Notes BEEE UNIT-5

INDORE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
BEEE[BT-104] UNIT-V NOTES
SYLLABUS
 BASIC ELECTRONICS:
 NUMBER SYSTEMS & THEIR CONVERSION USED IN DIGITAL
ELECTRONICS,
 DE MORGAN’S THEOREM
 LOGIC GATES
 HALF AND FULL ADDER CIRCUITS
 R-S FLIP FLOP
 J-K FLIP FLOP
 INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTORS
 DIODES
 V-I CHARACTERISTICS
 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS (BJT) AND THEIR WORKING,
 INTRODUCTION TO CC, CB & CE TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS
 DIFFERENT CONFIGURATIONS AND MODES OF OPERATION OF BJT
Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 1

NUMBER SYSTEM-
If base or radix of a number system is ‘r’, then the numbers present in that number system are
ranging from zero to r-1. The total numbers present in that number system is ‘r’.
The following number systems are the most commonly used.
1. Binary number system
2. Decimal number system
3. Octal number system
4. Hexadecimal number system
Number system Base Symbols used Weighting Factor
Binary number 2 0,1 2
Octal system 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 8
Decimal system 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 10
Hexadecimal number system 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 16
BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

Binary number system with base two is known as the binary number system . the binary
number system uses only two symbols 0 and 1 these are known bits
OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM
The number system with base eight is known as the octal number system . it has eight
different basic symbols to represent numbers , these are :- 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM :
Decimal number system the number system which contain 10 different possible digits .These
digits are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 hence decimal number system has a base 10
HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM :
Hexadecimal number system the number system which contain 16 different possible digits
.These digits are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F hence decimal number system has a base 10
Hexadeci BINARY NUMBER
mal 23= 8 22=4 21=2 20=1
number (no. of bit change ) (no. of bit change ) (no. of bit change ) (no. of bit change )
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1
6 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1
A[10] 1 0 1 0
B[11] 1 0 1 1
C[12] 1 1 0 0
D[13] 1 1 0 1
E[14] 1 1 1 0
F[15] 1 1 1 1

Octal Binary number
2 1
number 2 =4(no. of bit change ) 2 =2(no. of bit change ) 20=1(no. of bit change )
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
2 0 1 0
3 0 1 1
4 1 0 0
5 1 0 1
6 1 1 0
7 1 1 1
CONVERSION OF NUMBER SYSTEM
1. Binary number system to decimal number system
2. Binary number system to octal number system
3. Binary number system to hexadecimal number system
4. decimal number system to Binary number system
5. decimal number system to octal number system
6. decimal number system to hexadecimal number system
7. octal number system to binary number system
8. octal number system to hexadecimal number system
9. octal number system to decimal number system
10. hexadecimal system to binary number system
1. BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM TO DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
1. (1110011)2 = ( )10
𝟏 × 𝟐𝟔 + 𝟏 × 𝟐𝟓 + 𝟏 × 𝟐𝟒 + 𝟎 × 𝟐𝟑 + 𝟎 × 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟏 × 𝟐𝟏 + 𝟏 × 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏𝟏𝟓
ANS=115
2. (11101.110)2 = ( )10
(1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 0 × 20 ). (1 × 2−1 + 1 × 2−2 + 0 × 2−3 ) = 29.75
2. BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM TO OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM
1. (111100111)2 = ( )8
Binary Bit 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
Equivalent Octal Bit 7 4 7
Answer = (747)8
2. (11111110101.11101)2 = ( )8
Binary Bit 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 . 1 1 1 0 1 0
Equivalent Octal
3 7 6 5 . 7 2
Bit
Ans :-( 3765.72)8

3. BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM TO HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
1. (11111101111)2 = ( )16
0111 1110 1111
7 E F
4. OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM TO HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
1. (543)8 = ( )16
For the conversion of octal to hexadecimal first convert octal number to binary
after that make four bit pair and we got hexadecimal During the 4 bit pair if
remaining bit less than 4 then be add 0 at the front of bit
Octal to binary Conversion
5 4 3
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion
0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 6 3
Answer = (163)16
2. (164.17)8=( )16.
Octal to binary Conversion
1 6 4 . 1 7
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 . 0 0 1 1 1 1
Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 . 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 7 4 . 3 12
5. OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM TO BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

1. (423)8 = ( )2
4 2 3
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
ANS:- 010000100011
2. (213.13)8 = ( )2
2 1 3 .1 3
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 .0 0 1 0 1 1
ANS:- 010001011.001011
6. OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM TO DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
1. (4307)8
(4×83+3×82+0×81+7×80) = (2247)10
7. DECIMAL TO BINARY NUMBER CONVERSION
 Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the 2.

 Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit)
of Binary base number.

 Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the Binary base.
 Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the Binary
base number.
 Step-5 Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient
becomes zero in Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the Binary
base number. Example
1. Decimal Number: (29)10 Calculating Binary Equivalent −
Step Operation Result Remainder
Step 1 29 / 2 14 1 LSB
Step 2 14 / 2 7 0
Step 3 7/2 3 1
Step 4 3/2 1 1
Step 5 1/2 0 1 MSB
Decimal Number = (29)10 = Binary Number (11101)2
8. DECIMAL TO OCTAL NUMBER CONVERSION

of octal base number.
 Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the octal base.
 Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the octal
base number.
base number.Example
1. Decimal Number: (79)10 Calculating Binary Equivalent −
Step 1 79 / 8 9 7 LSB
Step 2 9/ 8 1 1
Step 3 1/8 0 1 MSB
Decimal Number = (79)10 = Binary Number (117)8.

9. DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL NUMBER CONVERSION

of Hexadecimal base number.
 Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the Hexadecimal base.
 Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the
Hexadecimal base number.
base number. Example
1. Decimal Number: (165)10 Calculating Hexadecimal Equivalent −
Step 1 165 / 16 10 5 LSB
Step 2 10/ 16 0 10=A

MSB
Decimal Number = (165)10 = Binary Number (A5) 16.
10. HEXADECIMAL TO DECIMAL NUMBER CONVERSION

1. (𝐴2𝐶 )16 = ( )10
A=10,C=12
10 × 162 + 2 × 161 + 12 × 160 = 2604
Answer = (2604)10
2. (3𝐵. 21)16 = ( )10
B=11
(3 × 161 + 11 × 160 )+. (2 × 16−1 + 1 × 16−2 ) = 59.1289
Answer = (59.1289)10
11. HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY NUMBER CONVERSION

1. (𝐴2𝐶 )16 = ( )2
A=10 2 C=12
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
Answer =(101000101100)2
2. (3𝑩. 𝟐𝟏)16 = ( )2
3 B=11 .2 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 .0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Answer =(00111011.00100001)2

12. HEXADECIMAL TO OCTAL NUMBER CONVERSION
1. (𝐴2𝐶 )16 = ( )8
Hexadecimal to binary
A=10 2 C=12
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
Binary to Octal
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 5 4
5
Answer = (5054)8
2. (3𝐵. 24)16 = ( )8
Hexadecimal to binary
3 B=11 .2 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 .0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Binary to Octal
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 .0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
3 B 2 1
1. Answer (3𝐵. 24)16 = ( 3𝐵. 21 )8

LOGIC GATE
It is switching circuit which provide on off condition
LOGIC GATE
BASIC GATE UNIVERSAL GATE DERIVED GATE
1. AND 1.NAND 1. XOR

2. OR 2.NOR 2. XNOR
3. NOT
TYPES OF LOGIC GATE
 AND GATE
 OR GATE
 NOT GATE
 XOR GATE
 XNOR GATE
 NAND GATE
 NOR GATE
AND GATE –
It is switching circuit which provide product of input if input is A and B then Output is =A.B
A B Y=A.B
0 0 0
AND gate 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
OPERATIONS
CASE-1 - When both input low (A = 0, B = 0 ) then output low (Y = 0)
CASE-2 - When one input low (A = 0) and other high (B = 1) then output low (Y = 0)
CASE-3 - When one input high (A = 1) and other low (B = 1) then output low (Y = 0)
CASE-4 - When one input high (A = 1) and other high (B = 1) then output high (Y = 1)

OR GATE -
It is switching circuit which provide the addition of input signal if two input A and B then
Output = A+B
A B A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
OR gate 1 0 1
1 1 1
OPERATIONS
CASE-1 - When both input low (A = 0 , B = 0 ) then output low (Y = 0)
NOT GATE – IF INPUT A THEN OUTPU IS COMPLEMENT OF A
Input Output
1 0
Inverter or NOT gate 0 1
OPERATIONS
CASE-1 - When input low (A = 0) then output low (Y = 1)
CASE-2 - When input high (A = 0) and then output low (Y = 0)
NAND GATE –
A LOGIC GATE WHICH COMBINATION OF AND GATE & NOT GATE IF A & B TWO INPUT
̅̅̅̅
THEN OUTPUT Y=𝑨𝑩
Input 1 Input 2 Output
0 0 1
0 1 1
NAND gate
1 0 1
1 1 0
OPERATIONS
CASE-1 - When both input low (A = 0, B = 0) then output low (Y = 1)

NOR GATE
The NOR gate is a combination OR gate AND NOT GATE If A & B TWO INPUT THEN
OUTPUT Y= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩
Input 1 Input 2 Output
0 0 1
0 1 0
NOR gate
1 0 0
1 1 0
OPERATIONS
CASE-1 - When both input low (A = 0, B = 0) then output low (Y = 1)
Derive basic gate using NAND gate

Derive basic gate using NOR gate
XOR GATE
̅ +𝑨
IF TWO INPUT A AND B THEN OUTPUT Y= 𝑨𝑩 ̅𝑩
A B ̅ +𝑨
Y= 𝑨𝑩 ̅𝑩
0 0 0
XOR gate 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
OPERATIONS
CASE-1 - When both input low (A = 0 , B = 0 ) then output low (Y = 0)

Types of digital circuit
1. Combinational logic circuit

2. Sequential logic circuit
Combinational circuit
Combinational circuit a circuit which output at any time depends only on the input values at
that time not depend on past value.
The design of combinational circuit starts from a set of Boolean function and end in a logic
circuit diagram
Steps involved in the design of combinational circuit are as follows.
Step-1 Definition
Step-2 Number of input and number of output
Step-3 Assign Symbol for input and output
Step-4 Block Diagram
Step-5 Truth table
Step -6 Logic Equation [Using K Map ] or obtains Boolean expression for each output from
the truth table.
Step-7 draws the logic circuit diagram corresponding to the simplified Boolean expression.
Step-8 Application
Types of combinational circuit
1. Half adder
2. Full adder
Half adder
Step-1 Half adder it is combinational circuit which add two bit and provide two bit out put
sum and carry
Step-2 Number of Input = 2
Number of output =2
Step-3 Symbol for Input = A & B
Symbol For Output = S & C
Step -4 Block Diagram
A S
B C
Above show that figure of half adder and Input port A & B Output port S-sum & C- carry
TABLE 2.3 HALF ADDER
INPUT OUTPUT
A B SUM CARRY
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

k –map method be used for simplifying and derive the expression for half adder
logic expression for half adder by using k map
Sum Carry
B B B B
A 0 1 A 0 0
A 1 0 A 0 1
Expression for sum 𝑆 = 𝐴𝐵̅ + 𝐴̅𝐵
Expression for carry 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵
LOGIC DIAGRAM
We can draw logic diagram in two way

