1.

Map Skills
2. Coastal Environments
The coastal zone is an interface between the land and sea, which comprised of a continuum of coastal
land, intertidal area, aquatic systems including the network of rivers and estuaries, islands, transitional
and intertidal areas, salt marshes, wetlands, and beaches

3. Coastal Landforms – Erosional and Depositional Features

In general, the coastal environment can be defined as that area lying at the interface between land and Oceans (or
other large body of water). It includes both the zone of shallow water within which waves are able to move
sediment, and the area landward of this zone, including beaches, cliffs, and coastal dunes, which is affected to
some degree by the direct or indirect effects of waves, tides, and currents. The coastal environment itself may
extend inland for many miles.
 A variety of factors—including wave energy, tidal range, sediment supply, beach materials,
continental-shelf slope and width, and past geologic history (e.g., glaciation, volcanism, and
plate movement)—characterize coastal environments.

The coastal zone is one of the most dynamic regions on earth. Think of it, 70% of our planet is
covered in water possessing enormous energy!

Coastal Erosion and Deposition

Shorelines can be generally divided into two types, high relief erosional shorelines and low
relief depositional shorelines.

Coastal processes create many erosional or depositional features we see when visiting the
National Parks such as:

● Beach Ridges
Beach ridges are wave deposited sand ridges running parallel to shoreline.
● Wave-Cut Scarps
A wave-cut scarp is a steep bank created by wave erosion.
● Marine Terraces
A marine terrace is a raised beach or 'perched coastline' that has been raised out of the
reach of wave activity.

Coastal Landform Types

Over time, the interaction of coastal processes and an area's geologic setting leads to the
development of characteristic and dramatic coastal landforms. See the articles below for an
introduction to some of the coastal landforms present in parks:

4. Wave Processes – Erosion and Deposition

Wave Action and Erosion

All waves are energy traveling through some type of material, such as water (Figure below). Ocean waves
form from wind blowing over the water.
 Ocean waves are energy traveling through water.

The largest waves form when the wind is very strong, blows steadily for a long time, and blows over a long
distance.

The wind could be strong, but if it gusts for just a short time, large waves won’t form. Wave energy does the
work of erosion at the shore. Waves approach the shore at some angle so the inshore part of the wave
reaches shallow water sooner than the part that is further out. The shallow part of the wave ‘feels’ the bottom
first. This slows down the inshore part of the wave and makes the wave ‘bend.’ This bending is called
refraction.

Wave refraction either concentrates wave energy or disperses it. In quiet water areas, such as bays, wave
energy is dispersed, so sand is deposited. Areas that stick out into the water are eroded by the strong wave
energy that concentrates its power on the wave-cut cliff (Figure below).

The wave erodes the bottom of the cliff, eventually causing the cliff to collapse.

Other features of wave erosion are pictured and named in Figure below. A wave-cut platform is the level area
formed by wave erosion as the waves undercut a cliff. An arch is produced when waves erode through a cliff.
When a sea arch collapses, the isolated towers of rocks that remain are known as sea stacks.
(a) The high ground is a large wave-cut platform formed from years of wave erosion. (b) A cliff eroded from
two sides produces an arch. (c) The top of an arch erodes away, leaving behind a tall sea stack.

Wave Deposition

Rivers carry sediments from the land to the sea. If wave action is high, a delta will not form. Waves will spread
the sediments along the coastline to create a beach (Figure below). Waves also erode sediments from cliffs
and shorelines and transport them onto beaches.

Sand deposits in quiet areas along a shoreline to form a beach.

Beaches can be made of mineral grains, like quartz, rock fragments, and also pieces of shell or coral (Figure
below).
Quartz, rock fragments, and shell make up the sand along a beach.

Waves continually move sand along the shore. Waves also move sand from the beaches on shore to bars of
sand offshore as the seasons change. In the summer, waves have lower energy so they bring sand up onto
the beach. In the winter, higher energy waves bring the sand back offshore.

