/A converters.
4. It is used in sensing current through photo-detectors such as
photo-cells. 24
 Current to Voltage Converters
The output voltage is given by

Vo = -Ii . RF

Applications
1. They are used in D/A converters.
2. They are needed in sensing current through photo-
detectors such as photo-diodes, photo-cells and photo-
voltaic cells and converting it into voltage as a measure of
light intensity.
25
 Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to
1. Explain the working principles of log and antilog
amplifier circuits using op amp with the support of a
circuit diagram
2. Identify the log and antilog amplifier circuits
3. Relate these circuits with real life applications
4. Perform output calculation using the formulation

26
 Logarithmic Amplifiers
Simple Logarithmic Amplifier

Trans-diode (transistor) Log Amplifier

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 Log Amplifier with a Diode
• The relationship between current and voltage is expressed by the
following general equation for a diode
𝐼𝐷
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐾 𝑙𝑛( )
𝐼𝑅
K is a constant that is determined by several factors including
temperature and is approximately 0.025V at 25oC
IR is the reverse leakage current and is a constant for a given diode.

Vout =-VD Because of the virtual ground, the input current can be
expressed as Vin/R1. Thus the equation becomes
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ≈ −(0.025) 𝑙𝑛( )
𝐼𝑅 𝑅1

28
 Log Amplifier with a BJT
• The base-emitter junction of a BJT exhibits the same type of natural
logarithmic characteristic as a diode.
• A common based connection is done in the feedback loop
• -VBE replaces VD, IC replaces ID and IEBO replaces IR
• IEBO is the emitter to base leakage current
• The expression for the output voltage is

𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ≈ −(0.025) 𝑙𝑛( )
𝐼𝐸𝐵𝑂 𝑅1

29
Example
Determine the output for the log amplifier. R1= 100kΩ, IR= 50nA and
Vin= 2V

𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −(0.025) 𝑙𝑛( )
𝐼𝑅 𝑅1
2𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −(0.025) 𝑙𝑛( ) = -(0.025) ln(400)
(50𝑛𝐴)(100𝑘Ω)
= -(0.025)(5.99) = -0.150V
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Example
What is Vout for a transistor log amplifier with Vin=3v and R1=68kΩ?
Assume IEBO= 40nA.

𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −(0.025) 𝑙𝑛( )
𝐼𝐸𝐵𝑂 𝑅1
3𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −(0.025) 𝑙𝑛( )
(40𝑛𝐴)(68𝑘Ω)

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −(0.025) 𝑙𝑛(1103)

= -0.175V

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 Applications

1. Signal compression- dealing with a wide range of

amplitude.
2. Linearizing transducers with an exponential output
characteristics.
Signal Compression
Vi = 0.01v Vi = 0.10V Vi = 1.0V
Vo = -0.092V Vo=-0.15V Vo=-0.2V

In logarithmic signal compression the higher voltages are reduced more

than the lower voltages, thus keeping the lower voltage signals from
being lost in noise.
32
 Anti-logarithmic Amplifier
Basic Antilog Amplifier Antilog Amplifier using trans-diode

I1  I R eVi / k Vi
I1 = -IF Vo   RFIEBO e 0.025

Vo = -IF RF
Vi
Vo   RFIR e 0.025 33
Example
The antilog amplifier circuit and has the following specifications, RF=
200Ω and IR= 100 pA. Determine Vo for the following inputs
Vi= 0.40V, 0.46V, 0.52V

When Vi = 0.40 V 0.4V

Vo = -(200) (100  10-12) e 0.025

Vo = - 0.178 V

When Vi = 0.46 V 0.46V

Vo = -(200)(100  10-12) e 0.025

Vo = - 1.96 V

When Vi = 0.52 V 0.52V

Vo = -(200)(100  10-12) e 0.025

Vo = - 21.60 V 34
Applications

1. For linearizing transducers with

logarithmic output characteristics.
2. For signal expansion of compressed data.

35
 Basic Multiplier with Log and Antilog Amps
• Multipliers are based on the fundamental log relationship that states
that the product of two terms equal to the sum of the logarithms of
each term
ln(a x b) = ln a + ln b

By summing the outputs of two log amplifiers, you get the logarithm of
the product of the two original inputs voltages.
ln V1 + ln V2 = ln(V1V2)
antilog[ln(V1V2)] = V1V2

V1 -ln V1
Log amp ln(V1V2)
-V1V2 V1V2
Summing amp Antilog amp Inverter
V2 (adder)
Log amp
-ln V2
36
 Learning Outcomes

Students will be able to

1. Explain the working principles of buffer amplifier
circuits using op amp with the support of a circuit
diagram
2. Identify a buffer circuit
3. Relate these circuits with real life applications

37
 Buffer Amplifier or Voltage Follower

• I/O Relation

Vo = Ei = Vi

*Note *
The gain of the non-inverting op-amp
= 1 + Rf
R1
here Rf=0, therefore gain=1 and therefore Voutput
= Vinput
38
• Buffer can be used to provide isolation between signal
source and load resistance as shown

Vgen
Vi = Vgen Vgen

• Loading effect on a high impedance source

Vo = Vi = Vgen
• Applications
1. Providing isolation between signal sources and load resistances.
2. Protecting a source against load short circuits or overloading.
39
Learning Outcomes

Students will be able to

1. Explain the working principles of analog multiplexer
using op amp with the support of a circuit diagram
2. Relate this circuit with real life applications

40
 Analog Multiplexer
Four channel Analog Multiplexer
• Multiplexer(MUX)/
Data selector –
means several inputs and one
output.

• De-multiplexer(DEMUX)/
Data Distributer –
means one input and several
outputs.

41
Applications
1. Monitoring groups of signal sources in different
locations
2. Used with recorders, A/D converters, input for
computers and data loggers.

42
 Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to
1. Explain the working principles of isolation amplifier
using op amp with the support of a circuit diagram
2. List the methods of isolation

43
 Isolation Amplifier

Four Methods of Isolation

1. Transformer Coupling
2. Optical Coupling
3. Hall-effect Coupling
4. Thermal Coupling
Applications
1. Measuring low level, dc and low frequency voltages
or currents in the presence of high level noise.
2. Used in medical electronics where the patient’s safety
is essential, to limit dc and line frequency currents.
44
 Transformer Coupled Isolation Amplifier

T1

T2

• ∆V- low level, dc and low frequency input

• Amplifier 1- amplifies the low level input.
• RF modulator- modulates the amplified input & coupled it to the output section.
• RF demodulator- detects again the ∆V input signal, recovers the original input signal.
• Amplifier 2- further amplifies the signal to produce the final output.
• Oscillator- generates high frequency AC signal that makes T2 size small.
• Rectifier- converts the high frequency AC signal into DC voltage to supply the amplifiers
and RF modulators
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 Optical Coupled Isolation Amplifier

Vo
Vi

• In the opto-coupler/opto isolator- there is no connection between its

output ”photo-transistor and its input LED. There is a complete
isolation between input and output.
• There are two couplers- one in the feedback loop of A1 the other
couples A1 output to A2 input.

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 Hall Effect Coupling

The production of a potential difference across an

electrical conductor when a magnetic field is applied in a
direction perpendicular to that of the flow of current

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Thermal Coupling

48
 Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to
1. Explain the function of a charge amplifier
2. Identify a charge amplifier circuit

49
 Charge Amplifier

Vout

Function- it converts the input charge into a voltage

Applications
1. It is used in accelerators, pressure transducers and
load cells that use piezo-electric crystals which
produce charges due to the applied pressure or force
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