1. Using basic gate
2. Using XOR Gate
Logic diagram using the basic gate
Logic diagram using XOR gate

Full adder
Full adder – full adder is a combinational circuit which has three input and two output
Full adder is a combinational circuit which add three bit and two bit output one sum and other
carry
A full adder is a combinational circuit that performs the arithmetic sum of three input bits
and a carry
Design procedure of full adder
Step -1 addition of three bit
Step -2 number of input =3 number of output = 2
Step -3 symbol for input A, B, CIN symbol for output S ,C OUT
Step-4 obtain truth table
INPUT OUTPUT
A B CIN S COUT
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
Step-5 obtains Boolean expression for each output from the truth table
Boolean expression for SUM 𝑆 = 𝐴̅𝐵̅ 𝐶 + 𝐴̅𝐵𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐵̅𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐵𝐶
Boolean expression for CARRY 𝐶𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴

Step-7 Draw the logic circuit diagram corresponding to the simplified Boolean expression
FULL ADDER USING BASIC GATE
FULL ADDER LOGIC CIRCUIT DIAGRAM TWO HALF ADDER

Flip Flop
Flip Flop It is sequential circuit which store one bit and it is combination of latch and control input
called flip flop
Type of Flip Flop
There are Four Type of flip Flop
1. SR Flip Flop
2. D flip Flop
3. JK Flip Flop
4. T Flip Flop
SR Flip Flop
SR Flip Flop It is Sequential Cicruit Which Store One bit and it is combination of latch and control
input called SR flips flop
Circuit Diagram of SR Flip flop
In the above circuit two output present
1. 𝑄(𝑡) = (𝑅̅ + 𝐶̅)𝑄(𝑡)

2. 𝑄’(𝑡) = (𝑆̅ + 𝐶̅)𝑄′ (𝑡)
Truth TABLE
Output Output
Clock S R ̅+𝑪̅ )𝑸(𝒕) ̅+𝑪 ̅ )𝑸′ (𝒕)
(𝑹 (𝑺 Operation
0 0 0 𝑸(𝒕) 𝑸’(𝒕) No Change
1 0 1 0 𝑸’(𝒕) Set
1 1 0 𝑸(𝒕) 0 Reset
1 1 1 0 0 Forbidden condition

Logic Operation of SR Flip Flop
Case -1 When Clock pulse zero then latch not depend on the input and flip flop condition not
change
Case-2 When clock Pulse one menace that latch depend on the input and following condition
possible
 Condition -1 when S and R zero then next state remain same not change
 Condition -2 when S =1 and R=0 Then next state reset
 Condition-3 When S=0 and R=1 Then Next State Set
 Condition -4 When S=1 and R=1 Then Forbidden condition because both output same
Drawback
In the SR flip Flop when both input is one the flip output is forbidden condition this is called
drawback of SR Flip Flop
D flip Flop
It is sequential ciruit which store on bit and it eliminate forbidden condtion
Circuit diagram of D flip flop
1. 𝑄(𝑡) = (𝐷 + 𝐶̅)𝑄(𝑡)
̅ + 𝐶̅)𝑄′ (𝑡)
2. 𝑄’(𝑡) = (𝐷

Truth TABLE
Output Output
Clock D (𝐷 + 𝐶̅)𝑄(𝑡) ̅ + 𝐶̅)𝑄′ (𝑡)
(𝐷 Operation
0 0 𝑸(𝒕) 𝑸’(𝒕) No Change
0 1 𝑸(𝒕) 𝑸’(𝒕) No Change
1 0 0 𝑸’(𝒕) Set
1 1 𝑸(𝒕) 0 Reset
change
possible
 Condition -1 when D=0 Then next state set
 Condition-3 When D=1 Then Next State Reset
Drawback
In the D Flip Flop Due to Delay output not useful
JK Flip Flop
JK Flip Flop it is sequential circuit which store one bit and it is a combination of latch and control
input and it is eliminate delay Problem
Circuit Diagram
3. 𝑄(𝑡) = (𝐾 + 𝑄̅ + 𝐶̅)𝑄(𝑡)
4. 𝑄’(𝑡) = (𝐽 ̅ + 𝑄 + 𝐶̅)𝑄′ (𝑡)

Truth TABLE
Input to S Input to R
Q J K ̅
𝑱𝑸 𝑲𝑸 Operation
0 0 0 0 0 No Change
1 0 0 0 0 No change
0 0 1 0 0 No Change
1 0 1 0 1 Set
0 1 0 1 0 Reset
1 1 0 0 0 No change
0 1 1 1 0 Reset
1 1 1 0 1 Set

change
possible
 Condition -1 when J and K zero then next state remain same not change
 Condition -2 when J =1 and K=0 Then next state reset
 Condition-3 When J=0 and K=1 Then Next State Set
 Condition -4 When J=1 and K=1 Then Toggle condition [ Set and Reset ]
Drawback
In the JK flip Flop when both input is one the flip output is Toggle condition this is called
drawback of JK Flip Flop
T Flip Flop
It is sequential circuit which store one bit and it is a combination of latch and control input and
this type of flip flop eliminate forbidden condition
Circuit Diagram
Truth TABLE
Input to J Input to K
Q T
𝑻 𝑻 Operation
0 0 0 0 No Change
0 1 1 1 No change
1 0 0 0 No Change
1 1 1 1 Toggle [ Set /Reset ]

change
possible
 Condition -1 when T zero then next state remain same not change
 Condition -2 when T=1 Then next state Set / Reset