Some of the features formed by wave-deposited sand are in Figure below. These features include barrier
islands and spits. A spit is sand connected to land and extending into the water. A spit may hook to form a
tombolo.

Examples of features formed by wave-deposited sand.

Shores that are relatively flat and gently sloping may be lined with long narrow barrier islands (Figure below).
Most barrier islands are a few kilometers wide and tens of kilometers long.
(a) Barrier islands off of Alabama. A lagoon lies on the inland side. (b) Barrier islands, such as Padre Island off
the coast of Texas, are made entirely of sand. (c) Barrier islands are some of the most urbanized areas of our
coastlines, such as Miami Beach.

In its natural state, a barrier island acts as the first line of defense against storms such as hurricanes. When
barrier islands are urbanized (Figure above), hurricanes damage houses and businesses rather than
vegetated sandy areas in which sand can move. A large hurricane brings massive problems to the urbanized
area.

Protecting Shorelines

Intact shore areas protect inland areas from storms that come off the ocean (Figure below).

Dunes and mangroves along Baja California protect the villages that are found inland.

Where the natural landscape is altered or the amount of development make damage from a storm too costly to
consider, people use several types of structures to attempt to slow down wave erosion. A few are pictured in
the Figure below. A groin is a long narrow pile of rocks built perpendicular to the shoreline to keep sand at that
beach. A breakwater is a structure built in the water parallel to the shore in order to protect the shore from
strong incoming waves. A seawall is also parallel to the shore, but it is built onshore.

(a) Groins trap sand on the up-current side so then people down current build groins to trap sand too. (b)
Breakwaters are visible in this satellite image parallel to the shoreline. (c) Seawalls are similar to breakwaters
except built onshore. Extremely large storm waves may destroy the sea wall, leaving the area unprotected.

People do not always want to choose safe building practices, and instead choose to build a beach house right
on the beach. Protecting development from wave erosion is difficult and expensive.

Protection does not always work. The northeastern coast of Japan was protected by anti-tsunami seawalls.
Yet waves from the 2011 tsunami that resulted from the Tohoku earthquake washed over the top of some
seawalls and caused others to collapse. Japan is now planning to build even higher seawalls to prepare for
any future (and inevitable) tsunami.

5. Weathering and Erosion – Physical and Chemical Weathering

Weathering is the process that changes solid rock into sediments. Sediments were described in the
Rocks chapter. With weathering, rock is disintegrated. It breaks into pieces.

Once these sediments are separated from the rocks, erosion is the process that moves the
sediments. Erosion is the next chapter's topic. The four forces of erosion are water, wind, glaciers,
and gravity.

● Water is responsible for most erosion. Water can move most sizes of sediments,
depending on the strength of the force.
● Wind moves sand-sized and smaller pieces of rock through the air.
● Glaciers move all sizes of sediments, from extremely large boulders to the tiniest
fragments.
● Gravity moves broken pieces of rock, large or small, downslope.
 Figure 1. A once smooth road surface has cracks and fractures, plus a large pothole.

While plate tectonics forces work to build huge mountains and other landscapes, the forces of
weathering gradually wear those rocks and landscapes away. Together with erosion, tall mountains
turn into hills and even plains. The Appalachian Mountains along the east coast of North America
were once as tall as the Himalayas.

No human being can watch for millions of years as mountains are built, nor can anyone watch as
those same mountains gradually are worn away. But imagine a new sidewalk or road. The new road
is smooth and even. Over hundreds of years, it will completely disappear, but what happens over
one year? What changes would you see (figure 1)? What forces of weathering wear down that road,
or rocks or mountains over time?

Mechanical Weathering

Mechanical weathering (also called physical weathering) breaks rock into smaller pieces. These
smaller pieces are just like the bigger rock, just smaller. That means the rock has changed physically
without changing its composition. The smaller pieces have the same minerals, in just the same
proportions as the original rock.

