Standing wave ratio

In telecommunications, standing wave ratio (SWR) is the ratio of the amplitude of a

partial standing wave at an antinode (maximum) to the amplitude at an adjacent node
(minimum).

The SWR is usually defined as a voltage ratio called the VSWR, for voltage standing
wave ratio. It is also possible to define the SWR in terms of current, resulting in the
ISWR, which has the same numerical value. The power standing wave ratio (PSWR) is
defined as the square of the SWR.

The voltage component of a standing wave in a uniform transmission line consists of the
forward wave (with amplitude Vf) superimposed on the reflected wave (with amplitude
Vr).

Reflections occur as a result of discontinuities, such as an imperfection in an otherwise

uniform transmission line, or when a transmission line is terminated with other than its
characteristic impedance. The reflection coefficient Γ is defined thus:

Γ is a complex number that describes both the magnitude and the phase shift of the
reflection. The simplest cases, when the imaginary part of Γ is zero, are:

 Γ = − 1: maximum negative reflection, when the line is short-circuited,

 Γ = 0: no reflection, when the line is perfectly matched,
 Γ = + 1: maximum positive reflection, when the line is open-circuited.

For the calculation of VSWR, only the magnitude of Γ, denoted by ρ, is of interest.

At some points along the line the two waves interfere constructively, and the resulting
amplitude Vmax is the sum of their amplitudes:

At other points, the waves interfere destructively, and the resulting amplitude Vmin is the
difference between their amplitudes:

The voltage standing wave ratio is then equal to:

As ρ, the magnitude of Γ, is always ≥ 0, the VSWR is always ≥ +1.

The SWR can also be defined as the ratio of the maximum amplitude of the electric field
strength to its minimum amplitude, i.e. Emax / Emin.

Contents
[hide]
 1 Further analysis
 2 Practical implications of SWR
 3 See also

 4 References
[edit]

Further analysis
To understand the standing wave ratio in detail, we need to calculate the voltage (or,
equivalently, the electrical field strength) at any point along the transmission line at any
moment in time. We can begin with the forward wave, whose voltage as a function of
time t and of distance x along the transmission line is:

where A is the amplitude of the forward wave, ω is its angular frequency and k is a
constant (equal to ω divided by the speed of the wave). The voltage of the reflected wave
is a similar function, but spatially reversed (the sign of x is inverted) and attenuated by
the reflection coefficient ρ:

The total voltage Vt on the transmission line is given by the principle of superposition,
which is just a matter of adding the two waves:

Using standard trigonometric identities, this equation can be converted to the following
form:
where

This form of the equation shows, if we ignore some of the details, that the maximum
voltage over time Vmot at a distance x from the transmitter is the periodic function

This varies with x from a minimum of A(1 − ρ) to a maximum of A(1 + ρ), as we saw in
the earlier, simplified discussion. A graph of Vmot against x, in the case when ρ = 0.5, is
shown below. Vmin and Vmax are the values used to calculate the SWR.

Standing wave ratio for ρ = 0.5

It is important to note that this graph does not show the instantaneous voltage profile
along the transmission line. It only shows the maximum amplitude of the oscillation at
each point. The instantaneous voltage is a function of both time and distance, so could
only be shown fully by a three-dimensional or animated graph.

[edit]

Practical implications of SWR

SWR has a number of implications that are directly applicable to radio use.
 1. SWR is an indicator of reflected waves bouncing back and forth within the
transmission line, and as such, an increase in SWR corresponds to an increase in
power in the line beyond the actual transmitted power. This increased power will
increase RF losses, as increased voltage increases dielectric losses, and increased
current increases resistive losses.
2. Matched impedances give ideal power transfer; mismatched impedances give
high SWR and reduced power transfer.
3. Higher power in the transmission line also leaks back into the radio, which causes
it to heat up.
4. The higher voltages associated with a sufficiently high SWR could damage the
transmitter. solid state radios which have a lower tolerance for high voltages may
automatically reduce output power to prevent damage. Tube radios may arc. The
high voltages may also cause transmission line dielectric to break down and/or
burn.
5. VSWR measurements may be taken to ensure that a waveguide is contiguous and
has no leaks or sharp bends. If such bends or holes are present in the waveguide
surface, they may diminish the performance of both TX and RX equipment
strings. Arcing may occur if there is a hole, if transmitting at high power, usually
200 watts or more (Need reference for the power statement). Waveguide
plumbing[1] is crucial for proper waveguide performance. Reflected power may
occur and damage equipment as well. Another cause of bad VSWR in a
waveguide is moisture build-up, which can typically be prevented with silica gel.

SWR meter
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The SWR meter or VSWR meter measures the standing wave ratio in a transmission
line. This is an item of radio equipment used to check the quality of the match between
the antenna and the transmission line.

The VSWR meter should be connected in the line as close as possible to the antenna.
This is because all practical transmission lines have a certain amount of loss, causing the
reflected power to be attenuated as it travels back along the cable, and producing an
artificially low VSWR reading on the meter. If the meter is installed close to the antenna,
then this problem is minimised.
A typical SWR meter

Referring to the above diagram, the transmitter (TX) and antenna (ANT) terminals are a
connected via an internal transmission line. This main line is electromagnetically coupled
to two smaller sense lines which are connected to resistors at one end, and diode rectifiers
at the other. The resistors are chosen to match the characteristic impedance of the sense
lines. One sense line senses the forward wave (connected to FWD), and the other the
reflected wave (connected to REV). The diodes convert these to FWD and REV DC
voltages respectively, the ratio of which is used to determine the VSWR. In a passive
meter, this is indicated on a non-linear meter scale.

To calculate the VSWR, first calculate the reflection coefficient:

Γ = Vrev / Vfwd = √ (Prev / Pfwd)

Then calculate the VSWR:

VSWR = (1 + Γ) / (1 - Γ)

Note that an SWR meter does not measure the actual impedance of a load (ie the
resistance and reactance), but only the mismatch ratio. To measure the actual impedance,
an antenna analyzer or other similar RF measuring device is required. Note also that for
accurate readings, the SWR meter must be matched to the line impedance, ie 50 or 75
ohms as applicable. To accommodate both impedances, some SWR meters have switches
on the rear, to select the appropriate load resistance for the sense lines.

If a mismatch exists between the transmission line and load, the line will act as an
impedance transformer. In this case, the impedance seen at the input to the line will
depend on its electrical length, although (for a lossless line) the VSWR will be the same
at any point along the line. Mismatched transmission lines are often used for impedance
transformation, especially at UHF and microwave frequencies where their dimensions
can be very short. For more information on this handy technique, see smith chart.

When not actually measuring VSWR, it is best to remove the ordinary type of passive
SWR meter from the line. This is because the internal diodes of such meters can generate
harmonics when transmitting, and intermodulation products when receiving. Because
active SWR meters do not usually suffer from this effect, they can normally be left in
without causing such problems.