There are three type of material
1. Insulator
2. Conductor
3. Semiconductor
1. Insulator:
 The valence band of those materials remains full of electrons. The conduction band of
those materials remains empty.
 The forbidden energy gap between the conduction band and the valence band is
widest.
 The difference is more than 4 eV. Crossing the forbidden energy gap from valence
band to conduction band require large amount of energy. Mica, glass, eboniote etc are
the examples of insulators.
2. Conductors:
The valence band and the conduction band overlap each other. There is no forbidden energy
gap here so Eg=0. At absolute zero temperature large number of electrons remains in the
conduction band. The resistance of conductor is very low; large number charge carriers are
available here. So, the electricity can pass easily through the conductors. Aluminum, Silver,
etc are good conductors

3. Semiconductor
A semiconductor remains partially full valence band and partially full conduction band at
the room temperature the energy gap is narrower. The conduction band remains full
empty of a semiconductor where the valence band remains full of electrons at absolute
zero temperature. The value of 𝐸𝑔 = 1.1𝑒𝑉 for silicon crystal and 𝐸𝑔 = 0.7𝑒𝑉 for
germanium. It can easily overcome due to thermal agitation or light. So, silicon and
germanium are insulators at absolute zero temperature. On the other hand with the
increasing of temperature the electrical conductivity of semiconductors increases.
Introduction to semiconductor
A Semiconductor is a substance whose resistivity lies between the conductors and insulators.
The property of resistivity is not the only one that decides a material as a semiconductor, but
it has few properties as follows.
 Semiconductors have the resistivity which is less than insulators and more than
conductors.
 Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient. The resistance in
semiconductors increases with the decrease in temperature and vice versa.
 The Conducting properties of Semiconductor changes, when a suitable metallic
impurity is added to it, which is a very important property.
Semiconductor devices are extensively used in the field of electronics. The transistor has
replaced the bulky vacuum tubes, from which the size and cost of the devices got decreased
and this revolution has kept on increasing its pace leading to the new inventions like
integrated electronics.
The following illustration shows the classification of Semiconductors.

Creation of Hole
Due to the thermal energy supplied to the crystal, some electrons tend to move out of their
place and break the covalent bonds. These broken covalent bonds, result in free electrons
which wander randomly. But the moved away electrons creates an empty space or valence
behind, which is called as a hole.
Hole Current
It is already understood that when a covalent bond is broken, a hole is created. Actually, there
is a strong tendency of semiconductor crystal to form a covalent bond. So, a hole doesn’t tend
to exist in a crystal. This can be better understood by the following figure, showing a
semiconductor crystal lattice.
An electron, when gets shifted from a place A, a hole is formed. Due to the tendency for the
formation of covalent bond, an electron from B gets shifted to A. Now, again to balance the
covalent bond at B, an electron gets shifted from C to B. This continues to build a path. This
movement of hole in the absence of an applied field is random. But when electric field is
applied, the hole drifts along the applied field, which constitutes the hole current. This is
called as hole current but not electron current because, the movement of holes contribute the
current flow.
1. Intrinsic Semiconductors
A Semiconductor in its extremely pure form is said to be an intrinsic semiconductor. The
properties of this pure semiconductor are as follows −
 The electrons and holes are solely created by thermal excitation.
 The number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes.
 The conduction capability is small at room temperature.
In order to increase the conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor, it is better to add
some impurities. This process of adding impurities is called as Doping. Now, this doped
intrinsic semiconductor is called as an Extrinsic Semiconductor.

Doping
The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor materials is termed as doping. The
impurities added, are generally Pentavalent and trivalent impurities.
Pentavalent Impurities
 The Pentavalent impurities are the ones which has five valence electrons in the outer
most orbit-+s. Example: Bismuth, Antimony, Arsenic, Phosphorus
 The Pentavalent atom is called as a donor atom because it donates one electron to the
conduction band of pure semiconductor atom.
Trivalent Impurities
 The Trivalent impurities are the ones which has three valence electrons in the outer
most orbits. Example: Gallium, Indium, Aluminum, Boron
 The trivalent atom is called as an acceptor atom because it accepts one electron from
the semiconductor atom.
Extrinsic Semiconductor
An impure semiconductor, which is formed by doping a pure semiconductor, is called as an
extrinsic semiconductor.
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors depending upon the type of impurity added.
1. N-type extrinsic semiconductor
2. P-Type extrinsic semiconductor.
1. N-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
A small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in N type
extrinsic semiconductor. The added impurity has 5 valence electrons.
For example, if Arsenic atom is added to the germanium atom, four of the valence electrons
get attached with the Ge atoms while one electron remains as a free electron.
This is as shown in the following figure.
All of these free electrons constitute electron current. Hence, the impurity when added to pure
semiconductor provides electrons for conduction.
 In N-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place through electrons,
the electrons are majority carriers and the holes are minority carriers.
 As there is no addition of positive or negative charges, the electrons are electrically
neutral.
 When an electric field is applied to an N-type semiconductor, to which a pentavalent
impurity is added, the free electrons travel towards positive electrode. This is called as
negative or N-type conductivity.