There are many ways that rocks can be broken apart into smaller pieces. Ice wedging is the main
form of mechanical weathering in any climate that regularly cycles above and below the freezing
point (figure 2). Ice wedging works quickly, breaking apart rocks in areas with temperatures that
cycle above and below freezing in the day and night, and also that cycle above and below freezing
with the seasons.
 Figure 2.
Ice wedging.

Ice wedging breaks apart so much rock that large piles of broken rock are seen at the base of a hillside, as
rock fragments separate and tumble down. Ice wedging is common in Earth’s polar regions and mid-latitudes,
and also at higher elevations, such as in the mountains. Abrasion is another form of mechanical weathering. In
abrasion, one rock bumps against another rock.

Figure 3. Rocks on a beach are worn down by abrasion as passing waves cause them to strike each other.

● Gravity causes abrasion as a rock tumbles down a mountainside or cliff.

● Moving water causes abrasion as particles in the water collide and bump against one
another.
● Strong winds carrying pieces of sand can sandblast surfaces.
 ● Ice in glaciers carries many bits and pieces of rock. Rocks embedded at the bottom of
the glacier scrape against the rocks below.

CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING

Chemical weathering is when chemicals in rain and moving water react with rocks and minerals to change
or weaken them in some way. Chemical weathering always causes some type of chemical reaction within
the rock or mineral itself. In general, the degree of chemical weathering is greatest in warm and wet
climates and least in cold and dry climates. The two types of chemical weathering processes that we study
are; hydrolysis and carbonation.

Hydrolysis

The term hydrolysis combines the prefix hydro, referring to water, with lysis, which is derived from a
Greek word meaning to loosen or dissolve. Thus, you can think of hydrolysis as a chemical reaction where
water loosens the chemical bonds within a mineral. Hydrolysis produces a different mineral in addition to
ions.

With the chemical weathering of rock, we see a chemical reaction happening between the minerals found
in the rock and rainwater. The most common example of hydrolysis is feldspar, which can be found in
granite changing to clay. When it rains, water seeps down into the ground and comes in contact with
granite rocks. The feldspar crystals within the granite react with the water and are chemically altered to
form clay minerals, which weaken the rock.

An easy way to remember hydrolysis is to think of it as the same process you go through each morning
when you make a cup of coffee. When the water you add to your coffee maker heats up, it filters down
through the coffee grains. The water chemically reacts with the coffee grains, giving you a chemically
different substance called coffee.
Carbonation

One of the well-known solution weathering processes is carbonate dissolution, the process in which
atmospheric carbon dioxide leads to solution weathering. Carbonate dissolution affects rocks containing
calcium carbonate, such as limestone and chalk. This takes place when rain combines with carbon dioxide
to form carbonic acid, a weak acid, which dissolves calcium carbonate (limestone) and forms soluble
calcium bicarbonate.

Carbonation, sometimes referred to as dissolution, is the driving force behind the sinkholes, caverns and
underground rivers of karst topography.
Carbonate dissolution reaction involves the following steps:
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
carbon dioxide + water → carbonic acid
H2CO3 + CaCO3 → Ca(HCO3)2
carbonic acid + calcium carbonate → calcium bicarbonate
Carbonate dissolution on the surface of well-jointed limestone produces a dissected limestone pavement.
This process is most effective along the joints, widening and deepening them.

BIOTIC WEATHERING
Biological weathering is weathering caused by plants and animals. Plants and animals release acid forming
chemicals that cause weathering and also contribute to the breaking down of rocks and landforms.
Chemical weathering is weathering caused by breaking down of rocks and landforms.
Biotic Weathering By Physical Means
This is a type of weathering that occurs when a force or pressure is applied to break rocks apart or degrade
the minerals in them. By increasing the exposed surface area of rocks, they make it possible for other
physical factors to speed up their degradation.

