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Addressing Needed Changes to Person-Environment Theory

Zachary J. Mellon
Department of Human Services, Western Carolina University
HESA 621: Theories of College Student Development
Dr. April Perry
April 21, 2022
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Addressing Needed Changes to Person-Environment Theory

Within the higher education setting, student affairs is a young profession. Theories have

been developed through years of research to develop methods and techniques to support,

develop, and respond to students appropriately based on the context of their situation. These

theories also serve to support the validity of a young, and continuously growing profession.

Holland’s Person-Environment theory is widely used by practitioners in career services centers

throughout higher education institutions in the United States. While Holland’s theory is

beneficial to use while working with postsecondary students, there are gaps that exist and

improvements that can be made to better serve students. In this paper I will examine and identify

gaps within Holland’s theory, briefly compare other vocational theories, and introduce a theory I

developed to further meet the needs of postsecondary students.

Holland’s Theory

Holland (1997) developed the Person- Environment Theory, which focuses on vocational

behavior while examining the alignment between a person and working environment (as cited in

Patton et al., 2016). Holland’s theory is used in career centers throughout American higher

education institutions by student affairs professionals while working with students who are

unsure of or are exploring career possibilities. Holland (1997) created six personality types

(Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional) and argues that one’s

dominant personality type aligns best with a specific working environment which ensures

vocational “fit” (as cited in Patton et al., 2016).

Holland’s theory addresses how one’s personality and the work atmosphere impact one’s

fulfillment and pleasure in their career. This theory does not consider the changes in values one
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may experience throughout their lifetime of working, which could impact their career “fit.” It

also does not examine the influence financial compensation has on career fulfillment, or on the

career decision-making process. Economic considerations are only included in the Enterprising

personality type. According to this theory, this personality type values monetary gain, but the

theory fails to examine the varied levels of monetary importance in each personality type. One’s

personality might align more with a certain career field, but out of necessity may choose an

alternate career path due to obligations and financial compensation.

Similar Vocational Theories

Tiedman’s (1961) Decision-Making model examines how one changes throughout their

working career, which typically leads to career changes (Duys et al., 2008). Per Duys et al.

(2008), “Tiedman described a process of career development in which people continually

redefine their career interests and commitments through different decision-making phases” (p.

234). Unlike Holland’s theory, this model includes individuals strongly weighing economic

considerations during the process of choosing a career, as well as during career transitions.

Tiedman’s model continues by including a “career path recycling” concept in which an

individual observes job market changes and explores various career avenues that commonly lead

to career changes (Duys et al., 2008). The inclusion of the career path recycling concept

addresses the development of individuals’ values as they consider economic responsibilities and

the ever-changing job market while making their career decision. Per Tiedman, it is normal to

reevaluate one’s career and make career changes that are not always linear in career progression

(Duys et al., 2008). An individual who elects to leave a mid-level position for an entry level

position due to changes in career interest, or for a more promising career trajectory exemplifies

this nonlinear model.

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Liu et al. (2019) reexamine the person-environment fit from a different lens by including

work-family balance. Through this reexamination, the authors discuss how the person-

environment fit focuses on one’s pleasure in the workplace, and not how the working

environment or job responsibilities impact their overall life satisfaction. The authors take a

comprehensive approach while viewing one’s life satisfaction. Per Liu et al. (2019), “…

incongruence in work-home integration results in an imbalanced state in which individuals

experience great tension” (p. 4). Without maintaining a healthy work-family balance, the

fulfillment and satisfaction levels one originally experienced from their career will be negatively

impacted. Work-family balance is subjective, and everyone has their own balance level

preferences. The addition of work-family balance is another consideration while evaluating

person-environment fit and career satisfaction. Liu et al. (2019) report that individuals will

continue to experience career satisfaction if, “…the workplace has similar policies or cultures in

meeting both work and family demands” (p. 4).

Reasons for Changing Careers

Many individuals in the working world decide to change their career pathway at some

point during their working years. Everyone has their own reasoning for making a career change,

which might be influenced by internal motivation or external factors. Liu et al. (2000) examined

education professionals in a study attempting to understand their reasoning for pursuing a career

in education, and for some, reasoning for transitioning to a different career. A common finding in

this study was that the education professionals pursued this career due to intrinsic rewards

consisting of feeling as though their work was purposeful while allowing them to have influence

in others’ lives and provided them with an opportunity to connect with and serve diverse groups

of people. Even though most professionals in this study continued to find satisfaction and
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fulfillment in their work, many questioned if they would be able to stay in this same profession

for the entirety of their career while others were already transitioning to other industries.

Regarding the education professionals, Liu et al. (2000) report “while they stressed that they did

not enter teaching “for the money,” they worried about whether the could “afford teaching” and

stay in the profession over the long term” (p. 6). Compensation concerns are a common reason

for individuals to change careers, as many desire or need a higher income due to changing life

responsibilities or paying for the required education they had to receive while pursuing their

initial career goals.

Financial concerns are not the only reason individuals elect to change careers. Masdonati

et al. (2017) report that reducing dissatisfaction, attaining attractive working conditions, and

growing personally were common reasons for making a change. In this study, workers were

originally satisfied with their employment, but as time progressed, their satisfaction levels

decreased. Per Masdonati et al. (2017), “…participants no longer had an interest in the very

nature of the job, which did not allow them to feel happy at work” (p. 257). The authors continue

by reporting that other participants elected to change careers due to a brighter professional

outlook than their current position. The fields participants elected to pursue provided, “…high-

quality employment conditions, such as good wages, job security, and satisfying schedules” (p.