2. P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
A small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in P-type
extrinsic semiconductor. The added impurity has 3 valence electrons.
For example, if Boron atom is added to the germanium atom, three of the valence electrons
get attached with the Ge atoms, to form three covalent bonds. But, one more electron in
germanium remains without forming any bond. As there is no electron in boron remaining to
form a covalent bond, the space is treated as a hole. This is as shown in the following figure.
The boron impurity when added in a small amount, provides a number of holes which helps
in the conduction. All of these holes constitute hole current.
 In P-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place through holes, the
holes are majority carriers while the electrons are minority carriers.
 The impurity added here provides holes which are called as acceptors, because they
accept electrons from the germanium atoms.
 As the number of mobile holes remains equal to the number of acceptors, the Ptype
semiconductor remains electrically neutral.
 When an electric field is applied to a P-type semiconductor, to which a trivalent
impurity is added, the holes travel towards negative electrode, but with a slow pace
than electrons. This is called as P-type conductivity.
 In this P-type conductivity, the valence electrons move from one covalent bond to
another, unlike N-type.
Why Silicon is Preferred in Semiconductors?
Among the semiconductor materials like germanium and silicon, the extensively used
material for manufacturing various electronic components is Silicon Si
. Silicon is preferred over germanium for many reasons such as −
 The energy band gap is 0.7ev, whereas it is 0.2ev for germanium.
 The thermal pair generation is smaller.
 The formation of SiO2 layer is easy for silicon, which helps in the manufacture of
many components along with integration technology.
 Si is easily found in nature than Ge.
 Noise is less in components made up of Si than in Ge.
Types of Currents
There are two type of current in semiconductor
1. Diffusion Current
2. Drift Current

1. Diffusion current
When doping is done, there occurs a difference in the concentration of electrons and holes.
These electrons and holes tend to diffuse from higher concentration of charge density, to
lower concentration level. As these are charge carriers, they constitute a current called
diffusion current.
To know about this in detail, let us consider an N-type material and a P-type material.
 N-type material has electrons as majority carriers and few holes as minority carriers.
 P-type material has holes as majority carriers and few electrons as minority carriers.
If these two materials are brought too close to each other to join, then few electrons from
valence band of N-type material, tend to move towards P-type material and few holes from
valence band of P-type material, tend to move towards N-type material. The region between
these two materials where this diffusion takes place, is called as Depletion region.
Hence, the current formed due to the diffusion of these electrons and holes, without the
application of any kind of external energy, can be termed as Diffusion Current.
2. Drift Current
The current formed due to the drift movement of charged particles electrons or holes due to
the applied electric field, is called as Drift Current. The following figure explains the drift
current, whether how the applied electric field, makes the difference.
The amount of current flow depends upon the charge applied. The width of depletion region
also gets affected, by this drift current. To make a component function in an active circuit,
this drift current plays an important role.

Diode
A Diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that only conducts current in one
direction. An ideal diode will have zero resistance in one direction, and infinite resistance in
the reverse direction
 The Anode which is the Positive terminal of a diode is represented with A

 The Cathode, which is the Negative terminal, is represented with K.
The P-type and N-type semiconductors, and the behavior of their carriers, let us now try to
join these materials together to see what happens.
A P-type material has holes as the majority carriers and an N-type material has electrons as
the majority carriers. As opposite charges attract, few holes in P-type tend to go to n-side,
whereas few electrons in N-type tend to go to P-side.
As both of them travel towards the junction, holes and electrons recombine with each other to
neutralize and forms ions. Now, in this junction, there exists a region where the positive and
negative ions are formed, called as PN junction or junction barrier as shown in the figure.
The formation of negative ions on P-side and positive ions on N-side results in the formation
of a narrow charged region on either side of the PN junction. This region is now free from

movable charge carriers. The ions present here have been stationary and maintain a region of
space between them without any charge carriers.
As this region acts as a barrier between P and N type materials, this is also called as Barrier
junction. This has another name called as Depletion region meaning it depletes both the
regions. There occurs a potential difference VD due to the formation of ions, across the
junction called as Potential Barrier as it prevents further movement of holes and electrons
through the junction.
Biasing of a Diode
The process of applying an external voltage is called as “biasing”. There are two ways in which we
can bias a PN junction diode.
1. Forward bias
2. Reverse bias
1. Forward Biased Condition
When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the positive terminal and cathode
to the negative terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be forward biased
condition.
2. Reverse Biased Condition

When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the negative terminal and cathode
to the positive terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be Reverse biased
condition.
Working under Forward Biased

When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it cancels the potential barrier and
permits the flow of current is called as forward bias. When anode and cathode are connected
to positive and negative terminals respectively, the holes in P-type and electrons in N-type
tend to move across the junction, breaking the barrier. There exists a free flow of current with
this, almost eliminating the barrier.