By Plants

Plants can grow anywhere as long as there is water. Roots of trees or plants in general can biologically
weather rocks by growing into the cracks and fractures of rocks and soil. As a result, they become more
prone to breakage and eventually fall apart.

By Animals

Burrowing animals like shrews, moles, earthworms, and even ants contribute to biological weathering. In
particular, these animals create holes on the ground by excavation and move the rock fragments to the
surface. As a result, these fragments become more exposed to other environmental factors that can further
enhance their weathering.

When animals like birds forage for seeds and earthworms, they create holes and erode the upper surface of
the soil, thus contributing to weathering.

An animal called the Piddock shell can drill into rocks in order for it to protect itself. By producing acids
that can disintegrate the rock and turn it into fragments, it can create cracks and fractures and eat the
minerals found in it.

Like any other animal, humans can also indirectly contribute to biological weathering. By merely walking
and running makes the soil particles crushed into smaller pieces. Other human activities such as planting
and road construction can also contribute to biological weathering.

Biotic Weathering By Chemicals/Organic Compounds

In this type of weathering, living organisms contribute through their organic compounds that contain
molecules that acidify and corrode rock minerals. Due to these mechanisms, biological weathering is also
referred to as organic weathering.

By Plants
When the roots of plants grow deeper into the soil, they tend to create cracks and crevices in marbles and
limestones by producing certain acids that can eventually degrade them.
According to studies, the mere presence of roots in the soil can wear out soil and rocks through the
presence of humus. Humus, an organic component of the soil, can increase the availability of water, which
then enhances the physical and chemical breakdown of rocks.

When plants die, their roots (and other parts as well) are decomposed and are later on converted to organic
matter which produces carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide (CO2), when combined with water (H2O),
produces weak carbonic acid which can degrade the surfaces of rocks and rock particles.

By Animals

While ants and termites can contribute to the physical breakdown of rocks, these animals can also
contribute to their biological degradation. Aside from creating holes and passages in the ground, these
animals also make possible the easy passage of oxygen and water to the soil, which in turn, bring the
 dissolution of soil, rocks, and rock particles alike. When animals die, their bodies are converted to
substances, which can contribute to their degradation when combined with minerals found in the soil and
rocks.

6. Types of Economic Activities in The Caribbean

7. Manufacturing Sector in The Caribbean

• Advantages/Disadvantages/Challenges faced by Different Industries

8. Coral Reefs
A coral reef is an offshore ridge that is composed mainly of calcium carbonate. It is formed from the
secretions of small marine animals called coral polyps. Coral polyps thrive in shallow, warm, nutrient poor,
tropical waters. These tiny animals attach themselves to objects such as rocks or existing reefs and build tiny
shells of calcium carbonate around themselves. They sit in these shells and use their tiny tentacles to catch
food. When coral polyps die, new coral polyps build their shells on top of the old shells of the previous
generation. In this way the reef expands over time. Take a look at the cross section of a coral polyp below.
 Diagram showing a cross section of a coral polyp. The polyp is shown sitting in its calcium carbonate shell with its tentacles
outstretched.

There are many different types of coral polyps. They form coral in a variety of shapes and colours. A coral reef
which is made up of many different types of coral is a spectacular sight. Click here to view the coral gallery.

Watch this time lapse video of coral polyps emerging to feed.

Types of Reef

Fringing Reefs

This type of reef forms along the shoreline in many tropical areas. The waters just offshore in tropical areas
are often ideal for coral growth. Coral reefs may form in the water close to shore. There is usually a shallow
lagoon between the reef and the shore. Many Caribbean islands have fringing reefs including Barbados,
Antigua, Tobago and St. Lucia.
 This fringing reef is found off the coast of Eilat, Israel