259). Another common finding for engaging in a career change was personal growth and

development. Despite participants feeling confident and comfortable in their current positions,

many decided to seek alternate professions that facilitated growth through stimulating

environments and frequent engagement with challenges (Masdonati et al., 2017). Even if

employees initially feel satisfied and pleased with their profession, individual’s needs, and

desires change as they evolve throughout their working lives.

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Person-Environment Theory Additions

Holland’s Person-Environment theory provides a solid foundation for which to use when

assisting students with career exploration. I propose to maintain the six personality types as a

guide for seeking a compatible career choice for a student, but to also focus on the compensation

goals for each individual. No matter how “fit” a person is for a certain career, they face the

likelihood of continual decreasing satisfaction levels if their compensation levels do not provide

enough financial stability for themselves and their dependents. Kahneman and Deaton (2010)

discovered that an annual income of $75,000 is the optimal compensation level that maintains

one’s emotional well-being and overall life satisfaction. That authors report that “…less money

is associated with emotional pain,” and continue by stating anything over $75,000 “…no longer

improves individuals’ ability to do what matters most to their emotional well-being, such as

spending time with people they like, avoiding pain and disease, and enjoying leisure”

(Kahneman & Deaton, 2010, p. 16492). In Holland’s theory, financial compensation is primarily

considered in the enterprising personality type. Regardless of a student’s personality type, I

suggest gauging and including their financial goals when considering career “fit.” Further, I

suggest this is an ongoing consideration when seeking employment fit and not a one-time event,

as an individual’s responsibilities and desires continually evolve in their lifetime.

This issue is becoming more relevant for recent graduates as tuition rates continue to rise.

Rothstein and Rouse (2011) report “…it appears that college debt affects post-graduation

employment decisions: students with more debt are less likely to accept jobs in low-paying

industries and accept higher-paying jobs more generally” (p. 158). It is not uncommon for recent

graduates to need student loan assistance in paying for their postsecondary education experience.
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The debt each student acquires needs to be considered when addressing financial goals and

career “fit.”

Throughout an individual’s life they continue to evolve, including their interests, desires,

and responsibilities. To accommodate one’s development throughout their career, another

addition to Holland’s theory is including Tiedman’s concept of career path recycling. This

inclusion will accommodate an individual’s development, and changes in values and job market,

as one’s career “fit” will not be the same throughout their lifetime. When working with students,

practitioners need to educate them on lifetime development, including the likelihood of

experiencing a change in values, interests, work-life balance considerations, and desired

compensation levels. Practitioners should encourage students to consistently refer to Holland’s

theory throughout their careers, while also examining their desired work-life balance, income

level, interests and values when exploring their ever-changing career “fit.”

Conclusion

Holland’s Person-Environment theory was developed through research and continues to

prove beneficial when assisting students who are engaged in career exploration. Although this

theory is useful, gaps exist that need to be addressed to better support students during this

exploratory phase. Students need to be educated that their career “fit” can be a fluid process that

parallels their personal development throughout their lifetime. As individuals evolve, their

interests and values are likely to do the same. The addition of Tiedman’s career recycling

concept will assure those who are making career transitions in the future that this is a normal

process, and it is unlikely that careers follow a linear pathway. Financial compensation goals

need to be addressed for everyone regardless of which of Holland’s personality types they align

with. Research demonstrates that satisfaction levels decrease when individuals do not reach a
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specific financial threshold assuring their needs are met and they do not experience financial

hardship. A vocational theory used to assist one in determining their career “fit” should not only

be based on personality type, but needs to include one’s income goals, and the likelihood that

this “fit” will change periodically due to their personal and life development.
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References

Duys, D. K., Ward, J. E., Maxwell, J. A., & Eaton-Comerford, L. (2008). Career counseling in a

volatile job market: Tiedman’s perspective revisited. The Career Development Quarterly,

56(3), 232-241. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-0045.2008.tb00037.x

Kahneman, D., & Deaton, A. (2010). High income improves evaluation of life but not emotional

well-being. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(38), 16489-16493.

Liu, E., Kardos, S. M., Kauffman, D., Peske, H. G., & Johnson, S. M. (2000). ‘Barely breaking

even’: Incentives, rewards, and the high costs of choosing to teach [Unpublished

manuscript]. Harvard Graduate School of Education, Harvard University.

Liu, P., Wang, X., Li, A., & Zhou, L. (2019). Predicting work-family balance: A new perspective

on person-environment fit. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1-13.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01804

Masdonati, J., Fournier, G., & Lahrizi, I. Z. (2017). The reasons behind a career change through

vocational education and training. International Journal for Research in Vocational

Education and Training (IJRVET), 4(3), 249-269. http://doi.org/10.13152/IJRVET.4.3.4

Patton, L. D., Renn, K. A., Guido, F. M., & Quaye, S. J. (2016). Student development in college:

Theory, research, and practice (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Rothstein, J., & Rouse, C. E. (2011). Constrained after college: Student loans and early-career

occupational choices. Journal of Public Economics, 95(1), 149-163.