With the repulsive force provided by positive terminal to holes and by negative terminal to
electrons, the recombination takes place in the junction. The supply voltage should be such
high that it forces the movement of electrons and holes through the barrier and to cross it to
provide forward current.
Forward Current is the current produced by the diode when operating in forward biased
condition and it is indicated by If.
Working under Reverse Biased
When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it increases the potential barrier and
restricts the flow of current is called as Reverse bias. When anode and cathode are connected
to negative and positive terminals respectively, the electrons are attracted towards the
positive terminal and holes are attracted towards the negative terminal. Hence both will be
away from the potential barrier increasing the junction resistance and preventing any
electron to cross the junction.
The following figure explains this. The graph of conduction when no field is applied and
when some external field is applied are also drawn.
With the increasing reverse bias, the junction has few minority carriers to cross the junction.
This current is normally negligible. This reverse current is almost constant when the
temperature is constant. But when this reverse voltage increases further, then a point called
reverse breakdown occurs, where an avalanche of current flows through the junction. This
high reverse current damages the device.
Reverse current is the current produced by the diode when operating in reverse biased
condition and it is indicated by Ir. Hence a diode provides high resistance path in reverse
biased condition and doesn’t conduct, where it provides a low resistance path in forward
biased condition and conducts. Thus we can conclude that a diode is a one-way device which
conducts in forward bias and acts as an insulator in reverse bias. This behavior makes it work
as a rectifier, which converts AC to DC.
Peak Inverse Voltage

Peak Inverse Voltage is shortly called as PIV. It states the maximum voltage applied in
reverse bias. The Peak Inverse Voltage can be defined as “The maximum reverse voltage
that a diode can withstand without being destroyed”. Hence, this voltage is considered
during reverse biased condition. It denotes how a diode can be safely operated in reverse bias.

Purpose of a Diode
A diode is used to block the electric current flow in one direction, i.e. in forward direction
and to block in reverse direction. This principle of diode makes it work as a Rectifier.
For a circuit to allow the current flow in one direction but to stop in the other direction, the
rectifier diode is the best choice. Thus the output will be DC removing the AC components.
The circuits such as half wave and full wave rectifiers are made using diodes, which can be
studied in Electronic Circuits tutorials.
A diode is also used as a Switch. It helps a faster ON and OFF for the output that should
occur in a quick rate.
V - I Characteristics of a Diode
A Practical circuit arrangement for a PN junction diode is as shown in the following figure.
An ammeter is connected in series and voltmeter in parallel, while the supply is controlled
through a variable resistor.
During the operation, when the diode is in forward biased condition, at some particular
voltage, the potential barrier gets eliminated. Such a voltage is called as Cut-off Voltage or
Knee Voltage. If the forward voltage exceeds beyond the limit, the forward current rises up
exponentially and if this is done further, the device is damaged due to overheating.
The following graph shows the state of diode conduction in forward and reverse biased
conditions.
During the reverse bias, current produced through minority carriers exist known as “Reverse
current”. As the reverse voltage increases, this reverse current increases and it suddenly
breaks down at a point, resulting in the permanent destruction of the junction.

Transistor
Transistor, semiconductor device for amplifying, controlling, and generating electrical
signals. Transistors are the active components of integrated circuits,
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal circuit or device that amplifies flow of
current. It is solid state device that flows current in two terminals, i.e., collector and emitter
and controlled by third device known as terminal or base terminal.
Terminals of Bipolar Junction Transistors
There are three terminals in bipolar junction transistors are explained below.
 Emitter: It supplies charge carriers. It is highly doped so that it can inject a large
number of charge carriers into the base. Emitter is always greater than base.
 Base: Base is middle layer in BJT which is thin compared to emitter and collector.
Base is very lighted doped.
 Collector: It collects charge carriers. Its doped between emitter and base means
moderately doped, but it is always greater than emitter and base in size.
Types of Bipolar Junction Transistors
Since a semiconductor has less resistance to flow current in one direction and high resistance
in another direction
1. NPN Junction Transistor
2. PNP junction Transistor
3. NPN Junction Transistors
In this transistor, a single p-type semiconductor layer is sandwiched between two n-type
semiconductor layers.
4. PNP Junction Transistors
In this transistor, a single n-type semiconductor layer is sandwiched between two p-type
semiconductor layers.
Bipolar junction transistors are formed by sandwiching either n-type or p-type. The
electrodes for each junction transistor are: emitter, base, and collector.

BJT operation modes
There are three modes: Cut-off mode, saturated mode, and active mode in bipolar transistor
Emitter junction Collector junction Region of operation

Forward biased Forward biased Saturation region
Forward biased Reverse biased Active region
Reverse biased Forward biased Inverse active region
Reverse biased Reverse biased Cutoff region
Saturated mode
In this mode, both junctions are forward biased so current flows through the device. Hence,
transistor is in on mode and acts like closed switch. This mode is used for switch ON
application.
Active mode
In this mode, one junction (emitter to base) is forward biased and another junction (collector
to base) is reverse biased. This mode is used for amplification of current.
Cutoff mode
In this mode, both junctions are reversed biased so no current flows through the device.
Hence, transistor is in off mode and acts like open switch. This mode is used for switch OFF
application.

Advantages of BJT
These are advantages of bipolar junction transistors:
 It has high frequency operation,
 It has high driving capability,
 It can be used as digital switch.
Applications of BJT
Bipolar junction transistors are mainly used in switching and amplification. Applications of
BJT include:
 Radio transmitters
 Audio amplifiers
 Televisions
 Computers
 Mobile phones
Transistor Biasing
Biasing is controlling the operation of the circuit by providing power supply. The function of
both the PN junctions is controlled by providing bias to the circuit through some dc supply.
The figure below shows how a transistor is biased.
By having a look at the above figure, it is understood that

 The N-type material is provided negative supply and P-type material is given
positive supply to make the circuit Forward bias.
 The N-type material is provided positive supply and P-type material is given
negative supply to make the circuit Reverse bias.
By applying the power, the emitter base junction is always forward biased as the
emitter resistance is very small. The collector base junction is reverse biased and its
resistance is a bit higher. A small forward bias is sufficient at the emitter junction whereas
a high reverse bias has to be applied at the collector junction.
The direction of current indicated in the circuits above, also called as the Conventional
Current, is the movement of hole current which is opposite to the electron current.