Barrier Reefs

This type of reef may be several kilometers from shore. Barrier reefs start off as fringing reefs. However, as
sea level rises, the low-lying areas near the coast are submerged. As the shoreline moves back, the
distance between the reef and the shore increases. If the reef grows upward quickly enough to keep up with
the rising sea level, it becomes a barrier reef. There is a wide lagoon or shallow sea between the reef and the
shore. The world’s largest barrier reef is known as the Great Barrier Reef. It is found 50 to 250 kilometers off
the coast of Australia and stretches for over 2,600 kilometers. It is made up of over 2,900 individual reefs and
about 900 islands. The photo below shows a small section of this reef.
 A small part of the Great Barrier Reef

The world’s second-largest barrier reef (the largest in the northern hemisphere) is found off the coast of Belize.
It is known as the Belize Barrier Reef and it is just over 300 kilometers long. Parts of this reef are located
about 40 kilometers from the shore. The picture below shows a section of this reef.
 A small part of the Belize Barrier Reef

Atolls

The National Geographic online resource library defines the term atoll as ” a ring-shaped coral reef, islet or
series of islets”. This type of reef is found most often in the Pacific Ocean. There are about four known atolls in
the Caribbean Sea, three of which are found off the coast of Belize.

Usually, the process of atoll formation begins when an undersea volcano rises above the surface of the sea
forming a volcanic island. If conditions are favourable, a fringing reef will form around this island. Over millions
of years, the island may recede into the ocean and disappear completely, leaving behind a ring shaped coral
reef ( an atoll) surrounding a shallow body of water called a lagoon. The photo below shows Tikehau atoll in
the South Pacific.
 Tikehau Atoll (image by NASA)

Conditions that favour Coral Growth

Most coral polyps can only thrive in the following conditions:

 ● The water should be warm. Most types of coral thrive in water temperatures between 21 and 30

degrees Celcius.

● The water should be clear so that sunlight will be able to penetrate to where the coral is growing. Thus

most coral grows in relatively shallow water.

● The water should contain the right amount of salt. Coral will not grow in areas where a large amount of

freshwater pours into the sea such as near the mouth of a river.

● The water should be clean. Corals are sensitive to sediment and pollution. Muddy water damages

coral. Organic pollution, such as sewage, promotes the growth of other organisms (such as seaweed

or other algae) which may outcompete coral for space or other resources.

The Importance of Coral Reefs

A thriving coral reef is a colorful and spectacular sight. Reefs provide a home for many species of marine life
including sponges, algae, sea urchins, shellfish, and fish. Many tourists visit tropical areas hoping to observe
and enjoy the beauty of the coral reefs and the creatures that live there. Therefore, a thriving coral reef is an
asset to the tourist industry in many tropical areas.

The abundance of marine creatures that inhabit coral reefs makes them very important to our fishing industry.
There may be a hundred times more life on or near the reefs than out in the open ocean.

A coral reef can also help to protect the coast by acting as a natural breakwater. Waves encounter the coral
reef before reaching the shore and are weakened as a result. Therefore, waves are less likely to erode
beaches that are protected by coral reefs. The World Research Institute has determined that over 40% of St.
Lucia’s coastline is protected by its coral reefs. Furthermore, coral is slowly broken down by wave action into
tiny fragments. These tiny fragments make up much of the material on many of our beaches.

Coral reefs are very important natural resources. Therefore, it is very important that we protect our coral reefs
and ensure that they continue to thrive.
9. Mangroves
Mangrove trees grow in areas with low oxygen soils where water flows slowly, allowing fine sediment to
accumulate. Unlike many plants, they are able to thrive in saline conditions or brackish water where fresh
water and seawater mix. There are over 80 species of mangrove. They can usually be recognised by their stilt
(a specialized root that rises out of the water or mud upwards to enter the air and gain oxygen for the root
systems of trees living in swampy environments) roots which hold the trees up above the water level. Mangrove
forests can be found in coastal areas in tropical and subtropical regions. Mangrove forests help stabilize the
coastline. Their roots also serve as a breeding ground or a habitat for many aquatic animals.

A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is also used for tropical
coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics and
even some temperate coastal areas, mainly between latitudes 30° N and 30° S, with the greatest mangrove
[1][2]
area within 5° of the equator. Mangrove plant families first appeared during the Late Cretaceous to
Paleocene epochs, and became widely distributed in part due to the movement of tectonic plates. The oldest
[2]
known fossils of mangrove palm date to 75 million years ago.
Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted to live in harsh coastal conditions.
They contain a complex salt filtration system and a complex root system to cope with saltwater immersion and
[3]
wave action. They are adapted to the low-oxygen conditions of waterlogged mud, but are most likely to
[4]
thrive in the upper half of the intertidal zone.
The mangrove biome, often called the mangrove forest or mangal, is a distinct saline woodland or shrubland
habitat characterized by depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic
content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. The saline conditions tolerated by various
mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure seawater (3 to 4% salinity), to water concentrated
[5][6]
by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 9% salinity).
[7][1]
Beginning in 2010 remote sensing technologies and global data have been used to assess areas,
[2]
conditions and deforestation rates of mangroves around the world. In 2018, the Global Mangrove Watch
Initiative released a new global baseline which estimates the total mangrove forest area of the world as of
2 [2][7]
2010 at 137,600 km (53,100 sq mi), spanning 118 countries and territories. Mangrove loss continues due
to human activity, with a global annual deforestation rate estimated at 0.16%, and per-country rates as high as
[2]
0.70%. Degradation in quality of remaining mangroves is also an important concern.
There is interest in mangrove restoration for several reasons. Mangroves support sustainable coastal and
marine ecosystems. They protect nearby areas from tsunamis and extreme weather events. Mangrove forests
[2][8][9]
are also effective at carbon sequestration and storage and mitigate climate change. As the effects of
climate change become more severe, mangrove ecosystems are expected to help local ecosystems adapt
and be more resilient to changes like extreme weather and sea level rise. The success of mangrove
restoration may depend heavily on engagement with local stakeholders, and on careful assessment to ensure
[4]
that growing conditions will be suitable for the species chosen.
10. Tourism – Cruise Ship Industry
Geographical Analysis
By geography, the global Cruise Tourism market is segmented into North America,
Asia-Pacific (APAC), Europe, South America, and the Middle East and Africa
(MEA).

North America holds the largest market share for Cruise Tourism due to the rise in
economy and the luxury taste of people there. Europe holds the second-largest
market for cruise tourism. The United Kingdom and Ireland are the two largest
European source markets for cruises, making up 28% and 26% of European
demand for cruises, respectively. Italy, France, and Spain are other large
European source markets. And cruise tourism market will be growing at a
significant rate in the forecast period due to the rise in river cruising.

For instance, the river cruise sector is growing by about 16% annually and is
impressive with both the number of passengers and yields, especially on the
market in Germany – the unquestioned river vacation travel market’s leader. River
cruise ticket sales are growing faster compared to ocean-going ship vacations.
Passenger capacity on the main European rivers is also increasing, and new
operators emerge, the old ones (the world’s largest river cruise lines) renovate
regularly or expand their fleets by building larger, new-generation boats.

APACis expected to be the fastest-growing market with double-digit growth rate

due to the demand from developing nations such as China and India. For instance,
China's annual growth for the cruise tourism market has exceeded 40 percent
since 2006. It is expected to grow into the world's largest cruise market by 2030,
with 8 to 10 million customers per year, according to figures by the Shanghai
International Shipping Institute. Australia is also growing in terms of cruise tourism
due to the increased market penetration of people traveling in cruise is also
boosting the market for cruise tourism in APAC to grow in the forecast period.
11. Sustainable Management of Resources – Fisheries
A conventional idea of a sustainable fishery is that it is one that is harvested at a sustainable rate, where the
fish population does not decline over time because of fishing practices. Sustainability in fisheries combines
theoretical disciplines, such as the population dynamics of fisheries, with practical strategies, such as avoiding
overfishing through techniques such as individual fishing quotas, curtailing destructive and illegal fishing
practices by lobbying for appropriate law and policy, setting up protected areas, restoring collapsed fisheries,
incorporating all externalities involved in harvesting marine ecosystems into fishery economics, educating
stakeholders and the wider public, and developing independent certification programs.