Operation PNP Transistor
The operation of a PNP transistor can be explained by the following figure, in which emitter-
base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased.
The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes in the P-
type material and these holes cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region. There
a very low percent of holes recombine with free electrons of N-region. This provides very
low current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-
base junction, to constitute collector current IC, which is the hole current.
As a hole reaches the collector terminal, an electron from the battery negative terminal fills
the space in the collector. This flow slowly increases and the electron minority current flows
through the emitter, where each electron entering the positive terminal of VEE, is replaced by
a hole by moving towards the emitter junction. This constitutes emitter current IE.
Hence we can understand that −
 The conduction in a PNP transistor takes place through holes.
 The collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.
 The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.
Operation NPN Transistor
The operation of an NPN transistor can be explained by the following figure, in which
emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased.
The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the emitter which repels the electrons in the
N-type material and these electrons cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region.

There a very low percent of electrons recombine with free holes of P-region. This provides
very low current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the
collector-base junction, to constitute the collector current IC.
As an electron reaches out of the collector terminal, and enters the positive terminal of the
battery, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery VEE enters the emitter region.
This flow slowly increases and the electron current flows through the transistor.
Hence we can understand that −
 The conduction in a NPN transistor takes place through electrons.
 The collector current is higher than the emitter current.
 The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.
Advantages
There are many advantages of a transistor such as −
 High voltage gain.
 Lower supply voltage is sufficient.
 Most suitable for low power applications.
 Smaller and lighter in weight.
 Mechanically stronger than vacuum tubes.
 No external heating required like vacuum tubes.
 Very suitable to integrate with resistors and diodes to produce ICs.
There are few disadvantages such as they cannot be used for high power applications due to
lower power dissipation. They have lower input impedance and they are temperature
dependent.
The three types of configurations are
1. Common Base
2. Common Emitter
3. Common Collector
In every configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is
reverse biased.
Common Base CB Configuration
The name itself implies that the Base terminal is taken as common terminal for both input and
output of the transistor. The common base connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as
shown in the following figure.

For the sake of understanding, let us consider NPN transistor in CB configuration. When the
emitter voltage is applied, as it is forward biased, the electrons from the negative terminal
repel the emitter electrons and current flows through the emitter and base to the collector to
contribute collector current. The collector voltage VCB is kept constant throughout this.
In the CB configuration, the input current is the emitter current IE and the output current is
the collector current IC.
Characteristics of CB configuration
This configuration provides voltage gain but no current gain.
Being VCB constant, with a small increase in the Emitter-base voltage VEB, Emitter
current IE gets increased.
 Emitter Current IE is independent of Collector voltage VCB.
 Collector Voltage VCB can affect the collector current IC only at low voltages, when
VEB is kept constant.
 The input resistance ri is the ratio of change in emitter-base voltage $ΔVEB$
Common Emitter CE Configuration
The name itself implies that the Emitter terminal is taken as common terminal for both input
and output of the transistor. The common emitter connection for both NPN and PNP
transistors is as shown in the following figure.
Just as in CB configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction
is reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The input current is
the base current IB and the output current is the collector current IC here.
Characteristics of CE Configuration
 This configuration provides good current gain and voltage gain.

 Keeping VCE constant, with a small increase in VBE the base current IB increases
rapidly than in CB configurations.
 For any value of VCE above knee voltage, IC is approximately equal to βIB.
 The input resistance ri is the ratio of change in base emitter voltage $ΔVBE$

Common Collector CC Configuration
The name itself implies that the Collector terminal is taken as common terminal for both
input and output of the transistor. The common collector connection for both NPN and PNP
transistors is as shown in the following figure.
Just as in CB and CE configurations, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector
junction is reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The input
current is the base current IB and the output current is the emitter current IE here.
Characteristics of CC Configuration
 This configuration provides current gain but no voltage gain.

 In CC configuration, the input resistance is high and the output resistance is low.
 The voltage gain provided by this circuit is less than 1.
 The sum of collector current and base current equals emitter current.
 The input and output signals are in phase.
 This configuration works as non-inverting amplifier output.
 This circuit is mostly used for impedance matching. That means, to drive a low
impedance load from a high impedance source.
 The DC supply is provided for the operation of a transistor. This DC supply is given
to the two PN junctions of a transistor which influences the actions of majority
carriers in these emitter and collector junctions.
 The junctions are forward biased and reverse biased based on our requirement.
Forward biased is the condition where a positive voltage is applied to the p-type and
negative voltage is applied to the n-type material. Reverse biased is the condition
where a positive voltage is applied to the n-type and negative voltage is applied to the
p-type material.

DC Load line
When the transistor is given the bias and no signal is applied at its input, the load line
drawn at such condition can be understood as DC condition. Here there will be no
amplification as the signal is absent. The circuit will be as shown below.
The value of collector emitter voltage at any given time will be
VCE=VCC−ICRC
As VCC and RC are fixed values, the above one is a first degree equation and hence will be
a straight line on the output characteristics. This line is called as D.C. Load line. The
figure below shows the DC load line.
To obtain the load line, the two end points of the straight line are to be determined. Let
those two points be A and B.
To obtain A
When collector emitter voltage VCE = 0, the collector current is maximum and is equal to
VCC/RC. This gives the maximum value of VCE. This is shown as
VCE=VCC−ICRC
0=VCC−ICRC
IC=VCC/RC
This gives the point A (OA = VCC/RC) on collector current axis, shown in the above
figure.
To obtain B
When the collector current IC = 0, then collector emitter voltage is maximum and will be
equal to the VCC. This gives the maximum value of IC. This is shown as
VCE=VCC−ICRC
=VCC
This gives the point B, which means (OB = VCC) on the collector emitter voltage axis
shown in the above figure.
Hence we got both the saturation and cutoff point determined and learnt that the load line
is a straight line. So, a DC load line can be drawn.
QUESTION BANK
Question -1. Convert the following

I. (5621.125)10 into octal
II. (5621)16 into Binary
Question -2 converts the following:
i. (11111)2 = ( )10
ii. 10010.1011 2 = (
( ) )10
iii. (23)10 = ( )2
iv. (5.5)10 = ( )2
v. (47.6)10 = ( )2
Question-3 Convert (1111.0101)2 to its Octal ,Decimal ,Hexadecimal Equaivalent
Question -4 Convert (24)8 to its Binary , Decimal , Hexadecimal Number system ?
Question -5 Convert (𝐴2𝐹 )16 to its Binary , Octal, Decimal equivalent ?
Question- 6 Convert (156)10 to its octal , Decimal, Hexadecimal Number?
Question -7 Convert (41.6875)10 to
i. Binary
ii. Octal
iii. Hexadecimal
Question- 8 What Is logic Gate? Explain Its Type & Application?
Question- 9 Explain Basic Gate With the help of logic Operation?
Question- 10 What is Universal Gate? Design Basic Gate Using Universal Gate?
Question- 11 Explain XOR and XNOR Gate & its Application?
Question -12 Design NAND gate using NOR gate only ?
Question -13 Define NAND and NOR gates and give their truth tables. Write down the
Boolean expression for the output of each gate.
Question-14 Explain the working of a diode and draw it VI characteristics?
Question-15 Explain how a transistor acts as switch? [May 2019]
Question-16 Explain the working of a full adder? [May -2019]
Question-17 Differentiate between level and edge triggering. Draw the logic circuit and truth
table for JK flip flop .[ May-2019]
Question -18 Give the pin diagram and its description for IC78XX. [May-2019]
Questaion-19 Write short Note on BJT. [May-2019]
Question-20 write short note on Demorgan’s Theorem? [May-2019]
Question -21 Write short notes on 2’s Complement? [May-2019]
Question-22 Explain the working principle of JK flips flop? [May-2019]
Question-23 Discuss the working principle of BJT? [May-2019]

Question-24 Write short notes on full adder? [May-2019]
Question -25 Explain RS Flip Flop? [May-2019]
Question -26 Explain Half adder and full adder? [May-2019]
Question -27 Write Short note on Logic Gate? [May-2019]
Question-28 What is Transistor? [May-2019]
Question -29 Explain P type and N type semiconductor [May-2019]

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INDORE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

BEEE[BT-104] UNIT-V NOTES

Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 1

BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 2

1. BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM TO DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

2. BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM TO OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 3

5. OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM TO BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

6. OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM TO DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

 Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the 2.

Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 4

Step 5 1/2 0 1 MSB

Decimal Number = (29)10 = Binary Number (11101)2

8. DECIMAL TO OCTAL NUMBER CONVERSION

 Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the 8.

Step 3 1/8 0 1 MSB

Decimal Number = (79)10 = Binary Number (117)8.

Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 5

 Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the 16.

Step 1 165 / 16 10 5 LSB

Step 2 10/ 16 0 10=A

Decimal Number = (165)10 = Binary Number (A5) 16.

10. HEXADECIMAL TO DECIMAL NUMBER CONVERSION

11. HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY NUMBER CONVERSION

Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 6

1. Answer (3𝐵. 24)16 = ( 3𝐵. 21 )8

Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 7

It is switching circuit which provide on off condition

BASIC GATE UNIVERSAL GATE DERIVED GATE

1. AND 1.NAND 1. XOR

TYPES OF LOGIC GATE

Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 8

NOT GATE – IF INPUT A THEN OUTPU IS COMPLEMENT OF A

Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 9

Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 10

Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 11

1. Combinational logic circuit

Types of combinational circuit

Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 12

logic expression for half adder by using k map

Expression for sum 𝑆 = 𝐴𝐵̅ + 𝐴̅𝐵

Expression for carry 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵

We can draw logic diagram in two way

Logic diagram using XOR gate

Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 13

Boolean expression for SUM 𝑆 = 𝐴̅𝐵̅ 𝐶 + 𝐴̅𝐵𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐵̅𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐵𝐶

Boolean expression for CARRY 𝐶𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴

Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 14

FULL ADDER USING BASIC GATE

FULL ADDER LOGIC CIRCUIT DIAGRAM TWO HALF ADDER

Prof. Shravan Kumar Namdeo, ECE, IIST Indore [9098071834] Page 15

Type of Flip Flop

There are Four Type of flip Flop

Circuit Diagram of SR Flip flop

In the above circuit two output present

1. 𝑄(𝑡) = (𝑅̅ + 𝐶̅)𝑄(𝑡)