Some primary concerns around sustainability are that heavy fishing pressures, such as overexploitation and
growth or recruitment overfishing, will result in the loss of significant potential yield; that stock structure will
erode to the point where it loses diversity and resilience to environmental fluctuations; that ecosystems and
their economic infrastructures will cycle between collapse and recovery; with each cycle less productive than
its predecessor; and that changes will occur in the trophic balance (fishing down marine food webs).

Sustainable fisheries development can be achieved through responsible fishing, which considers rational
fishery management objectives that address a range of issues including the status of the resource, the
health of the environment, post-harvest technology and trade, as well as other economic concerns, social
benefits, legal and administrative support.
12. Food Processing Industry
The Forestry Industry in Guyana
Forestry is big business in Guyana. The sector contributed 2.27 percent to Guyana’s GDP in
2016, with total forest products exports valued at $41.9 million. Approximately 20,000 people,
mainly in the rural and hinterland areas, are employed in the sector.
THE National Development Strategy (NDS) points out that about 168,000 square kilometres, or
more than 75 percent of Guyana's land area, are forested. Moreover, although many of the plant
and animal species, which abound in Guyana's forests, are as yet unidentified, it is known that
our forest ecosystems are a most significant reservoir of biodiversity. In addition, our forests
protect our soils from erosion, regulate and purify our water supplies and, most important,
ensure environmental stability. On top of all this, the forests yield wood and non-timber products
which, if commercialized, could greatly assist the country's social and economic development.
Indeed, the forest resources of the country can play an important role in transforming and
developing our relatively uninhabited hinterland.

The NDS also notes that the forest industries sub-sector possesses characteristics which are
capable of providing the economic stimulus which Guyana requires at this stage of its
development: capital requirements of the sector range from very low to very high, technological
requirements range from very simple to very sophisticated; and individual forest industries may
be either labour or capital intensive. In other words, forest industries can be accommodated at
any stage in the country's economic evolution, and can be profitable to both the moderately and
well-endowed investor. Furthermore, the NDS asserts that the amenities which the forests
provide and the richness of their flora and fauna are important for recreational purposes, for the
enhancement of ecotourism, and for scientific research.

And yet, as has been hinted at in some of the articles which have already been presented in this
series, the forestry sector's contribution to economic and social development in Guyana has not
been as significant as the extent and nature of our forest resources might lead us to expect of it.

Indeed, the authors of the NDS view this failure to take the fullest advantage of the forest
sector's potential with such dismay that they devote considerable attention to a description of the
constraints which inhibit its development.

They stress that the often outmoded harvesting practices which are followed in Guyana lead to
the recovery of an insufficient number of timber species, require frequent entries to each forest
site, and adversely affect both the economic and environmental stability of the forestry sector. As
a result, logging costs are not infrequently inordinately high, the ecological conditions that are
necessary for regenerating the required forest species are not created, and there is sometimes
intense damage to the forests. It is acknowledged that, over the last five years or so, the Guyana
Forestry Commission has introduced measures that are designed to ensure the sustainable
management of our forests. However, for a number of reasons, the quality of forest harvesting in
Guyana is still remarkably low.

The authors of the NDS strongly hold the view that among the major reasons for the inadequate
development of the sector are the low levels of efficiency in the utilisation of equipment,
personnel and timber which generally prevail both in our forests, and in our wood conversion
industries. This failure to optimise the use of these factors of production is mainly due to the
relative unavailability of capital to modernize the sector, outdated managerial and technological
practices, and a critical shortage of human resources. The fact that Guyanese possess a high
tolerance for low-quality goods has also contributed to sloppy production.

Another constraint to the development of the forestry sector which has been identified in the NDS
has been the reluctance of forest producers to take advantage of the multiplicity of potential uses
of the forests which have been leased to them. For example, they have not attempted to
combine timber production with, say, the utilisation and sale of lianes for furniture manufacture,
and the reservation of part of the larger forest leases for ecotourism. Moreover, the NDS notes
that Amerindians have traditionally used the forests to produce a variety of goods such as plants
for medicines, fibres, and fruit, and laments the failure of forest concessionnaires to enter into
partnerships with them for their mutual benefit. In this, as in so many aspects of Guyanese life,
creativity and imagination seem to be in short supply.

Another issue which the NDS flags as a possible constraint to the orderly development of forestry
in Guyana, is the hesitancy of the authorities to resolve the problems which arise from the recent
increase in the use of chainsaws for the sawing of logs into lumber at the stump. Although
chainsaw lumber operations lead to less environmental damage than commercial logging, the
large number of individuals who are involved and the scattered nature of the activities make
monitoring difficult. Moreover, the ability of the Guyana Forestry Commission effectively to
manage the forest in the areas in which such conversion operations are prevalent is severely
limited. In addition, there is strong evidence that large-scale timber wastage occurs in the
process. This wastage is compounded by the often poor quality of lumber produced and by the
additional costs which are of necessity incurred during the process of re-manufacturing. The
authors of the NDS hold the view that the State should not prescribe the level and type of
technology which might be used in industrial or semi-industrial operations, provided that
environmental laws and policies are not infringed. They are also acutely aware that chainsaw
lumber production leads to the self-employment of a not insignificant number of small-scale
entrepreneurs. Accordingly, they do not recommend the cessation of this type of activity, but put
forward a strategy for its rationalization which will be described in the next article in this series.

A most serious constraint to the optimization of social and economic returns from Guyana's
forests is the growing practice by a number of timber importing countries, under pressure from
environmental lobbyists, to cease importing tropical timbers, arbitrarily and capriciously, if they
are not satisfied that the forests from which the timber is being exploited are being sustainably
managed. It is therefore essential that we manage its forests in a sustainable manner, that we
ensure that such management practices are understood and appreciated by importing countries,
and that we formulate credible and acceptable methods of issuing our own certificates of
sustainability.

This, however, is no easy matter. The basic requirements for the practice of sustainable forest
management are information on the areas of forest and their location, the range of forest types,
the composition of the forests by species, the rates of growth of different species under various
logging intensities, the synecology of various forests ecosystems, and the antecology of different
species. It is only with this kind of knowledge that limits to the size and species of tree which
could be felled might be prescribed, and decisions made with respect to specific areas to be
logged, with any hope of sustaining and optimizing production, while conserving the forests.
Guyana does not possess many of these essential data. A considerable amount of research
therefore needs to be undertaken if the goal of sustainable management is to be attained.

Perhaps the most intractable constraint, however, is our seeming inability to agree on a forest
taxation system which would at one and the same time compensate the people of Guyana for the
utilization of their forest patrimony, and provide the financiers with a fair return on their
investment. This problem persists because very few independent studies have been undertaken
on the costs of timber exploitation and extraction. Such an exercise should, however, be one of
the main tasks of the Forest Research Centre at Iwokrama.

In a future article, the strategy which the authors of the NDS have formulated for the sustainable
development of the forest and forest industries sector in Guyana will be described in some detail.
Suffice it to state at this stage that they are convinced that the development of the sector should
not take place in a vacuum, but should be part of a comprehensive plan for the development of
 the hinterland. If this were done, not only would questions such as the extent and location of
Amerindian lands, the nature and location of protected areas, and the provision of transport
infrastructure and social services to interior communities be resolved, but the costs of forestry
production would be inevitably reduced.

Food Processing in Trinidad and Tobago

Please read on Singapore's Food Processing Industry. You must be able to compare Trinidad
and Singapore's Food Processing Industry